Networking Basics

Mac Address
The Media Access Control address (MAC) can be equated to the serial number of the NIC. Every IP packet is sent out of your NIC wrapped inside an Ethernet frame which uses MAC addresses to direct traffic on your locally attached network MAC addresses therefore only have significance on the locally attached network. As the packet hops across the Internet, its source/destination IP address stays the same, but the MAC addresses are reassigned by each router on the way using a process called ARP

Mac Address
MAC addresses are usually written in one of the following two formats: 00:13:21:0F:83:DF 00-13-21-0F-83-DF

Mac address is a 48 bit address Mac address are 12 digit Hexadecimal {09} {A- F} Address
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MAC Address
The First Octet of the MAC Address is known as Group Unique 00 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF The Second and Third Octet of the MAC Address is known as Organization Unique Identifier (OUI) 00 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF

MAC Address
Any Mac address starts with 00 is known as Unicast address 00 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF Any Mac address starts with 01 is known as Multicast 01 : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF Any Mac address starts with FF is known as Broadcast FF : 13 : 21 : 0F : 83 : DF

MAC Address

Unicast

Unicast is One to One communication

Multicast

Multicast is One to Group Communication

Broadcast

Broadcast is One to All Communication

Topology
A topology is a description of any kind of locality
in terms of its layout. In communication networks, a topology is a usually schematic description of the arrangement of a network, including its nodes and connecting lines The physical topology of a network describes the layout of the cables and workstations and the location of all network components Common Topology: Bus, Ring, Star and Mesh
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Bus Topology
In a bus topology, all computers are attached to a single continuous cable that is terminated at both ends, which is the simplest way to create a physical network.

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Star Topology
Unlike those in a bus topology, each computer in a star topology is connected to a central point by a separate cable. The central point is a device known as a hub Although this setup uses more cable than a bus, a star topology is much more fault tolerant than a bus topology. This means that if a failure occurs along one of the cables connecting to the hub, only that portion of the network is affected, not the entire network. It also means that you can add new stations just by running a single new cable
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Ring Topology
In the ring topology, each computer is connected directly to two other computers in the network. Data moves down a one-way path from one computer to another The good news about laying out cable in a ring is that the cable design is simple. The bad news is that, as with bus topology, any break, such as adding or removing a computer, disrupts the entire network. Also, because you have to break the ring in order to add another station, it is very difficult to reconfigure without bringing down the whole network. For this reason, the physical ring topology is seldom used
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Mesh Topology
In a mesh topology, a path exists from each station to every other station in the network. While not usually seen in LANs, a variation on this type of topologythe hybrid meshis used on the Internet and other WANs in a limited fashion. Hybrid mesh topology networks can have multiple connections between some locations, but this is done only for redundancy. Also, it is not a true mesh because there is not a connection between each and every node, just a few for backup purposes

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Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable consists of a central copper core surrounded by an insulator, a braided metal shielding, called braiding, and an outer cover, called the sheath or jacket EG : Cable TV network use the coaxial cable
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Coaxial Cable Connector

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Thicknet (10Base5)
Thicknet cabling, also called thick wire Ethernet, is a rigid coaxial cable approximately 1-cm thick used for the original Ethernet networks.Thicknet is also called yellow Ethernet or yellow garden hose. IEEE designates Thicknet as 10Base5 Ethernet.The 10 represents its throughput of 10 Mbps, the Base stands for baseband transmission, and the 5 represents the maximum segment length of a Thicknet cable, which is 500 m. You may find this on older networks.

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Thinnet (10base2)

Thinnet, also known as thin Ethernet, was the most popular medium for Ethernet LANs in the 1980s. Thinnet is rarely used on modern networks, although you may encounter it on networks installed in the 1980s or on newer small office or home office LANs

IEEE has designated Thinnet as 10Base2 Ethernet, with the 10 representing its data transmission rate of 10 Mbps, the Base representing the fact that it uses baseband transmission, and the 2 representing its maximum segment length of 185 (or roughly 200) m.

