AP Environmental Science Chapter Fourteen Outline

Florence Hur

Geologic Resources: Nonrenewable Mineral and Energy Resource

I. Nature and Formation of Mineral Resources [14 1]
y Mineral resource concentration of naturally occurring material in or on the earths crust that can be extracted and processed into useful materials at an affordable cost. y Nonrenewable resources nonfuel mineral and energy resources that take long to make y We can find and take out 100+ nonrenewable minerals from crust o Metallic mineral resources (iron copper, aluminum) o Nonmetallic mineral resources (salt, gypsum, cay, sand, phosphates, water, soil) o Energy resources (coal, oil, natural gas, uranium) y Ore is rock with one or more metallic minerals to be mined profitably. o Ores form as result of several internal and external geologic processes. y Nonrenewable mineral resources split into identified and undiscovered. o Identified resources deposits of a nonrenewable mineral resource that have a known location, quantity, and quality, or deposits based on direct geological evidence and measurements o Undiscovered resources potential supplies of a nonrenewable mineral resource that are assumed to exist on the basis of geologic knowledge and theory, although specific locations, quality, and amounts are unknown. y Reserves identified resource of minerals that can be extracted profitably at current prices. o Reserves can increase (1) when new deposits are found or (2) when price increases or improved mining technology make it profitable to extract deposits that previously were too expensive to extract. o Theoretically, all of the other resources could eventually be converted to reserves, but this is highly unlikely. y Other resources identified and undiscovered resources not classified as reserves. y Plate tectonics (1) shapes the earths crust as the earths plates collide, retreat, and slide across one another at the boundaries between them and (2) determines where the earths richest mineral deposits form. y Cooled magma layers of igneous rocks y Magma wells up into earths crust at divergent and convergent plat boundaries y Hydrothermal processes Most common way that ore deposits are formed; seafloor spreading allows magma to upwell; seawater dissolves material from rock or magma, and as it cools, the dissolved minerals cool and form deposits. [Forms when mineral-rich superheated water shoots out of vents in solidified magma on the ocean floor.] o Hydrothermal ore deposits also occur when upwelling magma solidifies into chimney-shaped black smokers (little volcanoes?) o Rich in nutrients, thus supports colonies of bacteria that make food through chemosynthesis. y Manganese nodules potential source of metals from ocean floor y Settling sediments form ore deposits by precipitation or sedimentary sorting. o Minerals settle based on density. o Placer deposits rich deposits of settled gold particles o Gold is dense. y Deserts have groundwater flowing in lakes with no outlets to sea. o Contains lots of minerals. o Conc. of dissolved salts increase to the point where they precipitate to form evaporite mineral deposits. y Ore deposits also form from weathering of rock near water in areas with high rainfall.

o Lots of ions of insoluble compounds in soil left to form residual deposits like iron and aluminum.

II. Finding and Removing Nonrenewable Mineral Resources [14 2]

y Aerial photos, satellite images, radiation measuring equipment, magnetometer, gravimeter, drilling deep wells, extracting core samples, seismic surveys, chemical analysis of water is done to find mineral deposits. y Shallow deposits are removed by surface mining, and deep deposits are removed by subsurface mining. o Gangue mine tailings (piles of waste); worthless minerals associated with the valuable minerals in an ore. o Surface mining stripping away the overburden (stuff lying over deposit) of soil and rock and discards it as water called spoil (waste).  Open-pit mining: holes dug and ores removed  Dredging: chain buckets and draglines scrape up underwater mineral deposits  Mountaintop removal: rid the top of mountain to expose coal y Waste rock and first dumped into streams and valleys below  Area strip mining: for flat terrain overburden stripped and mineral deposit removed, then new cut made parallel to previous one. y If area is not restored, it leaves a wavy series of erodible hills of rubble called spoil banks.  Contour strip mining: for hilly terrain land dug out and overburden from each new terrace dumped onto the one below. y If land is not restored, wall of dirt is left called a highwall. o Subsurface mining removes coal and metal ores really deeps.  Miners dig deep vertical shaft, blast subsurface tunnels and chambers, and use machines to remove ore or coal and bring to top.  Disturbs less than surface mining, and make less waste.  More dangerous and $$$  Not so effective y Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977 requires mining companies to restore most surface-mined land so that it can be used for the same purpose as it was before it was mined. o Also taxes mining companies to restore land that was disturbed by surface mining before law was passed. y Steps in Getting Mineral Products o Prospecting finding places where ores occur o Miner exploration & development learn whether ore can be extracted economically o Mining extract ore from ground o Beneficiation separate ore minerals from other mined rock o Smelting & refining extract pure commodity from the ore mineral o Transportation carry commodity to market o Marketing & sales find buyers and sell the goods

III. Environmental Effects of Extracting, Processing, and Using Mineral Resources [14 3]
y Lots of energy, land disturbances, soil erosion, air & water pollution, acid mine drainage, emission of toxic chemicals CONS y Ore from earths crust has two components o Ore mineral with the desired metal o Waster material called gangue  Tailing produced by removing gangue from ores y Smelting used to separate metal from other elements bad for the environment

