1

Harmonic Mitigation Selection

This paper is a review of the methods available to reduce line current harmonics seen with AC motor drives. There are several methods that can reduce the Ithd, and by doing so, also reduce the Vthd on the secondary terminals of the transformer feeding the drive. However, each one impacts the power distribution system in a different way, and each one impacts the drive operation in a different way. This paper will review the effects along with the advantages and the disadvantages of each method. Included in this paper are test results of several of the harmonic mitigation methods using a 100hp 1336F drive. 1. Introduction to Harmonics 2. The Basic Drive System 3. AC Line Reactor 4. DC Link Choke 5. Pseudo 12-Pulse 6. Multi-Pulse Converter 7. Passive Filter 8. Active Filter 9. Active Front-End 10. Other Comparisons 11. Comparison Checklist 12. Summary Rules-of-Thumb Rick Hoadley April 2005

Acknowledgments: Special thanks to Nick Guskov, Gary Woltersdorf and John Streicher for engineering, technical and marketing assistance.

Harmonic Mitigation Selection

When faced with the task of reducing line current harmonics caused by AC drives, there are several alternatives available. How does one pick the best solution? What criteria should be used to weigh the alternatives? This paper will deal with these topics. 1. Introduction to Harmonics Why do drives create current harmonics? We know that an AC drive creates line current harmonics because the line current does not look like a sine wave. Why? Because the converter within the drive takes the 3 phase AC line voltages and converts them into DC that feeds a filter and the inverter section. The inverter section is what then takes the DC and creates the variable voltage, variable frequency output for the motor. See Fig 1. During the process of 3-phase AC to DC conversion, the line current can resemble a pair of distinct pulses.
Why does the current look like that? Remember, current can only flow whenever the instantaneous line-to-line voltage exceeds the DC bus capacitor voltage. So for phase A, when can current flow? Only when the peak voltage between phases A and B exceed the cap voltage, or only when the peak voltage between phases A and C exceed the cap voltage. No current flows in phase A due to the peak voltage between phases B and C. This is easily seen in Fig 2.
The currents in phases B and C are the same, simply phase shifted with respect to each other.
If impedance is added to the circuit, either by adding a DC link choke, or an AC line reactor, the current does not change as rapidly, causing the waveform to change shape as seen in Fig 3. What causes voltage distortion? Since the current looks like these pulses and do not look like a sine wave, when we analyze the current waveform we will see that it is composed of a fundamental sine wave along with a combination of several harmonics. These are the harmonic currents
AC Drive
AC Motor Output

AC Line Input

Converter AC to DC

DC Bus Filter

Inverter DC to AC

Fig 1. Sections of a 6-Pulse AC drive

81.50m 800.0

82.50m

85.00m

87.50m

90.00m

92.50m 93.50m VMab.V = f... La.I = f(t, b...

Vab
600.0

Vac

Vbus

Cbus.V = f(... VMac.V = f... VMan.V [V]... 600.0

Van
400.0 400.0

Ia
200.0 200.0

100.0

81.50m 81.50m

82.50m

85.00m

87.50m

90.00m

-100.0 92.50m 93.50m

Fig 2. Current in phase A with very little line impedance

181.5m 800.0

182.5m

185.0m

187.5m

190.0m

192.5m 193.5m VMab.V = f... La.I = f(t, b...

Vab
600.0

Vac

Vbus

Cbus.V = f(... VMac.V = f... VMan.V [V]... 600.0

Van
400.0 400.0

200.0

200.0

Ia
0 0

100.0

181.5m 181.5m

182.5m

185.0m

187.5m

190.0m

-100.0 192.5m 193.5m

Fig 3. Current in phase A with an increase in line impedance

3 that cause voltage distortions on the power distribution system.

0 50.0

10.00m

20.00m

30.00m

40.00m Rfund.V =... Rharm.V ... Rtotal.V =...

00.0

100.0

The voltage distortions appear whenever current harmonics flow through the impedance within the transformer feeding the drive, and through any impedance in the wiring between the transformer and the drive. As you may realize, the voltage distortion is least at the transformer terminals, and greatest at the drive terminals. It is this voltage distortion that causes problems for other pieces of equipment fed by that transformer. The next two figures show how the voltage distortion will change depending on the size of the transformer feeding a drive. Shown in Fig 5 is the voltage waveform at the terminals of a 1500kVA transformer, and the current waveform of a 75hp AC drive. There is very little distortion in the lineto-line voltage. However, Fig 6 shows the waveforms at the terminals of a 75kVA transformer. There is a significant amount of flat-topping in the distorted voltage. This amounts to about 10% Vthd. How much is too much? The question we now ask is, How much is too much? This is where the recommendations found in IEEE std 519-1992 come into play. Table 10.2 recommends that the voltage distortion be less than 3% for hospitals and airports, less than 5% for all other facilities, but may be as high as 10% if converter loads are the only loads on a particular transformer. This is shown in Fig 7. The location for measuring the voltage distortion can be anywhere in the facility where non-linear and linear loads are connected together, typically at the secondary terminals of distribution transformers. Why is there a concern for limiting the voltage distortion? When motors are fed line voltages that contain voltage distortion, there will be additional heating in the motors and a loss of torque. It is difficult to predict how much the motor needs to be derated due to the level and content of the voltage harmonics present. However, in NEMA MG1-1998, Revision 1, Part 30, Section 30.1.2.1, they define an Harmonic Voltage Factor and a give a derating chart. This was part of the consideration that IEEE

50.0

50.0

50.0

-50.0

100.0

-100.0

150.0 0 10.00m 20.00m 30.00m

-150.0 40.00m

Fig 4. The red line current is made up of the green fundamental current plus the blue harmonic currents

Fig 5. The red line current of a 75hp drive causes little distortion seen in the blue line-toline voltage at the 1500kVA xfmr sec terminals

Fig 6. The red line current of a 75hp drive causes significant distortion seen in the blue line-to-line voltage at the 75kVA xfmr sec terminals

Harmonic Voltage Limits

Low-Voltage Systems Application Special Applications - hospitals and airports General System Dedicated System - exclusively converter load

Table 10.2

Maximum THD (%) 3.0% 5.0% 10.0%

Fig 7. Table 10.2 from IEEE 519 showing recommended Vthd limits for various applications

4 used when determining the values in Table 10.2. In addition to overheating motors, other equipment can also malfunction due to voltage distortions on the power lines. Table 10.3 puts limits on the current harmonics at the place where multiple customers are connected to the utility, usually at the metering point. See Fig 8. This is the primary PCC (Point of Common Coupling). Table 10.3 allows each customer connected to the utility to draw some harmonic current and thus create some voltage distortion which everyone else needs to live with. However, no one customer should draw so much harmonic current so as to cause the voltage distortion at this common connection point to exceed the recommended limits at this point and cause problems for the other customers. Within a customers plant, though, Table 10.3 does not apply. Instead, only Table 10.2 applies voltage distortion limits. The user should plan his equipment type and placement and wiring to make sure that the voltage distortion at any transformer secondary and at any point where linear and nonlinear loads are connected together are within the limits in Table 10.2. If drives or other converters are the only load on a transformer, this table allows the voltage distortion to be as high as 10%! For most users, the voltage distortion should be less than 5%. For hospitals and airports (life-critical applications), the voltage distortion should not exceed 3%. This is diagrammed in Fig 9. If, after a survey and harmonic estimation is made of the plant, it is determined that there is a need to reduce the harmonic current drawn by a drive or a group of drives, several methods are available. We will review these methods, compare their ability to reduce the line current harmonics, list the pros and cons of each one, and discuss the effect each method has on the operation of the drive and on the power distribution system. We will start with the characteristics of a basic, bare-bones drive and draw comparisons from that.
Current distortion Limits for General Distribution Systems (120V through 69,000V)