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Twisted Pair (TP)

Twisted-pair (TP) cable is similar to telephone wiring and consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires. The more twists per inch in a pair of wires, the more resistant the pair will be to all forms of noise. Higher-quality, more expensive twisted-pair cable contains more twists per foot. The number of twists per meter or foot is known as the twist ratio.
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Twisted Pair (TP)

Twisted-pair cable is the most common form of cabling found on LANs today. Its inexpensive, flexible, and easy to install, and it can span a significant distance before requiring a repeater (though not as far as coax). Twisted-pair cable easily accommodates several different topologies, although it is most often implemented in star or star-hybrid topologies One drawback to twisted-pair is that, because of its flexibility, it is more prone to physical damage than coaxial cable. All twisted-pair cable falls into one of two categories: shielded twisted-pair (STP) or unshielded twisted-pair (UTP).
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Shielded Twisted-Pair (STP)

As the name implies, shielded twisted-pair (STP) cable consists of twisted wire pairs that are not only individually insulated, but also surrounded by a shielding made of a metallic substance such as foil. Some STP use a braided metal shielding. The shielding acts as a barrier to external electromagnetic forces, thus preventing them from affecting the signals traveling over the wire inside the shielding. The shielding may be grounded to enhance its protective effect.

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Unshielded Twisted-Pair (UTP)

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling consists of one or more insulated wire pairs encased in a plastic sheath. As its name implies, UTP does not contain additional shielding for the twisted pairs. As a result, UTP is both less expensive and less resistant to noise than STP

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UTP Types

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Fiber Optic
A fiber-optic system is similar to the copper wire system that fiber-optics is replacing. The difference is that fiber-optics use light pulses to transmit information down fiber lines instead of using electronic pulses to transmit information down copper lines.
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Fiber Optic
Bandwidth Up to 100s of Gbps Distance (100 +KM) Three Types Single Mode Multi Mode Plastic Optical Fiber Mode

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Straight Through Cable

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Straight Through Cable

In a UTP implementation of a straight-through cable, the wires on both cable ends are in the same order You can determine that the wiring is a straightthrough cable by holding both ends of the UTP cable side by side and seeing that the order of the wires on both ends is identical
You can use a straight-through cable for the following tasks Connecting a router to a hub or switch Connecting a server to a hub or switch Connecting workstations to a hub or switch
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Cross Over Cable

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Cross Over Cable

In the implementation of a crossover, the wires on each end of the cable are crossed Transmit to Receive and Receive to Transmit on each side, for both tip and ring

Notice that pin 1 on one side connects to pin 3 on the

other side, and pin 2 connects to pin 6 on the opposite end You can use a crossover cable for the following tasks: Connecting uplinks between switches Connecting hubs to switches Connecting a hub to another hub.
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Registered Jack (RJ)

RJ 11 RJ 45

RJ-11 Defined for telephone connectors RJ-45 Defined for UTP connectors

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Local Area Network (LAN)

A computer network that spans a relatively small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of buildings

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Wide Area Network (WAN)

A computer network that spans a relatively large geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-area networks (LANs)

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Intranet

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Internet

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Open System Internetconnect (OSI)

The OSI model was designed to promote interoperability by creating a guideline for network data transmission between computers that have different hardware vendors, software, operating systems, and protocols

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OSI
The OSI reference model illustrates the networking process as being divided into seven layers. This theoretical construct makes it easier to learn and understand the concepts involved. At the top of the model is the application that requires access to a resource on the network, and at the bottom is the network medium itself As data moves down through the layers of the model, the various protocols operating there prepare and package it for transmission over the network. Once the data arrives at its destination, it moves up through the layers on the receiving system, where the same protocols perform the same process in reverse
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OSI
OSI developed by International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1974 It consists of Seven Layers Each layer has specific processing function
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Open System Interconnect

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Data communication with OSI

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OSI
User

can interact only with this layer direct

Application Layer provides the operating system with access to network services

Application layer provides an interface so that processes such as Excel or Word that are running on the local machine can get access to network services (E.G., retrieving a file from a network server) Handles network access, flow control and error recovery

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OSI

It serves as the interface between the user and the network

Its a user specific layer Protocols used in Application layer : DNS, FTP, HTTP, SMTP, POP3, WWW Gateway works in Application layer

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OSI
Presentation layer is responsible for presenting the data in a standard format Presentation Layer is responsible for data translation (formatting) Encryption techniques are implemented at the Presentation Layer The Presentation layer relieves the Application layer of concern regarding syntactical differences in a message's data representation within the end-user systems
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OSI
Following tasks are performed in Presentation Layer:
Encoding Decoding Encryption Decryption Compression Decompression

Gateway Works in Presentation Layer

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OSI
Session Layer is responsible for establishing, maintaining and terminating session Responsible for name recognition (identification) so only the designated parties can participate in the session Manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long Provides synchronization services by planning check points in the data stream if session fails, only data after the most recent checkpoint need be transmitted
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OSI
Protocols used in Session layer: NetBIOS, Names Pipes, Mail Slots and RPC (Remote Procedure Call)