IV. Supplies of Mineral Resources [14 4]

y Future supply relies on actual supply and rate supplies are used. y Mineral never runs out only economically depletes when it costs more to find, take out, bring, and process the remaining deposit than it is worth. o At that point, we can recycle, reuse, waste less, use less, find substitute, or do without. y Depletion Time time to use up certain proportion (~80%) of reserves of mineral at a given rate of use o Shortest depletion time assumes no recycling or reuse and no increase in reserves. o Longer depletion time assumes that recycling will stretch existing reserves and that better mining technology, higher prices, and new discoveries will increase reserves. o Even longer depletion time assumes that new discoveries will expand reserves and that recycling, reuse, and reduced consumption will extend supplies. o Finding a substitute for a resources leads to a new set of depletion curves for the new resource. y Reserve-to-production a traditional measure of the project availability of nonrenewable resources; the # of years that proven reserves of a particular nonrenewable mineral will last at current annual reproduction rates o Reserve estimates always change because new deposits are found, and new mining and processing can allow some of the minerals considered resources to be converted to reserves.  US, GER, RUS consume 75% of the worlds most widely used metals  Worlds mineral resources spread unevenly.  US depends on 25 countries for more than half of its mineral resources o Bc some minerals are used faster than came be produced o Or foreign ore deposits are better quality and cheaper than US reserves y In theory, a plentiful mineral resource is cheap in a competitive free market. Price rises when in demand. o Industry and govt in developed countries control supply, demand, and prices of minerals that a truly competitive free market does not exist. y Most mineral prices low bc countries subsidize development of their resources to help economy and security. o US mining co. can buy land dirty cheap y Debate over whether companies should be getting money from govt or just be taxed.  Extractors of mineral resources complain that lots of land contain good resources for minerals but are off limits. o Sagebrush Rebellion and the anti-environmental Wise-Use movement had Congress open up lands, return ownership of lands to states, and allow states to decide how to use the land. y Some say we need to extract lower grades of ore to increase supplies of a mineral. o Mining of lower-grade ores can be limited by high cost, availability of fresh water needed, and the environmental impact.  Ocean mineral resources found in sea water, sediments and deposits on the shallow continental shelf, hydrothermal ore deposits, and manganese-rich nodules on the deep-ocean floor.  Most chemical elements in water are low in conc. that finding them is too much of an effort. o Only magnesium, bromine, and sodium chloride are abundant. o Lots of gold, silver, zinc, and copper are found as sulfide deposits in deep ocean floor Too much $$ o Manganese-rich modules may be source of key metals.  Seabed mining less harm than land mining but it can stir up ocean sediments, destroy seafloor organism, and be dangerous to us. y Materials Revolution in which silicon and new materials, like ceramics and plastics, are replacing metals.

o Ceramic harder, stronger, lighter, longer lasting than many metals; withstand heat and dont corrode.  Faster CPUs, better power transmission, etc. o Plastics and composite materials will change the automobile and aerospace industries cheaper, less energy used, molded easily, no painting necessary. o Iron oxide (regular rust) now used to save digital information, once used only as paint pigment. y Helium, phosphorus for fertilizers, manganese for steels, and copper is hard to substitute.

V. Evaluating Energy Resources [14 5]

y 99% of E to heat earth and buildings come from sun. y Solar energy from fusion of hydrogen atoms in suns mass. y Indirect forms of renewable solar energy: wind, hydropower (water), biomass (solar energy converted to chemical energy stored) y Commercial energy comes from taking away and burning nonrenewable mineral resources from crust y Biomass renewable energy fuel wood and charcoal made from fuel wood; for heating and cooking. y US largest energy user y We should cut out unneeded E waste by improving efficiency like insulation, high-mileage cars, efficient light-bulbs, applies using less energy. y Others say we should mix renewable energy sources like sun, wind, water, biomass, hydrogen gas, heat stored in Earths interior (geothermal). y Takes energy to get energy. y Usable amount of high quality energy available from given quantity of an energy resource is net energy (the total of E available from E resources minus the energy used to find, extract, process, and deliver energy). o Oil has high net energy because it comes from Middle East. y Conventional nuclear energy has a low net energy ratio because lots of energy needed to take out and process ores, convert it to nuclear fuel, build and operate plants, retire the old plants, store wastes carefully.

VI. Oil [14 6]

y Petroleum, or crude oil (straight out of ground) is thick liquid of lots of combustible hydrocarbons with little bit of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. o Produced by decomposition of dead organic matter o Rarely found in large, hollow reservoir o Spread out in pores and cracks in underground rock. y Primary oil recovery well drilling and pumping out lighter crude oil y Secondary oil recovery heavier crude oil removed by pumping high pressure water into well, pumping oil and water mixture to surface, separating heavy oil, and reusing water for more oil. y Tertiary oil recovery superheated steam or carbon dioxide is injected into well to force out leftover heavy crude. y Drilling has little damage to land because wells take up little land area y Once crude oil is extracted, it is taken to a refinery to heat & distill. y Petrochemicals products of oil distillation used as raw materials in industrial organic chemicals, pesticides, plastics, synthetic fibers, paints, medicines, etc. y OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) have 67% of the worlds reserves Middle East, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, Iran, United Arab Emirates all have some. y Known and projected supplies of oil are projected to be 80% depleted within 50 100 years. y US oil supplies are projected to be 80% depleted within 15 48 years. y Reserves in Alaskas North Slope would meet current US demand for 3 years, thats it.

