Cell Division In Prokaryotes ............................................................................................. 2 Binary fission ............................................................................................................... 2 Cell Division In Eukaryotes............................................................................................... 3 MITOSIS ...................................................................................................................... 3 Interphase ...............................................................................................................

3 PROPHASE ............................................................................................................... 4 METAPHASE ............................................................................................................ 5 ANAPHASE............................................................................................................... 5 TELOPHASE .............................................................................................................. 6 Cytokinesis .............................................................................................................. 7 Significance of mitosis: ............................................................................................ 7 MEIOSIS ...................................................................................................................... 7 Interphase ............................................................................................................... 7 Prophase I ............................................................................................................... 8 Anaphase I............................................................................................................... 9 Telophase I .............................................................................................................. 9 Prophase II ............................................................................................................ 10 Metaphase II ......................................................................................................... 10 Anaphase II............................................................................................................ 10 Telophase II ........................................................................................................... 10 Significance of meiosis:.......................................................................................... 10

Cell Division In Prokaryotes

Binary fission
Binary fission, or prokaryotic fission, is a form of asexual reproduction and cell division used by all prokaryotes, some protozoa, and some organelles within eukaryotic organisms. This process results in the reproduction of a living prokaryotic cell by division into two parts that each have the potential to grow to the size of the original cell. Binary fission begins with DNA replication. DNA replication starts from an origin of replication the potential to grow to the size of the original cell. , which opens up into a replication bubble (note: prokaryotic DNA replication usually has only one origin of replication, whereas eukaryotes have multiple origins of replication). The replication bubble separates the DNA double strand, with each strand acting as template for synthesis of a daughter strand by semi conservative replication, until the entire prokaryotic DNA is duplicated. Each circular DNA strand then attaches to the cell membrane. The cell elongates, causing the DNA to separate. Cell division in bacteria is controlled by the FtsZ, a collection of about a dozen proteins that collect around the site of division. There, they direct assembly of the division septum. The cell wall and plasma membrane starts growing transversely from near the middle of the dividing cell. This separates the parent cell into two nearly equal daughter cells, each having a nuclear body. The cell membrane then invaginates (grows inward) and splits the cell into two daughter cells, separated by a newly grown cell plate.

Cell Division In Eukaryotes

MITOSIS
Before a dividing cell enters mitosis, it undergoes a period of growth called interphase. Some 90 percent of a cell's time in the normal cellular cycle may be spent in interphase.

INTERPHASE
STAGES OF INTERPHASE. G1 phase: The period prior to the synthesis of DNA. In this phase, the cell increases in mass in preparation for cell division. Note that the G in G1 represents gap and the 1 represents first, so the G1 phase is the first gap phase. S phase: The period during which DNA is synthesized. In most cells, there is a narrow window of time during which DNA is synthesized. Note that the S represents synthesis. G2 phase: The period after DNA synthesis has occurred but prior to the start of prophase. The cell synthesizes proteins and continues to increase in size. Note that the G in G2 represents gap and the 2 represents second, so the G2 phase is the second gap phase. CHANGES AFTER INTERPHASR . In the latter part of interphase, the cell still has nucleoli present. The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope and the cell's chromosomes have duplicated but are in the form of chromatin. In animal cells, two pair of centrioles formed from the replication of one pair are located outside of the nucleus.

PROPHASE
In prophase, the chromatin condenses into discrete chromosomes. The nuclear envelope breaks down and spindles form at opposite "poles" of the cell. Many consider prophase (versus interphase) to be the first true step of the mitotic process.

STAGES OF PROPHASE: CHANGES THAT OCCUR DURING PROPHASE. Chromatin fibers become coiled into chromosomes with each chromosome having two chromatids joined at a centromere. The mitotic spindle, composed of microtubules and proteins, forms in the cytoplasm. In animal cells, the mitotic spindle initially appears as structures called asters which surround each centriole pair. The two pair of centrioles (formed from the replication of one pair in Interphase) move away from one another toward opposite ends of the cell due to the lengthening of the microtubules that form between them. LATE PROPHASE: The nuclear envelope breaks up. Polar fibers, which are microtubules that make up the spindle fibers, reach from each cell pole to the cell's equator. Kinetochores, which are specialized regions in the centromeres of chromosomes, attach to a type of microtubule called kinetochore fibers.