Maximum Harmonic Current Distortion in Percent of Iload

11<=h<17 17<=h<23 23<=h<35 35<=h Isc/Iload <11 <20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 20<50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 50<100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 100<1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 >1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 Even harmonics are limited to 25% of the odd harmonic limits above TDD (% ) 5.0 8.0 12.0 15.0 20.0
Table 10.3

Isc=maximum short circuit current at PCC Iload=maximum demand load current (fundamental frequency component) at PCC

Fig 8. Table 10.3 from IEEE 519 showing recommended Ithd limits for various Isc/Iload categories

Fig 9. Diagram showing overview of what voltage distortion limits should be followed at various locations in multiple systems

5 2. The Basic Drive System The basic drive system, in Fig 10, consists of a transformer as the power source, a 6-pulse diode bridge converter, a DC bus filter capacitor, an IGBT inverter bridge, and a motor connected to a mechanical load. Fig 1 shows the details of the drive. The user needs to realize that the transformer is as much a part of the system, and has an impact on the harmonics produced by the drive.
Transformer xfmr %Z Drive

AC DC

DC AC

Fig 10. The basic drive system, with a transformer feeding an unbuffered drive (a drive without a DC link choke)
150.0m 400.0 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m La.I = f( ...

200.0

200.0

The line current will typically look like what is shown in Fig 11. Analyzing this current waveform, we see that it contains the harmonics shown in Fig 12. The % Ithd is typically 80 to 120%, meaning that for a 100hp drive, with a fundamental current of about 100Arms, the harmonic current content could be between 80 and 120Arms! Please note that the only impedance limiting the rate of rise of the current pulses is the transformer impedance and any other impedance that exists in the cabling between the transformer and the drive.

200.0

-200.

400.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m

-400. 200.0m

Fig 11. Typical line current for this drive configuration

100 90 80
% Harmonic Current

70 60 50 40 30 20

Most drives that are rated 5hp or less are like this basic drive. One or two drives in a plant usually dont cause any problems, but if you have 200*5hp drives, this is the equivalent to a 1000hp drive. The peak currents can be around 3000Apk causing heating problems in the transformer and wiring, causing circuit breakers to open or fuses to blow, and greatly distorting the voltage on the secondary of the distribution transformer that could cause other equipment connected to the transformer to malfunction.
Simply adding an AC line reactor, as discussed in the next section, will eliminate a lot of the problems associated with this drive configuration. Fig 13 shows how the power factor is affected by the harmonics as the load is varied from 0 to 100%. The green trace is the displacement power factor, the blue trace is the distortion power factor, and the pink trace is the total power factor (the product of the other two).

10 0 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number 60 66 72 78

Fig 12. Harmonic spectrum showing the magnitudes of the individual harmonics contained in the line current

100.00 90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

PF disp
PF dist
PF total

Fig 13. Power factor vs load - green is displacement PF, blue is distortion PF, pink is total PF

6 3. AC Line Reactor Adding an AC line reactor to the drive, as shown in Fig 14 and 15, has a dramatic effect in reducing the line current harmonics. The waveform in Fig 16 shows peak currents that are about half of what was seen in the previous configuration. The % Ithd is now typically 30 to 60%. Fig 17 shows the harmonic spectrum. Notice how the 5th and 7th harmonic currents have dropped. Not only does the AC line reactor reduce the line current harmonics, but it also helps to prevent the drive from tripping as a result of power line voltage dips and the voltage transients that occur when power factor correction caps are connected to the power system. Fig 18 shows what typically happens during a power dip. When the line voltage drops to half of nominal for only a portion of a cycle, the DC bus voltage starts to drop quickly because the drive is providing power to the motor during this time and the energy from the capacitors is not being replenished from the power line. When the line voltage returns to normal, there is a large surge of current recharging the DC bus caps. The DC bus then quickly shoots up. This recharging current surge can damage the diode bridge. Simply inserting a 3% line reactor in the circuit will greatly reduce the peak recharging current as seen in Fig 19. This can prevent nuisance fuse blowing.
Transformer xfmr %Z
AC DC

Drive

DC AC

Line Reactor

Fig 14. Drive configuration with the addition of AC line reactors

AC Drive
AC Motor Output

DC Inverter Bus DC to AC Filter Fig 15. Details of drive configuration with AC line reactors Converter AC to DC

AC Line Input

150.0m 400.0

162.5m

175.0m

187.5m

200.0m La.I = f(t...

200.0

200.0

200.0

-200.0

400.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m

-400.0 200.0m

Fig 16. Typical line current for this drive configuration

100 90 80
% Harmonic Current

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number 60 66 72 78

An AC line reactor also helps prevent OverVoltage trips whenever power factor correction caps are switched onto the power lines. The voltage waveform that normally results during this time is seen in Fig 20, showing how the DC bus voltage in the drive quickly tries to charge up to the peak of the ringing waveform. Again, a large surge of current can also result. In addition, the DC bus voltage can be taken to a level that will cause an OverVoltage trip. Inserting a 3% AC line reactor limits the peak charging current and limits the effect on the DC bus voltage as seen in Fig 21. If you have a drive that trips on OverVoltage every morning at 7:00am, this could be the reason.

Fig 17. Harmonic spectrum showing the magnitudes of the individual harmonics contained in the line current

7 The only drawback in the use of AC line reactors is that it creates a drop in the DC bus voltage as full load, full speed is approached. Fig 22 shows how the DC bus voltage decreases as the load increases, comparing a basic drive to a drive with a 3% line reactor, a drive with a 5% line reactor, and a drive with a DC link choke. A 3% line reactor typically causes a 3% drop in bus voltage. A 5% line reactor causes a 5% drop in bus voltage. The effect this has on the drive system is that full power would not be available from the motor because rated V/Hz could not be achieved from the drive. If full load, full speed operation is not required, then this is not an issue. However the user needs to be aware of this effect. It is possible to place multiple drives on a single line reactor. A rule of thumb for this is to select a 3% line reactor for 3 drives in parallel, or a 5% line reactor for 5 drives in parallel. The hp rating of the line reactor would be the total hp of the drives connected to it. Fig 23 diagrams this configuration.
% Vbus vs Load (Isc/Iload = 47) % Vbus vs Load (Isc/Iload = 47)
102.00 102.00 101.00 101.00 100.00 100.00 99.00 99.00 98.00 98.00 97.00 97.00 96.00 96.00 95.00 95.00 94.00 94.00 0 0 10 10 20 20 30 30 40 40 50 50 60 60 70 70 80 80 90 90 100 100