Gateway works in Session Layer

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OSI
Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-end connectivity. It is also known as the heart of OSI layers Provides error-checking to guarantee error-free data delivery, with on losses or duplications Provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions; requests retransmission if some packets dont arrive error-free The major function of the Transport Layer is Error Correction

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OSI
Following tasks are performed at Transport Layer Identifying Service Multiplexing & De-multiplexing Segmentation Sequencing & Reassembling Flow control Protocol used in Transport Layer TCP, UDP, NetBEUI Brouter and Gateway works in Transport Layer
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OSI
Network Layer

is responsible for providing best path for data to reach the destination Logical addressing is happening in this layer Network Layer translates logical network address and names to their physical address (e.g. computer name = MAC address) The Network layer performs network routing, flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control functions.

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OSI
Protocols used in Network Layer Routed Protocol IP, IPX and Apple Talk Routing Protocol RIP, IGRP, EIGRP and OSPF Router works in Network Layer
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OSI
Data Link Layer handles data frames between the Network and Physical layers

Receiving end packages raw data from the Physical layer into data frames for delivery to the Network layer as packets Error detection is happening in this layer Data link Layer is divided in to two layers: LLC (Logical Link Control) MAC ( Media Access Control)
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OSI
LLC Talks about WAN protocols e.g., PPP and Frame

Relay

MAC talks about 48 bit, 12 digit Hexadecimal physical address Protocols used in Data Layer : 802.3 (CSMA/CD) Ethernet & 802.5 Token Ring Switch, Bridge and Network Interface card works in Data Link Layer
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OSI
In Physical Layer data will be converted into Binary (0s & 1&) It transmits raw bit stream over physical cable Data will be in the form of light if it is Fiber Optic Cable The Physical layer defines all the electrical and physical specifications for devices
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OSI
Physical Layer defines techniques to transfer bit stream to cable

Protocol used in Physical Layer

IEEE 802 & IEEE 802.2 Hub and Repeater works in Physical Layer
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OSI

Gateway

Router Switch HUB

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OSI

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OSI

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IP Addressing
Internet Protocol Address is given to the computer as an identifier to a computer in a TCP/IP Network IP Address is also known as Logical Address IP Address works in Layer 3 (Network) Two versions of IP Addressing

IP Version 4 - 32 bit address (Currently we are using) IP Version 6 - 128 bit address
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IP Addressing
IP Address is divided in to Network Portion and Host Portion Class A is written as Class B is written as Class C is written as N.H.H.H N.N.H.H N.N.N.H
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IP Addressing

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IP Address

Class A Class B Class C Class D Class E

1 128 192 224 240

126 191 223 239 254

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IP Addressing

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 Loop Back Address:

IP Addressing

The IP address 127.0.0.1 is used as the loop back address. This means that it is used by the host computer to send a message back to itself. It is commonly used for troubleshooting and network testing

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IP Addressing
Loop Back address is also known as semi broad cast address Range of Loop back address : 127.0.0.1 to 127.255.255.254 Click Start Run Type cmd Ping 127.0.01

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Automatic Private Internet Protocol Address (APIPA)

When a DHCP client (Computer) boots up, it first looks for a DHCP server in order to obtain an IP address and Subnet Mask If the Computer is unable to get the IP Address from DHCP Server the computer will automatically assign an IP address that IP Address is known as APIPA 169.254.0.0 - 169.254.255.255 is reserved for APIPA
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APIPA

APIPA is also known as Offline DHCP Address APIPA is also known as Auto Configuration IP Address APIPA is applicable only for Windows based OS APIPA will work only on Windows 98 and above APIPA will display with out the Default Gateway
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Subnet Mask
Subnet Mask is to differentiate the Network ID and Host ID Two numbers reserved for Subnet Mask i.e. 0 & 255 0 Denotes Host and 255 Denotes Network