y Oil shale fine-grained sedimentary rock containing solid combustible organic material called kerogen. o Shale oil kerogen distilled from oil shale. o Oil shale is low grade so takes more money than its worth. y Tar sand (oil sand) mixture of clay, sand, water, and bitumen (thick, high-sulfur heavy oil) too deep. o Athabasca Tar Sands in Canada

VII. Natural Gas [14 7]

y Natural gas mixture of methane, the simplest HC, ethane, propane, butane, & poisonous hydrogen sulfide. y Conventional natural gas lies above reservoirs of crude oil. y Unconventional natural gas is found by itself in other underground sources. o Methane hydrate made of small bubbles of natural gas trapped y When natural gas field is tapped, propane and butane gases are liquefied and removed as liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) o LPG is stored in tanks for use in rural areas. o At low ass temp., natural gas can turn into liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be shipped to other countries y RUS and KAZ have 42% of the worlds natural gas reserves. y Known reserves and undiscovered, potential reserves of conventional natural gas are expected to last the world for 125 years and the US for 65 80 years. y Global supplies of conventional and unconventional natural gas should last 205 325 years. y In the combined-cycle natural gas systems, natural gas is burned in turbines, which are basically jet engines stuck to the ground to make electricity cheaper and more efficient than burning coal or using nuclear power. y General Electric Co. and the US DOE (Energy) announced creation o a combined-cycle natural gas electric power plants that is 60% efficient. y US DOE plants to build 200 new power plants in the US using natural gas turbine systems, which can provide backup power for solar energy and wind power systems. y 1999, Daimler-Chrysler and Syntropetroleum of Oklahoma announced development of process to convert natural gas at sites to clean-burning fuels.

VIII. Coal [14 8]

y Coal solid fossil fuel that is mostly combustible carbon with little bits of water, sulfur, mercury, and radioactive materials. o Expensive, less common o Extracted by area strip mining when coal lies close to surface o Extracted by contour strip mining on hilly or mountainous terrain. y Coal provides about 22% of the commercial energy in the world and US y PROS: lots of it, high net energy, low cost w/ lots of subsidies y CONS: bad for envir., high land use (mining too), radioactive particles released y In US, coal is burned to make 52% of our electricity. The rest of the electricity produced comes from nuclear power, natural gas, renewable energy, and oil. y Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel. y Coal has the highest impact on the environment. o Land disturbance, air pollution, CO2 emission, water pollution. o 2nd largest producer of toxic emissions. y Solid coal can be converted into synthetic natural gas (SNG) by coal gasification or into a liquid fuel like methanol or synthetic gasoline by coal liquefaction. o PROS: Large potential supply, vehicle fuel

o CONS: Low to moderate net energy yield, higher cost than coal, high impact on envir., increased surface mining of coal, lots of water needed, higher CO2 emissions than coal

IX. Nuclear Energy [14 9]

y Fission chain reaction neutrons split the nuclei of atoms and release E as high-temp heat. y The rate of fission is controlled and the heat generate is used to make high-pressure steam, which spins turbines that make electricity. y Low net energy y Low air pollution y Low CO2 emissions y Deaths y Little land used y High cost (w/ lots of subsidies) y Light-water reactors (LWR) make about 85% of the worlds nuclear-made electricity. y Core fuel rods packed with fuel pellets y Uranium oxide fuel y Control rods absorb neutrons and regulated rate of fission and amt. of power the reactor produces (graphite) y Moderator slows down neutrons by fission so the chain reaction continues y Coolant usually water to remove heat from reactors core. y The Atomic Energy Commission y Price-Anderson Act to protect US nuclear industry and utilities from blame to the public in case of accidents. y China and France like nuclear power despite the risks. y Chernobyl, Ukraine plant overheated and exploded, bad cloud overhead. y Three Mile Island y Wastes classified as low-level radioactive wastes give off small amounts of ionizing radiation and must be stored safely for 100 500 years before decaying to safe levels STEEL DRUMS DUMPED INTO OCEAN y High-level radioactive wastes give off large amounts of ionizing radiation for a short time and small amounts for a long time. y Methods to deal with waste: o Bury it underground. o Shoot into space or sun. (Too $$$ and risky) o Bury under ice sheets. (We know little about the stability of ice sheets.) o Dump into subduction zones in deep ocean. o Bury it in thick deposits of mud where it was proved to be stable. o Change into harmless isotopes. y Nuclear power is expensive! y Advanced light-water reactors (ALWR) have built-in passive safety features to make explosion or release of radioactive emission almost impossible. y Breeder nuclear fission reactors generates more nuclear fuel than they consume by changing nonfissionable urganium-238 into fissionable plutonium-239. y Scientists hope to achieve controlled nuclear fusion.