Vbus = 677Vdc Ipk = 32A

Vbus = 587Vdc Ipk = 120A

Fig 18. Operation during a power dip without an AC line reactor green is the DC bus voltage, blue is the line-to-line voltage, red is the bus current

Vbus = 637Vdc Ipk = 10A

Vbus = 545Vdc to 692Vdc Ipk = 37A

Fig 19. Operation during a power dip with an AC line reactor green is the DC bus voltage, blue is the line-to-line voltage, red is the bus current

unbuffered unbuffered

buffered buffered

Vbus = 677Vdc Ipk = 32A

Vbus = 806Vdc Ipk = 507A

3% line reactor 3% line reactor

5% line reactor 5% line reactor

1.35*Vac 1.35*Vac

Fig 22. Vbus vs Load drop in DC bus voltage as the load is increased, showing the effect an AC line reactor has on this parameter
Transformer xfmr %Z Drive

Fig 20. Operation during a ringing transient without an AC line reactor - green is the DC bus voltage, blue is the line-to-line voltage, red is the bus current

AC DC

DC AC

Line Reactor
AC DC DC AC

Vbus = 637Vdc

Vbus = 653Vdc Ipk = 19A

Ipk = 10A

AC DC

DC AC

Fig 23. Diagram of multiple unbufferred drives on a single AC line reactor

Fig 21. Operation during a ringing transient with an AC line reactor green is the DC bus voltage, blue is the line-to-line voltage, red is the bus current

8 4. DC Link Choke Most industrial drives larger than 5hp come equipped with a DC link choke as seen in Fig 24 and 25. It usually is made up of two windings on a common core, with one winding in each of the DC bus legs (one in the positive leg, one in the negative leg) between the output of the converter bridge and the bus caps. Since this adds inductive impedance to the circuit, the rate of rise of the current into the caps is limited, just like the effect seen by adding a line reactor to the input to the converter bridge. There is a difference, though. During operation above about 25% load, the current in the link choke becomes continuous (seen when the two pulses on the input merge into one pulse with two bumps, and the current does not go to zero between the pairs of pulses as compared to Fig 11). The line current will typically look like what is shown in Fig 26. Fig 27 shows the harmonic spectrum. Ithd is normally between 30 to 40%. Since the impedance of a DC link choke is usually selected to be about 4%, you can see that this had the effect of further reducing the 5th and 7th harmonics in the line current.
Transformer xfmr %Z Drive
DC Link Choke AC DC DC AC

Fig 24. Drive configuration with the addition of DC link chokes (a buffered drive)
AC Drive
AC Motor Output

AC Line Input

Converter AC to DC

DC Bus Filter

Inverter DC to AC

Fig 25. Details of drive configuration with DC link chokes

150.0m 400.0

162.5m

175.0m

187.5m

200.0m La.I = f(t...

200.0

200.0

200.0

-200.

400.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m

-400. 200.0m

When operating, the voltage drop due to the DC link choke is due to its DC resistance and not to its inductive impedance. The result is that the DC bus voltage does not drop as much as it would when compared to a line reactor. See Fig 22. This is the main advantage of using a link choke instead of line reactors. The other advantage is that they are usually slightly less expensive than AC line reactors since they only have two windings. An advantage of line reactors over link chokes is that they provide better current sharing when paralleling diode bridges.

Fig 26. Typical line current for this drive configuration

100 90 80
% Harmonic Current

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 6 12 18 24

What is the overall effect of a link choke on a drive and the power grid? Fig 28 to 31 will give you some overall operational parameters with which to compare various harmonic mitigation solutions. Fig 28 shows how the Arms of the total line current varies with load. It is fairly linear. The current at 100% load is about 108Arms. This current is

30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number

60

66

72

78

Fig 27. Harmonic spectrum showing the magnitudes of the individual harmonics contained in the line current

9 composed of about 101Arms of fundamental current and 40Arms of harmonic current.

Fig 29 shows the total power factor associated with the line current vs load. At full load, the power factor is about 0.92 lagging, and slowly drops down to about 0.7 lagging at 10% load. Fig 30 shows the change in the DC bus voltage as the load is changed. 100% of nominal DC bus voltage is taken to be 1.35*Vac line-to-line voltage. For a 480Vac drive, the nominal DC bus voltage works out to be 648Vdc. At no load, you see that the bus voltage will charge up to the peak of the line voltage, or 1.41*Vac. Again, for a 480Vac drive, the peak would be 679Vac, or 1.05*nominal. Please notice that at 100% load, the voltage drop is very slight, due to the voltage drop at the transformer terminals due to the internal impedance of the secondary windings, and due to the DC resistance of the DC link chokes.
Fig 31 shows how Iharm (the harmonic current) varies with load. It also shows the % Ithd as a dashed line. This is the ratio of the harmonic current to the fundamental current that is contained in the AC line current.
Fig 32 is similar to Fig 13, showing how the displacement power factor and distortion power factor vary with load. The displacement power factor is quite high throughout the load range.
100.00 90.00 80.00 70.00

120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0

6p

20.0 0.0 0 25 50 75 100

Fig 28. Total Line Current vs % Load

2.00 0.00 1.80 0.20 1.60 0.40

Lead Lag

1.40 0.60 1.20 0.80 1.00 0.80 0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00

6p

25

50

75

100

Fig 29. Total Power Factor vs % Load

110.0 108.0 106.0 104.0 102.0 100.0 98.0 96.0 94.0 92.0 90.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p

Fig 30. % Nominal DC Bus Voltage vs % Load

120.0
60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Ithd
PF disp

100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0

Iharm

PF dist

PF total

Fig 32. Power factor vs load - green is displacement PF, blue is distortion PF, pink is total PF

20.0 0.0 0 20 40 60 80 100

Fig 31. % Ithd and Iharm vs % Load

10 5. Pseudo 12-Pulse A Pseudo 12-Pulse system is one that approaches a true 12-pulse, but where the 5th and 7th harmonics are not totally cancelled. Fig 33. This is accomplished by placing half of the hp load on a delta-wye transformer, and the other half on a deltadelta transformer (or a simple line reactor could be used in place of the delta-delta transformer, with the same impedance as the delta-wye transformer).
The cancellation of the lower order harmonics will be affected by the amount of load on each set of drives. Any pre-existing harmonics present on the voltage feeding these transformers will also affect the harmonic cancellation. Fig 34 shows the secondary current from the main transformer when the drive on the delta-delta transformer is at 100% load, the drive on the deltawye transformer is at 100% load.
Fig 35 shows the secondary current from the main transformer when the drive on the delta-delta transformer is at 100% load, the drive on the deltawye transformer is at 75% load. Fig 36 shows the secondary current from the main transformer when the drive on the delta-delta transformer is at 100% load, the drive on the deltawye transformer is at 50% load.
Transformer xfmr %Z
AC DC

Drive
DC Link Choke DC AC

Drive
DC Link Choke AC DC DC AC

Fig 33. Pseudo 12-Pulse configuration with half of the hp drive load on a delta-wye xfmr, and the other half on a delta-delta xfmr or line reactor

150.0m 1000.0

162.5m

175.0m

187.5m

200.0m La1.I = f...

