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8 Bolting basics
By Patrick J. Smith
Bolting is commonly used in machinery and piping systems to fasten parts together. While relatively simple, bolting technology is commonly misunderstood and problems can develop. This is especially

true when bolts are replaced. Problems can easily be avoided by having a better understanding of
boltng technology.

Photo courtesy of iStock Photo.

14 Operating experience of a coal-fired boiler retrofit with an advanced hybrid of coal

gasification for 502 and NOx emissions control
By Keith Moore
The recent operating experience of an advanced hybrid of coal-gasification retrofit on an industrial coal-fired boiler shows promise to reduce operating cost, improve boiler efficiency, and control both S02 and NOx emissions.

ASME POWER DIVISION SECTION

22 Fuels & Combustion Technologies Committee
By Christopher F. Blazek

24 Important concepts of wet-limestone

flue gas desulfurization
By Brad Buecker
Many utilities in the United States are installng flue gas desulfunzation (FGD) systems to reduce
sulfur dioxide emissions from coal-fired boilers. The majonty of these systems wil be based on

wet-limestone technology due to the reliabilty of the process and the abundance of the scrubbing reagent, limestone, in many areas of the countr.
This artcle outlines a number of fundamental principles of wet-limestone scrubbing, which wil
hopefully prove useful to plant personnel who might be asked to plunge into unfamilar territory.

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30 The Machine Doctor
Vibration due to rotor unbalance By Bil Hilman

33 Turbine Tech
Turbine inlet cooling with indirect evaporation -

ISSUE
Ii
From the Editor
Energy Showcase
Advertsers' Index

with greater density comes more power

By David Voeller and Marcus Bastianen, P.., S.E

37 38

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ENERGY-TECH.

com - 4

features
Yie!Poin

ii

ed to an infinite number of load/unload cycles at this stress level and not fail in fatigue. This stress level is called the endurance limit. For most steels, the endurance limit for a notch-free polished specimen is approximately 50 percent of
the ultimate tensile strength.

Fatigue failures are fractures that start at defects or

microscopic cracks in the material surface. These cracks

grow a little with each loading/unloading cycle. Thus, the condition of the surface, stress concentrations, and other factors can affect the endurance limit. Polishing the surface, surface hardening, shot peening, and other surface treatments can all improve the endurance limit. As a result, the

Elongation

Figure 2

break. The maximum,Joad that the bolt can

sustain is the ultimate tensile point. See the graph in Figure 2. Stress is defined as load divided by cross
sectional area.

P ()=A
cr = Tensile Stress P = Load

A = Cross Sectional Area

The threaded part of a bolt is the weakest

part and it has a complex form. The stress area is the equivalent area that a round bar

could be substituted for the thread. The stress

area for typical bolts can be found in a variety of references, such as Mark's Handbook for Mechanical Engineers. As mentioned earlier,

bolts are available in a variety of materials and

strengths. When replacing bolts, it is important to use bolts of the same strength as the original bolts.

Fatigue
A part can fail or break if it is subjected to
repeated loading/unloading cycles, even if the

loading is below the yield strength of the materiaL. This type of failure is called fatigue.
There is a relationship between the magnitude of the loading and the number of cycles to failure and this is typically determined by a

fatigue test. A specimen is repeatedly loaded

and unloaded at a specific stress level and the number of cycles to failure is counted. This test is repeated at different stress levels. A typical stress vs. load cycle-to-failure graph can then be created. See Figure 3 for a typical

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graph for a carbon steel specimen.

As shown, at a stress level corresponding to 107 cycles, the specimen has an infinite life. In other words, the specimen can be subject-

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Number of Cycle to Faiur

Figure 3
OCTOBER 2008

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a.iemtf
endurance limit is not a true mechanical property like yield strength and tensile strength. The estimated endurance limit

for a part is typically determined by de-rating the ideal

endurance limit for surface finish, size, stress concentration, and other factors. Bolt threads can be made by rolling or cutting. Threads
that are cut are formed by cutting or removing materiaL.

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Threads that are rolled are formed by extruding. Extrusion is a process where the material is pushed through a die that has the desired cross section. Extruding results in a work hardened surface that is more fatigue resistant. Thus, the endurance limit for a bolt with rolled threads will be higher than an equivalent bolt with cut threads. A typical stress concentration fartor for rolled threads is 3.0, compared with

aUTS

a,

Figure 4
FS =
(Jay' (Jend + (Jmeanl;UTS

a typical stress concentration factor of 3.8 for cut threads.