The kinetochore fibers "interact" with the spindle polar fibers connecting the Kinetochores to the polar fibers. The chromosomes begin to migrate toward the cell center.

METAPHASE
In metaphase, the spindle fully develops and the chromosomes align at the metaphase plate (a plane that is equally distant from the two spindle poles).

CHANGES THAT OCCUR DURING METAPHASE. The nuclear membrane disappears completely. In animal cells, the two pair of centrioles align at opposite poles of the cell. Polar fibers (microtubules that make up the spindle fibers) continue to extend from the poles to the center of the cell. Chromosomes move randomly until they attach (at their Kinetochores) to polar fibers from both sides of their centromeres. Chromosomes align at the metaphase plate at right angles to the spindle poles. Chromosomes are held at the metaphase plate by the equal forces of the polar fibers pushing on the centromeres of the chromosomes.

ANAPHASE
In anaphase, the paired chromosomes (sister chromatids) separate and begin moving to opposite ends (poles) of the cell. Spindle fibers not connected to chromatids lengthen and elongate the cell. At the end of anaphase, each pole contains a complete compilation of chromosomes.

CHANGES THAT OCCUR DURING ANAPHASE. The paired centromeres in each distinct chromosome begin to move apart. Once the paired sister chromatids separate from one another, each is considered a "full" chromosome. They are referred to as daughter chromosomes. Through the spindle apparatus, the daughter chromosomes move to the poles at opposite ends of the cell. The daughter chromosomes migrate centromere first and the kinetochore fibers become shorter as the chromosomes near a pole. In preparation for telophase, the two cell poles also move further apart during the course of anaphase. At the end of anaphase, each pole contains a complete compilation of chromosomes.

TELOPHASE
In telophase, the chromosomes are cordoned off into distinct new nuclei in the emerging daughter cells. CHANGES THAT OCCUR DURING TELOPHASE. The polar fibers continue to lengthen. Nuclei (plural form of nucleus) begin to form at opposite poles. The nuclear envelopes of these nuclei are formed from remnant pieces of the parent cell's nuclear envelope and from pieces of the endomembrane system. Nucleoli (plural form of nucleolus) also reappear. Chromatin fibers of chromosomes uncoil.

After these changes, telophase/mitosis is largely complete and the genetic "contents" of one cell have been divided equally into two.

CYTOKINESIS
Cytokinesis, the division of the original cell's cytoplasm, begins prior to the end of mitosis and completes shortly after telophase/mitosis. At the end of cytokinesis, there are two distinct daughter cells.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS:
Mitosis plays an important role in the life of an organism. It is responsible for development and growth of organisms by increasing exact copies of cells. With few exceptions all kinds of asexual reproduction and vegetative propagation takes place by mitosis. The production of new somatic cells such as blood cells depends on mitosis. The healing of wounds, repair of wear and tear within the organism is also dependent upon the mitotic division.

MEIOSIS
Before a dividing cell enters meiosis, it undergoes a period of growth called interphase.

INTERPHASE
G1 phase: The period prior to the synthesis of DNA. In this phase, the cell increases in mass in preparation for cell division. Note that the G in G1 represents gap and the 1 represents first, so the G1 phase is the first gap phase. S phase: The period during which DNA is synthesized. In most cells, there is a narrow window of time during which DNA is synthesized. Note that the S represents synthesis.

G2 phase: The period after DNA synthesis has occurred but prior to the start of prophase. The cell synthesizes proteins and continues to increase in size. Note that the G in G2 represents gap and the 2 represents second, so the G2 phase is the second gap phase. CHANGES THST OCCUR DURING INTERPHASE. In the latter part of interphase, the cell still has nucleoli present. The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope and the cell's chromosomes have duplicated but are in the form of chromatin. In animal cells, two pair of centrioles formed from the replication of one pair are located outside of the nucleus.