500.0

500.0

-500.0

-500.0

-1000.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m

-1000.0

Fig 34. Line current with 100% load on deltadelta and 100% load on delta-wye
150.0m 1000.0 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m La1.I = f...

500.0

500.0

-500.0

-500.0

-1000.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m

-1000.0

Fig 35. Line current with 100% load on deltadelta and 75% load on delta-wye
150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m La1.I = f... 1000.0

Fig 37 shows the secondary current from the main transformer when the drive on the delta-delta transformer is at 100% load, the drive on the deltawye transformer is at 25% load. Fig 38 shows the secondary current from the main transformer when the drive on the delta-delta transformer is at 100% load, the drive on the deltawye transformer is at 0% load. This is basically the same as the current we saw in Fig 26. You can see how the waveform slowly changes from a 12-pulse shape to a 6-pulse shape. Fig 39 shows the secondary current from the main transformer when the drive on the delta-delta

500.0

500.0

-500.0

-500.0

-1000.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m

-1000.0

Fig 36. Line current with 100% load on deltadelta and 50% load on delta-wye

11 transformer is at 0% load, the drive on the deltawye transformer is at 100% load. This indicates how the harmonic current phase angles are shifted when going through a delta-wye transformer. The secondary current of the delta-wye transformer would look the same as Fig 26 or Fig 37.
If you were to add the waveform in Fig 38 to the waveform in Fig 39, you would get the waveform seen in Fig 34.
There will always be some 5th and 7th harmonics in these waveforms since the loads will not be closely balanced, and because any distortion in the voltage feeding the two isolation transformers will cause an imbalance in the currents. Fig 40 shows the harmonic spectrum of the waveform seen in Fig 34, which is the best you could hope for. The waveforms in Fig 38 and Fig 39 will be like the spectrum we saw in Fig 27. Notice that the 11th and 12th harmonics have about the same magnitude in Fig 40 as in Fig 27.
150.0m 1000.0 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m La1.I = f...

500.0

500.0

-500.0

-500.0

-1000.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m

-1000.0

Fig 37. Line current with 100% load on deltadelta and 25% load on delta-wye
150.0m 1000.0 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m La1.I = f...

500.0

500.0

-500.0

-500.0

-1000.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m

-1000.0

Fig 38. Line current with 100% load on deltadelta and 0% load on delta-wye
150.0m 1000.0 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m La1.I = f...

500.0

500.0

-500.0

-500.0

-1000.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m

-1000.0

Fig 39. Line current with 0% load on delta-delta and 100% load on delta-wye

100 90 80
% Harmonic Current

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number 60 66 72 78

Fig 40. Harmonic spectrum of the waveform in Fig 34. Notice the reduction of the 5th and 7th harmonic currents due to phase shifting.

12 6. Multi-Pulse Converter There are several levels of multi-pulse converter systems. The most popular are 12-pulse, 18-pulse and 24 pulse. We will concentrate on a well designed 18-pulse configuration. The heart of a multi-pulse converter is the multi-phase transformer as seen in Fig 41. Fig 42 shows the details of a 9-phase autotransformer used on an 18-pulse drive configuration. Each of the 9 phases from the transformer feed a pair of diodes in a bridge that contains 18 diodes. The windings in the transformer are arranged so that the taps for the 9 phases are located 40 degrees apart from each other (9*40 = 360 degrees) and are located equally distant from a central point. This way, the phases are equally spaced in time and have identical voltage magnitudes.
A normal 3-phase transformer has three phases that are shifted 120 degrees apart from each other (3*120=360 degrees). Again, with 2 diodes per phase you get 2 current pulses per phase, and that totals 6 pulses per cycle. Hence the name 6-pulse operation. This is clearly seen in Fig 18. The current waveform as seen in Fig 43 shows very little harmonics. Typically, a well designed 18pulse converter will have a % Ithd between 4.5 and 6%, creating very little voltage distortion on a transformer secondary. The harmonic spectrum is seen in Fig 44. Notice that the characteristic or largest harmonics are the 17th and 19th. This is the same as the pulse number plus and minus 1 (18 minus 1 = 17, 18 pulse 1 = 19). Similarly, the characteristic harmonics for a 6-pulse converter are the 5th and 7th; the characteristic harmonics for a 12pulse converter are the 11th and 13th; the characteristic harmonics for a 24-pulse converter are the 23rd and 25th.
Another method of creating a 9-phase transformer is to design one with three isolated sets of secondaries. Each secondary needs to be phase shifted only 20 degrees with respect to each other. See Fig 45. First, you have a delta primary. Then you have a wye secondary to give you a +30 degree phase shift.
Transformer xfmr %Z 3 9
AC DC

Drive
DC Link Choke DC AC

Multi-Phase Transformer

Fig 41. Multi-pulse drive configuration utilizing a multi-phase transformer

Supply Transformer Line Reactor Auto-Transformer 18 Diode Bridge

NOTE: 5 windings per core leg

Fig 42. Nine-phase auto-transformer detail along with the 18-diode bridge creating an 18pulse converter
150.0m 150.0 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m Lsa.I = f...

100.0

100.0

50.0

50.0

-50.0

-50.0

-100.0

-100.0

-150.0 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m 200.0m

-150.0

Fig 43. Typical line current for an 18-pulse drive configuration

100 90 80
% Harmonic Current

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number 60 66 72 78

Fig 44. Harmonic spectrum for the 18-pulse drive configuration

DC

M
AC

Fig 45. 18-pulse configuration using an isolation transformer with diode bridges in series

13 Next you have an extended delta for a +10 degree phase shift. And lastly you have another extended delta for a -10 degree phase shift. Each has to be wound to provide 1/3 voltage of the rated voltage (for example, 160Vac line-to-line for each secondary, when used to feed a 480Vac drive). Connect each set to a 6-diode bridge, and connect the bridges in series with each other. The current waveform into the delta primary will again be very close to what is shown in Fig 43. The disadvantage of this configuration is that each diode needs to be sized for the full current rating of the total converter. The trade-off is that the voltage rating for each diode is lower. This works well for medium voltage converter applications and for low hp, low voltage applications. It becomes too expensive for higher hp, low voltage drive applications.
What is the overall effect of an 18-pulse converter on a drive and the power grid? Fig 46 to 52 will give you a comparison to the 6-pulse buffered drive in section 4. The blue traces are for the 6-pulse drive, the red traces are for the 18-pulse drive. Fig 46 shows how the Arms of the total line current varies with load. It is fairly linear. The current at 100% load is about 101Arms. This current is composed of about 101Arms of fundamental current and 5Arms of harmonic current.
Fig 47 shows the total power factor associated with the line current vs load. At full load, the power factor is about 0.99 lagging, and slowly drops down to about 0.92 lagging at 10% load. Fig 48 shows the change in the DC bus voltage as the load is changed. 100% of nominal DC bus voltage is again taken to be 1.35*Vac line-to-line voltage. For a 480Vac drive, the DC bus voltage for this 18-pulse drive is about 667Vdc. The slight boost is due to the placement of the input connections to the auto-transformer. This works well for those applications where the line voltage is a little soft, or where it is necessary to achieve full power from the motor at full load since the drive has full voltage on the bus.
120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0
6p