So, the endurance limit for a bolt with rolled threads will be about 26 percent higher than the same bolt with cut threads. Bolts are typically subjected to both constant loads and alternating loads. In this case, neither the yield strength nor the endurance limit alone can be used to determine the suitability of a particular bolt for this type of application. The

FS Factor of Safety
(JaIi Alternating Stress

(Jend Endurance Limit

(Jmean Mean Stress (JUTS Ultimate Tensile Strength

Bolt preload
The bolt in Figure 5 is used to clamp two parts together. When the nut is first installed on the bolt, it is loose. As
the bolt is tightened, the slack is taken up until the bolt is snug against the part. As the bolt is further tightened, the

combined effects of both loads must be considered and

there are several methods available to analyze this. A common method is the use the Modified Goodman diagram. The construction of this diagram is shown in Figure 4. The solid line is the approximate line of failure. If the combined point is below the line of failure, the fatigue factor of safety is greater than 1.0. If it is above the line, the fatigue factor of safety is less than 1.0. The equation for the fatigue safety factor based on the Modified Goodman equation is:

bolt is stretched, or preloaded. The parts also are preloaded,

although to a much smaller degree. If a load is then applied to separate the parts, the parts will not separate until the applied load exceeds the preload. It is a common misconception to assume that the bolt load includes both the preload and the applied load. Both the bolt and parts

act like springs that hold the assembly together. In most

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figure 5

figure 6
applications, the parts are much stiffer than the bolt and most of the applied load is taken up by the parts. Referring to Figure 6, a preloaded bolt can be thought of as a spring

inspection, you can usually see any evidence of

. you open a turbine missing blade covers A Whenstrctural damage, such asfor an internal or

that holds two assemblies together.

As load is applied to separate the parts, the parts will elongate a little, which will stretch the spring a little. However, most of the applied load is taken up by the parts. It isn't until the parts separate that the spring takes the entire preload and the applied load. In most cases, bolting is not designed to handle both loads and the bolt will be overloaded and faiL.

How much of the applied load is taken up by the parts and how much is taken up by the bolt is a function of the relative stiffness of each component. The equations to determine the total tensile load in the bolt and the total

a broken blade. What are a little more subtle and diffcult to evaluate are the many leakage control devices around each stage. The auditor knows what the various clearances are supposed to be and makes careful measurements on each stage to determine how the actual values compare with the desired ones. At Encotech, we have developed a computer program that we call eSTPE (Steam Turbine Performance Evaluation). With eSTPE, we can enter these measured values and the program wil tell us how much loss in
output and increase in heat rate can be attributed to

tensile load in the parts are:

Kb

Fb =
Kb + Kp
Kb

*p + F"

Fb =
Kb + Kp

*P

F b = Bolt force
Fp = Part force
Kb = Bolt stiffness

Kp = Part stiffness

P = Applied load

F 0 = Preload

In many cases it is difficult to accurately determine the stiffness of the parts. In this case, a common assumption to make is that the parts can be modeled as a hollow cylinder with an inside diameter the same size as the bolt and an outside diameter three times the size as the bolt diameter. Assuming the material of the bolt and parts have the same modulus of elasticity, this works out to the parts being 8

times stiffer than the bolt. Thus, the bolt load is only 1j of
the total applied load. If the bolt and parts are made of different materials that have different modulus of elasticity, then this stiffness ratio has to be adjusted by the ratio of the modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elasticity is the

the condition of tip spill strips, root spil strips, and interstage packing seals that are so important to achieving high stage effciency. We also measure the surface finish of the steam path, quantify the impact of physical damage and solid particle erosion, and measure and record the clearances in the shaft end packings to quantify their impact on unit heat rate deficiency. What makes the steam path audit especially useful is that it is thorough and follows a well established procedure to be sure that all parts of the turbine that can affect performance are inspected, measured, and analyzed. The data is then entered into the eSTPE program which will then produce a report describing all the contrbutors to unit performance degradation. This then assures the station management that the turbine has been thoroughly analyzed and also tells them the magnitude of each deficiency so that decisions can be made quickly as to what is wort fixing. The Fall outage season is beginning, and the Spring outage season will be here before we know it. For more information on steam path audits, or to request an example steam path audit report, contact Encotech at the number or e-mail address below.

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measure of the stiffness of a material and is defined as the

slope of the stress-strain curve in the elastic region. Preload is very advantageous in applications where there are cyclical loads. Sufficient preload reduces the fatigue
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effects of the bolt because the cyclical load on the bolt is significantly reduced. This is because the parts take most of the cyclical load due to the part being much stiffer than the bolt. This can be demonstrated by the following example. A 112"x4" 13 UNC steel bolt is used to clamp two steel plates
together as shown in Figure 7. The following values will be used in this example: Bolt material has yield strength of 70,000 psi, an ultimate tensile strength of 90.000 psi and an endurance limit of 18,700 psi (includes the stress concentration for the threads). The stress area of the 11z bolt is 0.1419 in2.

Rgure 7
The steel parts are 8 times stiffer than the bolt. A cyclical load between 0-2,400 Ibs is

applied.
In case 1, the bolt is only snug and there

is no preload.
In case 2, a 2,500 Ib preload is applied to the bolt. In case 1, the load on the bolt is the same as the load on the part. In this

example,
Pmin = 0 Ibs

Pmax = 2,400 Ibs

Pmean = (Pmax+Pmin)/2 = 2,400/2 = 1,200 Ibs

Palternating = (Pmax - Pmin)/2 = 1,200 Ibs

Gmean = P mean / StressArea =

1,200/0.1419 = 8,457 psi

Ga/ernaring = Palternaling / StressArea =

1,200/0.1419 = 8,457 psi Plugging these values into equation (2)

yields a fatigue factor safety of 0.85.