PROPHASE I
Leptonema During this stage, the chromosomes begin to condense and become visible. Researchers also believe that homologous pair searching begins also at this stage. Zygonema The chromosomes continue to become denser. The homologous pairs have also found each other and begin to initially align with one another, referred to as 'rough pairing'. Lateral elements also form between the two homologous pairs, forming a synaptonemal complex. Pachynema

Coiling and shortening continues as the chromosomes become more condense. A synapses forms between the pairs, forming a tetrad. Diplonema The sister chromatids begin to separate slightly, revealing points of the chiasma. This is where genetic exchange occurs between two non-sister chromatids, a process known as crossing over. Diakinesis The chromosomes continue to pull apart, but non-sister chromatids are still loosely associated via the chiasma. The chiasma begin to move toward the ends of the tetrad as separation continues. This process is known as terminalization. Also during diakinesis, the nuclear envelope breaks down and the spindle fibers begin to interact with the tetrad. Metaphase I Tetrads align at the metaphase plate. Note that the centromeres of homologous chromosomes are oriented toward the opposite cell poles.

ANAPHASE I
Chromosomes move to the opposite cell poles. Similar to mitosis, the microtubules and the kinetochore fibers interact to cause the movement. Unlike in mitosis, the homologous chromosomes move to opposite poles yet the sister chromatids remain together.

TELOPHASE I
The spindles continue to move the homologous chromosomes to the poles. Once movement is complete, each pole has a haploid number of chromosomes.

In most cases, cytokinesis occurs at the same time as telophase I. At the end of telophase I and cytokinesis, two daughter cells are produced, each with one half the number of chromosomes of the original parent cell. Depending on the kind of cell, various processes occur in preparation for meiosis II. There is however a constant: The genetic material does not replicate again.

PROPHASE II
The nuclear membrane and nuclei break up while the spindle network appears. Chromosomes do not replicate any further in this phase of meiosis. The chromosomes begin migrating to the metaphase II plate (at the cell's equator).

METAPHASE II
The chromosomes line up at the metaphase II plate at the cell's center. The Kinetochores of the sister chromatids point toward opposite poles.

ANAPHASE II
The sister chromatids separate and move toward the opposite cell poles.

TELOPHASE II
Distinct nuclei form at the opposite poles and cytokinesis occurs. At the end of meiosis II, there are four daughter cells each with one half the number of chromosomes of the original parent cell.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS:
Meiosis plays an important role in keeping chromosome number constant in a specie from generation to generation so when the haploid male gamete fertilizes with haploid female gamete to form a zygote, the diploid number of chromosomes is restored (n+n=2n).

Meiosis is responsible for genetic variability i.e. the individuals of given specie differ from one another. It is due to crossing over which takes place during Prophase I. this genetic variability provides the basis of evolution by providing raw material for it.

Comparison of mitosis and meiosis MITOSIS

Mitosis take place in the body (somatic) cells.

MEIOSIS
Meiosis takes place in germ(sex) cells of gonads.

In mitosis number of chromosomes remains In meiosis number of chromosomes is reduced same in daughter cells as present in parent to half in the daughter cell as present in parent cells. It plays an important role for growth and development of organisms. Nucleus divides once and no crossing over takes place. cells. It plays an important role for formation of sex cells i.e. sperms ,eggs and spores. Nucleus under goes two successive division. Crossing over occurs

Pairing of homologous chromosomes does not Pairing of homologous chromosomes takes occur. place.

Daughter cells are similar to the parent cell in Daughter cells are not exact copies of parent all aspects. Prophase of mitosis is of short duration. At the end of mitosis two daughter cells are formed. cells. Prophase of meiosis is of long duration. At the end of meiosis four daughter cells are formed.

DIVISION IN PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELL.

NAME:

MARYAM HASHMI

CLASS:

B.S(HONS.) 2ND YEAR

SUBJECT:

CELL PHYSIOLOGY

COURSE INCHARGE:

MAAM MEHRUNISA.