20.0 0.0 0 25 50 75

18p

100

Fig 46. Total Line Current vs % Load

2.00 0.00 1.80 0.20 1.60 0.40

Lead

1.40 0.60 1.20 0.80 1.00 0.80

6p
18p

Lag

0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00

25

50

75

100

Fig 47. Total Power Factor vs % Load

110.0 108.0 106.0 104.0 102.0 100.0 98.0 96.0 94.0 92.0 90.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p

Fig 48. % Nominal DC Bus Voltage vs % Load

120.0
Ithd 6p

100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0 20 40 60 80

Iharm 6p Ithd 18p

Iharm 18p

100

Fig 49. % Ithd and Iharm vs % Load

14 Fig 49 shows how Iharm (the harmonic current) varies with load. It also shows the % Ithd as a dashed line. This is the ratio of the harmonic current to the fundamental current that is contained in the AC line current.
Fig 50 is a zoomed in detail of % Ithd vs % Load from Fig 49. As you see, Ithd increases as the load decreases due to the different rates of change of the harmonic current and the fundamental current. Per IEEE 519, though, the critical point is at full load, which is the minimum point on the % Ithd curve.
Fig 51 is a zoomed in detail of Iharm vs % Load from Fig 49. It is obvious that as the load decreases, Iharm also decreases, meaning that the voltage distortion will be decreasing, too. Fig 52 is similar to Fig 32, showing how the displacement power factor and distortion power factor vary with load. The displacement power factor is again quite high throughout the load range. But since there is so little harmonic current, the distortion power factor is also very high throughout the load range.
20.0 18.0 16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p

Fig 50. Detail of % Ithd vs % Load

10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p

Fig 51. Detail of Iharm vs % Load

100.00

Overall, the 18-pulse converter has very little impact on the power grid, and is very friendly to the drive itself. Low harmonics, high power factor, good DC bus voltage at every load point. This is almost an ideal type of converter. A 12-pulse converter, on the other hand, would cause the harmonics to increase 2 to 3 times. Since there is very little cost difference between and 12pulse transformer and diode bridge verses an 18pulse transformer and diode bridge, and since an 18-pulse converter is able to achieve 5% Ithd at the input terminals of the drive system, there has been a big drop in demand for 12-pulse converters. A 24-pulse or higher converter is able to further reduce the current harmonics, but only by a small amount. The increased costs provide little payback. However, due to the large currents involved, this could be beneficial for 1500hp drive systems and larger.

90.00 80.00 70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

PF disp

PF dist

PF total

Fig 52. Power factor vs load - green is displacement PF, blue is distortion PF, pink is total PF

NOTE: There are dozens of transformer and bridge configurations available to achieve 18pulse operation. Each of these 18-pulse converters have different characteristics with respect to line current harmonics, power factor, efficiency, DC bus voltage, etc. The test results in this paper refer only to the 18-pulse configuration as defined in this section.

15 7. Passive Filter Since the largest harmonic seen in the line currents of 6-pulse drives is the 5th harmonic, a passive 5th harmonic filter added to the line side of a drive is often a satisfactory solution. See Fig 53.
Passive Filter Transformer xfmr %Z Drive
DC Link Choke AC DC DC AC

Some higher performance passive filters are made with two filtering sections a 5th and a 7th. As seen in Fig 54 and 55, a passive filter will significantly reduce the 5th harmonic drawn from the transformer. If we examine a passive filter, we see that it is made up of line reactors and capacitors. The section with the reactor in series with the capacitor is the tuned section of the filter. They are usually tuned to a frequency just below the 5th harmonic, such as at the 4.7th (282Hz). Please realize that a passive filter designed for a 60Hz power grid will not work well on a 50Hz power grid due to the different harmonic frequencies involved.
The reactor between the power distribution system and the filter helps reduce the resonance effect the filter will have on the power grid. This helps to isolate the filter from the rest of the power system so that the tuned section does not become the lowest impedance point in the whole plant for 5th harmonics. There are some problems that are associated with passive filters, though.
a) One is that the capacitors can interact with other passive filters on the power system, even though a line reactor is part of the filter assembly. This can cause voltage and current instabilities. b) Along with this, the capacitors draw leading current from the source. In a plant with several motor running across the line, this will help improve the overall power factor. However, there is no control for this. Also, when operating on back-up generators, the leading power factor current drawn by the caps can cause unstable operation of the generator. c) Another problem is that the line reactor will cause a voltage drop in the DC bus when running at full speed, full load.

Fig 53. Drive configuration with the addition of a passive filter

100.0m 200.0

110.0m

120.0m

130.0m

140.0m

150.0m La.I = f(t...

100.0

100.0

-100.0

-100.0

-200.0 100.0m 110.0m 120.0m 130.0m 140.0m 150.0m

-200.0

Fig 54. Typical line current for a drive with a passive filter

100 90 80
% Harmonic Current

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number 60 66 72 78

Fig 55. Harmonic spectrum for the drive with a 5th harmonic passive filter

16 d) A fourth problem is that the capacitors will cause the DC bus to rise at no load. The designer of the passive filter has to make several compromises in order to balance one problem against another in order to obtain a best overall kind of operation.
Some passive filters have the ability to disconnect the filter capacitors from the rest of the filter. This would be controlled by a contactor that is turned on or off depending on the speed or load of the drive, or if the drive is operational or not. This helps with the high DC bus voltage seen at no load and with generators.
In order to reduce the effect one filter may have on another, it may be possible to connect more than one drive to a passive filter output. This reduces the number of individual filters on the common transformer. Also, do not have PF corrections caps ahead of the passive filter. The only way to counteract the drop in DC bus voltage at full speed, full load is to either boost the transformer secondary or not operate at full speed. Boosting the transformer secondary has the disadvantage of causing the DC bus voltage to be too high under no load conditions. Not operating at full speed is a more likely operating condition with a drive. If the drive is going to operate at 95% of full speed or less, then the drop in DC bus voltage will not be noticed.
What is the overall effect of a passive filter on a drive and the power grid? We tested three different manufacturers passive filters with a drive. Fig 56 to 61 give you a comparison of the three filters (P1, P2, P3) to the 6-pulse buffered drive from Section 4 and the 18-pulse drive from Section 6.
Fig 56 shows how the Arms of the total line current varies with load. It is not linear. The currents at 100% load are similar to the 18-pulse drive. However, as no load is approached, the currents do not go to zero. Some level off at almost 50% of full load current! What is causing this? This effect is due to the capacitor bank that is part of the passive filter. The capacitors will draw leading power
120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p
P1
P2
P3