In case 2, equation (3A) is used to determine the bolt load. In this example: Pmax = 1/9*1,200 + 2,500 = 2,767 Pmin = 1/9*0 + 2,500 = 2,500

Pmean = 2,634 Ibs

P alternating = 134 Ibs
Gmean = Pmean / StressArea =18,558 psi

Gallernalig = Pa/ernaring / StressArea = 940 psi

Plugging these values into equation (2)

yields a fatigue factor of safety of 3.06.

These cases are shown on the modified Goodman diagram in Figure 4.

As shown, preload has a dramatic

impact of the fatigue factor of safety of the bolt. This is because the preload significantly lowers the cyclical load applied to the

bolt. It is important to note that this analysis is not a precise science. There are parts that
operate at factors of safety less than 1.0 and do not fail and there are parts that operate at factors of safety greater than 1.0 and faiL. This is due to a variety of reasons.

First, the fatigue analysis only approximates the point of failure. Second, the endurance
limit used in the equation is not a true material property. It is an estimate based on several factors that can vary from one part to another. However, the probability of
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failure is greater the lower the factor of safety. There is no

universal minimum factor of safety and it is very much application dependent. However, a typical minimum factor of

I
the
ire

safety is 2.0.

cannot be used. It also is important to note that the required stretch is not based on the entire length of the bolt. It is based on the length of the bolt that is under load. In general, the accuracy of the preload using this method is +/- 5

Comon meods to obtin bolt preload

In some applications, it is not necessary for a bolt to
be preloaded to a precise value for it to function properly and not faiL. In these cases, operator "feel" is sufficient to ensure a tight joint. However, in many applications it is very important to set an accurate preload. Three common methods include the torque wrench, angle torquing, and measuring fastener stretch or elongation. A torque wrench i.s a special wrench with a built-in

percent.

Conclusion
Although bolting technology seems straightforward, there

are a lot of common misconceptions that can lead to

mistakes and result in machine failures. When looking at a

bolting application, it is important to understand the loading,

required preload, and method to obtain the preload. Most bolt failures are due to insufficient preload, not overtightening. With insufficient preload, bolts can loosen and fail in fatigue. A typical rule of thumb is to pre-load bolts

indicator that measJres the applied torque. The torque

required to tighten the bolt is used to approximate the preload. This method is based on the calculated friction force between the mating threads and the friction between the bearing surfaces. The torque primarily depends on the size and type of the bolt and the friction factor. The equation is:
T = KtdbOltFi

to 75 percent of the yield strength. Readers are encouraged

to review the references for additional information.

Reference
1.Michael R. Lindenburg, Mechanical Engineering Reference Manual for the PE Exam, 11th Edition, Professional
Publications, Inc., Belmont, CA, 2001 2. Joseph Shigley, Mechanical Engineering Design, 3rd Edition, McGraw Hill, 1977 3. Avallone, E.A.; Baumeister, T., III, Mark's Handbook for Mechanical Engineers, 10th Edition, McGraw Hill, 1996

to

T = torque in inch-pounds

Kt = the torque coefficient that depends on the bolt geometry and the friction factors between the threads

and the friction factor at the collar (bearing face)

) Ibs

dbolt = bolt diameter in inches

Patrick J. Smitli if lead mac/iinery engineer at A' Products &

support to tlie company's operating oil'

Fi = preload in pounds

Cliemicals, Allentown, Po., wlzere Iie provides teclinical machinery separation, Iiydrogen

psi psi
!)

If interested, the reader is encouraged to review the references for the equation for the torque coefficient. There are a lot of assumptions that go into the torque calculation. The friction factor, for example, depends on the lubricant (if used), the materials, surface finish, and the hardness of the parts. For example, the friction factors vary depending on estimates for non-lube, or if lubricated, which type of lube is used. In a given application, the friction factors can change from 0.4 if no lubricant is used to 0.06 depending on the type of lubricant. In addition, dirt and debris in the threads can significantly affect the friction. The torque calculation also assumes that the mating surfaces are perfectly square, which is not always the case. As a result of these assumptions and others, the accuracy of a torque wrench in setting the preload is typically about +/-

processing, and cogeneration plants. Contact Pat via e-mail at

editorial( WoodwardBizMedia.com.

psi

35 percent.
Angle torquing is very similar to the torque wrench. In this case, the bolt is turned to some specific angle past the snugging torque. The accuracy of this method is similar to that of the torque wrench. Measuring bolt elongation is a much more precise method of obtaining a precise preload. As described earlier in this article, stress is defined as the load (or force)

1e

int'sis

divided by the area. So knowing the required preload and

stress area of the bolt, the required stress can be determined from equation (1). Once the stress is known, the required stretch can be determined from the following

:hat

equation:
1.0

(J * L

!lL =

s. tes
:e

M = Elongation or stretch
E = Material modulus of elasticity

itert

L = Length of bolt being stretched

The stretch is the increase in length of the bolt as it is tightened. To use this method, there must be a way to measure the length of the bolt before and after it is tightened. In many cases the bolt is captured and this method
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