Class
Class A is written as Class B is written as Class C is written as

Default Subnet Mask

255.0.0.0 255.255.0.0 255.255.255.0 N.H.H.H N.N.H.H N.N.N.H
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Subnet Mask
IP Address : 10.20.50.26 Subnet Mask : 255.0.0.0 For this IP Address : Network ID is : 10.0.0.0 First Valid IP Address : 10.0.0.1 Last Valid IP Address : 10.0.0.254 Broad Cast Address : 10.0.0.255
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Subnet Mask
IP Address : 10.20.50.26 Subnet Mask : 255.255.0.0 For this IP Address : Network ID is : 10.20.0.0 First Valid IP Address : 10.20.0.1 Last Valid IP Address : 10.20.0.254 Broad Cast Address : 10.20.0.255
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Subnet Mask
IP Address : 10.20.50.26 Subnet Mask : 255.255.255.0 For this IP Address : Network ID is : 10.20.50.0 First Valid IP Address : 10.20.50.1 Last Valid IP Address : 10.20.50.254 Broad Cast Address : 10.20.50.255
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Subnet Mask
IP Address 172.26.28.36 Subnet Mask : 255.0.0.0 For this IP Address: Network ID is : 172.0.0.0 First Valid IP Address : 172.0.0.1 Last Valid IP Address : 172.0.0.254 Broad Cast Address : 172.0.0.255
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Subnet Mask
IP Address 172.26.28.36 Subnet Mask : 255.255.0.0 For this IP Address: Network ID is : 172.26.0.0 First Valid IP Address : 172.26.0.1 Last Valid IP Address : 172.26.0.254 Broad Cast Address : 172.26.0.255
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Subnet Mask
IP Address 172.26.28.36 Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0 For this IP Address: Network ID is : 172.26.28.0 First Valid IP Address : 172.26.28.1 Last Valid IP Address : 172.26.28.254 Broad Cast Address : 172.26.28.255
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Subnet Mask
IP Address 192.168.0.152 Subnet Mask 255.0.0.0

For this IP Address: Network ID is : 192.0.0.0 First Valid IP Address : 192.0.0.1 Last Valid IP Address : 192.0.0.254 Broad Cast Address : 192.0.0.255
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Subnet Mask
IP Address 192.168.0.152 Subnet Mask 255.255.0.0 For this IP Address: Network ID is : 192.168.0.0 First Valid IP Address : 192.168.0.1 Last Valid IP Address : 192.168.0.254 Broad Cast Address : 192.168.0.255
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Subnet Mask
IP Address 192.168.0.152 Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0 For this IP Address: Network ID is : 192.168.0.0 First Valid IP Address : 192.168.0.1 Last Valid IP Address : 192.168.0.254 Broad Cast Address : 192.168.0.255
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Broadcast Address
Messages that are intended for all computers on a network
are sent as broadcasts These messages always use the IP address 255.255.255.255 Any IP Address with last Octet as 255 is known as broadcast address for that particular network E.g.: 10.10.8.255 The IP address of 0.0.0.0 is used for the default network
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How to assign static IP address and Subnet Mask

High light Local Area Connection Select Properties Select Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) and select Properties

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How to assign static IP address and Subnet Mask

When ever you assign a Static IP Address its Mandatory to assign static DNS For Windows 2000 and above Subnet Mask will be automatically assigned by the computer with the help of Network ID

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Request Timed Out

The ping command timed out because there was no reply from the host. The source and the destination computer are in the same network When Ping command is initiated from one system to the other in a network if the firewall is enabled on the Destination System Request Timed Out error will Pop up

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Destination Host Unreachable

The host that you are trying to ping is in a different network. Destination and the source belong to the different network

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Destination Net Unreachable

Destination Net Unreachable message is one which a user would
usually get from the Default Gateway when it doesn't know how to get to a particular net work

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Unknown Host
If the DNS resolution is not happening the computer will display as Unknown host Global DNS has to be assigned to fix this issue

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Command Prompt Error

If the static IP Address is assigned to the computer and if we tried to renew the IP Address it will display as Operation failed as no adapter is in the state permissible for this operation

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Error Code 28 (Command Prompt

Direct Firewall or PIX or Norton Internet Security Installed (NIS)

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Error Code 65 (Command Prompt

Anti Spy Ware or Zone Alarm in the Computer

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Socket Error

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Digital Signature
Digital signatures are especially important for electronic commerce and are a key component of most authentication schemes. To be effective, digital signatures must be unforgeable

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Digital Signature
A digital certificate contains the digital signature of the certificate-issuing authority so that anyone can verify that the certificate is real

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NIC Card Installation

Physically install the network adapter, and then restart the PC.

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NIC Card Installation

If the Operating System is Windows 2000 and above the screen will display as New Hardware Found and select Next

Select the Hardware Type

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NIC Card Installation

Select Display a List Select the Manufacturer and Click Have Disk

SMC 1211 TX

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NIC Card Installation

Select Browse Select the Location as CD-Rom

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NIC Card Installation

Select the Drivers Select the File and Click OK

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NIC Card Installation

Click OK

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NIC Card Installation

Click Yes to restart the computer Check the Device Manager for Device Status

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