Fig 56. Total Line Current vs % Load

2.00 0.00 1.80 0.20 1.60 0.40

Lead

1.40 0.60 1.20 0.80 1.00 0.80

6p
18p
P1
P2
P3

Lag

0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00

25

50

75

100

Fig 57. Total Power Factor vs % Load

110.0 108.0 106.0 104.0 102.0 100.0 98.0 96.0 94.0 92.0 90.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p
P1
P2
P3

Fig 58. % Nominal DC Bus Voltage vs % Load

120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0 20 40 60 80

Ithd 6p
Iharm 6p Ithd 18p
Iharm 18p Ithd P1
Iharm P1 Ithd P2
Iharm P2 Ithd P3
Iharm P3

100

Fig 59. % Ithd and Iharm vs % Load

17 factor current, and is most noticeable at no load. This is saying that when the drive is turned off, you could have 30 to 50% of full load current flowing to the passive filter.
20.0 18.0 16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p

18p

P1

P2

P3

Fig 57 shows the total power factor associated with the line current vs load. At full load, the power factor is very close to unity, but then approaches 0.2 to 0.4 leading power factor as the load decreases. Again, this is due to the cap bank in the filter. Fig 58 shows the change in the DC bus voltage as the load is changed. 100% of nominal DC bus voltage is again taken to be 1.35*Vac line-to-line voltage. At no load, all of the filters provide some boost in the DC bus voltage due to the cap bank. At full load, there is a wide range of performance as the DC bus voltage can be anywhere between 93% and 102% of nominal. The design of the reactors in the filter have the biggest impact on this parameter. This can cause the motor to operate at less than rated V/Hz, causing overheating, if running above 93% of full speed.

Fig 60. Detail of % Ithd vs % Load

10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0 25 50 75 100
6p

18p

P1

P2

P3

Fig 61. Detail of Iharm vs % Load

Fig 59 shows how Iharm and % Ithd vary with load. They are all quite good. For more detail, we have the next two figures. Fig 50 is a zoomed in detail of % Ithd vs % Load from Fig 59. At full load, they are all able to meet IEEE 519 (which required 8% Ithd). As the load decreased, the Ithd of the filters would rise very slowly due to the capacitor bank current discussed in Fig 56. Fig 51 is a zoomed in detail of Iharm vs % Load from Fig 49. This is the real test since this is what creates the voltage distortion on the transformer. It is obvious that as the load decreases, Iharm also decreases, meaning that the voltage distortion will be decreasing, too. In the tests, the passive filters were just a little worse than the 18-pulse drive. Overall, the passive filters do a good job reducing the harmonic currents. The biggest drawbacks are the leading power factor due to the cap bank in the tuned section of the filter and the drop in DC bus voltage at full load.

18 8. Active Filter An active filter is a device that is quite remarkable in its operation. See Fig 62 for a drive system utilizing one. It is made up of an inverter bridge section, like the output inverter section of a drive as shown in Fig 63. However, it is connected such that a cap bank is tied to the DC bus terminals, and the 3-phase terminals are connected to the AC line through small line reactors and a notch filter. It then has current sensors that monitor the AC current going to the non-linear load, such as the AC drive. The key to the operation of an active filter is that it will supply the harmonic currents required by the non-linear load. Since these currents have an average power of zero (zero average watts are consumed by the non-linear load due to the harmonic currents), then the harmonic current supplied by the active filter is absorbed by the drive during one part of the cycle, and then it is returned to the filter during the next part of the cycle. The current simply flows back and forth between the filter and the drive. It acts like a reservoir for harmonic currents. Most active filters are also able to supply fundamental reactive current to help with the displacement power factor.
Transformer xfmr %Z
Ifund Ifund + Iharm

Drive
DC Link Choke AC DC
Iharm

DC AC

AC DC

Active Filter

Fig 62. Drive configuration with the addition of an active filter

Active Filter

AC Line Input

Notch Filter

Inverter DC to AC

DC Bus

Fig 63. Details of an active filter showing IGBT inverter section

-25.00m -20.00m 150.0

-10.00m

10.00m

20.00m 24.90m Ia = f( S,...

100.0

100.0

50.0

50.0

-50.0

-50.0

-100.0

-100.0 -150.0 -25.00m -20.00m -10.00m 0 10.00m 20.00m 24.90m

% Harmonic Current

The addition of an active filter to a drive circuit means that the transformer does not have to supply the harmonic current s to the drive. The result is a clean line current, with just a little ripple due to the carrier frequency switching of the active filter inverter section. The current waveform and spectrum are seen in Fig 64 and 65. The notch filter helps a great deal with removing the carrier from the line current. A typical carrier frequency used for active filters is between 10 and 20kHz.
The effect on the power distribution system is minimal, similar to an Active Front-End as will be discussed in Section 9. There is a slight amount of real power consumed due to losses in the filter, but this is less than ~ 2% of the filter power. The line current supplied by the transformer will basically be just the fundamental current. The other big advantage is that one active filter can be associated with a transformer secondary, supplying whatever

-150.0

Fig 64. Typical line current for drive configuration with an active filter

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number 60 66 72 78

Fig 65. Harmonic spectrum of the line current for the drive configuration with an active filter

19 reactive and harmonic currents are needed for all of the loads connected to the transformer. See Fig 66. In order to meet larger power ratings, active filters can be paralleled. One more advantage is that these units can be added to a system that is already installed, simply by connecting the filter to the power lines. No series reactors are needed (unless the drive does not have a DC link choke nor an AC line reactor already). The filter needs only be sized for the harmonic currents, not full load current, of the drive. To further improve the utilization of an active filter, the user can use the pseudo-12-pulse technique to reduce the 5th and 7th harmonics. This will allow the filter to handle more drives. See Fig 67. If the total load were 400A (about 400hp of drives), and if the Ithd were 30%, this would mean that there is about 30% of 400A = 120A of harmonic current drawn from the transformer. The size of the active filter this system would need is 120A rating. However, by placing half of the drive hp load on a delta-wye transformer, then the Ithd would be reduced to about 15%. This would mean that there is only about 15% of 400A = 60A of harmonic current. The size of the active filter could be reduced to a 60A rating. It should be noted that active filters employ a current limiting function as protection for overload conditions. This can be useful if a slightly smaller filter can be selected to handle the harmonic load that is seen 95% of the time. The user would then allow it to go into current limit during the remainder of the time. This would not harm the filter, and the only effect is that the current distortion would increase during that short time period. If the voltage distortion remains within the limits then this would be an acceptable, lower cost solution. The only disadvantage is the cost of the active filter. The power electronics required is similar to a drive, but at about 1/3 of the drive current rating.

Transformer xfmr %Z

AC Drive
DC Link Choke Ifund Ifund + Iharm AC DC Iharm DC AC

AC Drive
AC DC AC DC Link Choke DC DC AC

Active Filter

DC Drive

AC DC

Fig 66. Configuration with multiple drives, AC and DC, where an active filter can supply all of the harmonics in the system

Transformer xfmr %Z
Ifund Ifund + Iharm AC DC Iharm

Drive
DC Link Choke DC AC

Drive
AC DC AC DC Link Choke DC DC AC

Active Filter

Fig 67. Combination of an active filter with a pseudo 12-pulse system, allowing for a reduction in the current rating of the active filter

20 9. Active Front-End (AFE) An active front-end is very similar in construction to an active filter. The difference is that IGBTs are added to the diode bridge in the converter section for the drive. See Fig 68 and 69. This provides several advantages for the drive. a) The line current harmonics are greatly reduced, as long as a filter tuned to the carrier frequency of the AFE is installed between the power system and the input to the AFE. Fig 70 shows the typical line current, with the harmonic spectrum shown in Fig 71. If there were no notch filter, the harmonic spectrum would look like that shown in Fig 72, where the carrier frequency of 4kHz appears as side-bands around the 66th harmonic. b) The AFE is able to operate at unity displacement power factor from no load to full load.
Transformer xfmr %Z Drive

AC DC

DC AC

Notch Filter

Fig 68. Drive configuration with an active frontend as the converter in the drive
Regenerative AC Drive
AC Motor Output

AC Line Input

Converter AC to DC

DC Bus Filter

Inverter DC to AC

Fig 69. Details of a drive utilizing an active converter

145.0m 150.0m

162.5m

175.0m

187.5m

c) The AFE is also able to boost the DC bus voltage, providing power ride-through during a brown-out condition of as much as 50%. d) The AFE can control current flow while motoring or regenerating, allowing braking power from the drive to be returned to the power distribution system even during a brownout. In many ways it is like a fully regenerative DC drive, but with distinct advantages and no disadvantages to speak of. The only drawback is the same as the drawback of an active filter its cost. It can add about 60% to 90% to the cost of a drive. However, as you review what all it can do for you, payback can easily be less than a year in many applications.

200.0

195.0m Lx1.I = ...

00.0

100.0

100.0

-100.

200.0 145.0m 150.0m 162.5m 175.0m 187.5m

-200. 195.0m

Fig 70. Typical line current for the drive configuration with an active front-end

100 90 80
% Harmonic Current

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Active Front-End are also known as active converters, active rectifiers, synchronous converters, synchronous rectifiers, regenerative converters, regenerative front-ends, and so on.

12

18

24

30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number

60

66

72

78

Fig 71. Harmonic spectrum of the line current for the drive configuration utilizing an active front-end with a notch filter

21 Conceptually, its operation is very simple. The AFE is like a voltage source whose voltage magnitude and phase angle with respect to the power line can be varied. See Fig 73. By changing the magnitude and phase angle of the voltage produced by the PWM waveform at the AFE terminals, the magnitude and power factor of the current through the line reactors of the AFE is regulated from 100% motoring to 0 and all the way to 100% regenerating. The result of regulating the line current, the DC bus voltage is controlled as needed.
100 90 80
% Harmonic Current

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 Harmonic Number 60 66 72 78

Fig 72. Harmonic spectrum of the line current for the drive configuration utilizing an active front-end without a notch filter

Fig 74 shows the line-to-neutral voltage in pink, the AFE line-to-neutral voltage (with its PWM waveform) in blue, and the resulting line current in red. Notice how the AFE voltage is slightly lagging the line voltage. This causes the line current to be at rated current and in phase with the line voltage. This is at 100% motoring. Fig 75 again shows the line-to-neutral voltage in pink, the AFE line-to-neutral voltage (with its PWM waveform) in blue, and the resulting line current in red. Notice this time how the AFE voltage is slightly leading the line voltage. This causes the line current to be at rated current and at 180 degrees out of phase with the line voltage. This is at 100% regenerating. If the AFE voltage magnitude and phase with respect to the line voltage were identical, then the resulting average line current would be zero. What is the overall effect of an AFE on a drive and the power grid? Fig 76 to81 give you a comparison of an AFE to the 6-pulse drive from Section 4, the 18-pulse drive from Section 6, and the drive with a passive filter, P1, from Section 7. Please note that the line current and harmonic effects are practically identical for an active filter as described in Section 8. Fig 76 shows how the Arms of the total line current varies with load. It is quite linear. The currents at 100% load are similar to the 18-pulse drive. However, as no load is approached, the AFE current heads toward 10A. This is due to the capacitor

Line Current

Line Voltage Source

AFE Voltage Source

Fig 73. Conceptual operation of an active frontend a PWM voltage source connected to a sinusoidal voltage source through a line reactor

Fig 74. Voltage and current waveforms during motoring operation

Fig 75. Voltage and current waveforms during regenerating operation

22 bank that is part of the notch filter. Since the cap values are so low, there is only a small amount of current at no load.
Fig 77 shows the total power factor associated with the line current vs load. At full load, the power factor is very close to unity, but then approaches 0.8 leading power factor as the load decreases. Again, this is due to the cap bank in the notch filter. As the carrier frequency is increased, the size of the caps used in the notch filter will decrease, reducing this effect.
Fig 78 shows the change in the DC bus voltage as the load is changed. 100% of nominal DC bus voltage is again taken to be 1.35*Vac line-to-line voltage. This is one area where an AFE shines. The DC bus voltage is controlled by the AFE micro, even if the line voltage were to dip to 50% of nominal. During regen, the AFE controller will sense that the DC bus is increasing, causing it to start regenerating current to the power lines, keeping the bus voltage under control at all time. Fig 79 shows how Iharm and % Ithd vary with load. The results are very good. For more detail, we have the next two figures.
Fig 80 is a zoomed in detail of % Ithd vs % Load from Fig 79. At full load, the AFE is able to easily meet IEEE 519. As the load decreased, the Ithd of the AFE rises since the harmonic current does not change as the fundamental current decreases. Fig 81 is a zoomed in detail of Iharm vs % Load from Fig 79. This shows something that is unique to active front-ends. The harmonic current is practically constant at all load levels, and whether it is motoring or regenerating. All other harmonic mitigation methods have a characteristic where the harmonic current decreases with load. This is due to the modulating IGBT bridge.
120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0
6p

40.0 20.0 0.0 0 25 50 75

18p
P1
AFE

100

Fig 76. Total Line Current vs % Load

2.00 0.00 1.80 0.20

Lead

1.60 0.40 1.40 0.60 1.20 0.80 1.00 0.80

6p
18p
P1
AFE

Lag

0.60 0.40 0.20 0.00

25

50

75

100

Fig 77. Total Power Factor vs % Load

110.0 108.0 106.0 104.0 102.0 100.0 98.0 96.0 94.0 92.0 90.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p
P1
AFE

Fig 78. % Nominal DC Bus Voltage vs % Load

120.0 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 20.0 0.0 0 20 40 60 80

Ithd 6p

Iharm 6p Ithd 18p

Iharm 18p Ithd P1

Iharm P1 Ithd AFE

Iharm AFE

Overall, active front-ends do a great job of keeping the harmonic currents very low with the use of high carrier frequencies and a good notch filter. In addition, it can handle regenerative load currents and provide very little impact to the power grid

100

Fig 79. % Ithd and Iharm vs % Load

23 system. Its ability to maintain rated DC bus voltage under brown-out conditions is another plus since it can keep the process operating during this disturbance. A drawback is its cost. Compared to an active filter, it is a little less expensive if integrated with the drive inverter.
20.0 18.0 16.0 14.0 12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0 0 25 50 75 100

6p
18p
P1
AFE

Fig 80. Detail of % Ithd vs % Load

10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p
P1
AFE

Fig 81. Detail of Iharm vs % Load

24 10. Other Comparisons

90.00 80.00

How do the efficiencies compare? Is there a big difference in overall drive system efficiency when comparing the above methods of harmonic mitigation? Surprisingly, no! The differences are at the most about 2% at full speed, full load. Not only are they close to one another, but the one that is a little better at one load level may become a little worse at another load level. There is no clear cut advantage that one mitigation method has over another when comparing system efficiency. The following diagram shows how they compare. Fig 82 shows the kW into the drive system vs % Load (measured as torque). Shown are the 6-pulse drive from Section 4, the 18-pulse drive from Section 6, three passive filters from Section 7, and the AFE from Section 9. The drive system is rated at 100hp. Since the curves are so close to one another, Fig 83 shows the portion of the chart from 75% load to 100% load only. As you can see, the AFE takes slightly more watts due to the additional losses in the converter section and in the notch filter. The 18-pulse has only about 1.2% more losses due to the magnetizing current in the multi-phase transformer. One of the passive filters turned out to be the most efficient, but not by much. Fig 84 shows how the system efficiency, including the motor connected to the drive, varies with % load. For the drive system that is truly the most efficient, if that is what is absolutely required, the winner is the basic drive without any filter, without an AC line reactor, without a DC link choke (this is not shown). However, this gives you the worst harmonic distortion possible!
This is why the writer feels that it is more important to select the harmonic mitigation method that causes the least amount of problems with the power distribution system, with the least detrimental effects on the drive itself, while still achieving the IEEE 519 recommended limits. Remember that the harmonic current limits given in Table 10.3 refer to the Point of Common Coupling

70.00 60.00 50.00 40.00 30.00 20.00 10.00 0.00 0 25 50 75 100

6p

18p

P1

P2

P3

AFE

Fig 82. Input kW vs % Load for various harmonic mitigation solutions

90.00 85.00 80.00 75.00
6p

70.00 65.00 60.00 75 80 85 90 95

18p
P1
P2
P3
AFE

100

Fig 83. Detail of Input kW vs % Load for various harmonic mitigation solutions, from Fig 82
95.0 90.0 85.0 80.0 75.0 70.0 65.0 60.0 55.0 50.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p
P1
P2
P3

Fig 84. % System Efficiency vs % Load for various harmonic mitigation solutions
10.0 9.0 8.0 7.0 6.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 2.0 1.0 0.0 0 25 50 75 100
6p
18p
P1
P2
P3

Fig 85. Losses, kW vs % Load for various harmonic mitigation solutions

25 (at the power meter to the plant), not at the input terminals of the AC drive. The IEEE 519 standard never was intended to be an equipment standard. The most cost effective solution you will want to achieve is to meet the voltage distortion limits given in Table 10.2 at every point within your plant.
$90,000 $80,000 $70,000 $60,000 $50,000 $40,000 $30,000 $20,000 $10,000 $0
10 HP 25 HP 50 HP 75 HP 100 HP 150 HP 200 HP 250 HP 300 HP 400 HP 500 HP 800 HP
18p Drive

Active Filter Passive Filter 18-Pulse Active Front-End

Fig 85 shows how the system losses, including the filter or transformer, the drive, and the motor, vary with load. Notice that the losses are all within 1 to 1.5kW. The P3 curve is the passive filter that would draw about 50% of rated current at no load. How do the costs of the various methods compare? This depends on the hp rating you are looking at. The chart in Fig 86 gives a rough comparison for various hp ratings. .
As you can see, the 18-pulse solution is more cost effective today than passive filters, active filters, or active front-ends for drives larger than about 150hp. Below that hp level, passive filters are more cost effective. You can also see that active filters are made in specific, quantum steps. They can be paralleled in order to achieve larger units. So they are not optimized for any particular hp rating. The same is true today for AFEs. The future will bring the cost of AFEs down where they will be much closer to the 18-pulse solution. Fig 87 shows how the volume of each harmonic mitigation solution compares. The 100hp 6-pulse drive can be used as a basis and is needed for each of the solutions. There is a large variability in passive filter sizes. What are the trends today? What we are seeing as the trends for today are: a) 18-pulse drives are firmly established, and are much more popular than 12-pulse drives since a 5% harmonic current distortion can be easily achieved. This is not possible with 12-pulse drives. Also, there is no cost advantage of 12pulse over 18-pulse.

Fig 86. Cost Comparison of Harmonic Mitigation Solutions vs HP

40000 35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0

6p Drive Passive Passive Passiver Passive Passive Active Filter 1 Filter 2 Filter 3 Filter 4 Filter 5 Filter 1 Active Filter 2

Fig 87. Unit Volume (cu in) Comparison of Harmonic Mitigation Solutions

26 b) Passive filters have been improving, with dual stage filters becoming more prevalent. However, there is still the possibility of resonance issues among several filters on a single transformer or on a generator. c) Active filters are gaining acceptance due to the ease of integrating them into an existing system. Since the cost of iron and copper continue to increase, and the costs of semiconductors continue to decrease, this may become more cost effective in the near future. d) Active front-ends for AC drives is the next step in the evolution of AC drives. The market will then have regenerative AC drives, like the regenerative DC drives that have been so popular in the workplace. Again, the cost for the power components will be decreasing. Integrating the IGBTs into the drive, as opposed to adding them as an active filter with a drive, will be more cost effective. In addition, as the switching frequency increases, the notch filter for the AFE will become smaller and less costly.

27 11. Comparison Chart

uls eD riv e 6-P uls eD riv e ro ntEn
3 - 5% Yes Yes Yes Minimal No No 0.8 - 1 lead 96 - 97.5% Regen, MV 1.5 - 2.5 Medium

ter

Pa ss ive

Ac ti v eF

Typical Ithd Meet IEEE Special Applications Meet IEEE General Applications Meet IEEE Dedicated Applications Effect of 1% Voltage Unbalance Potential Low DC Bus Potential System Resonance Typical Total Power Factor, no / full load Efficiency Cost Effective Overall Size (relative to 6-P Drive) Reliability

20 - 45% No No Yes Large No No 0.75 - 0.95 97% Good 1.0 High

4.5 - 6% Yes Yes Yes Moderate No No 0.90 - 0.99 96.5% >150hp 3.3 High

5 - 8% Marginal Yes Yes Minimal Yes Yes 0.3 - 1 lead 96.5% <150hp 2-6 Medium

3 - 5% Yes Yes Yes Minimal No No 0.90 - 0.99 96% Large Sys 3.5 - 5 Medium

Good Need to confirm application May not meet IEEE 519

Notes: 1. The 6-Pulse Drive is one with either a DC Link Choke or with AC Line Reactors. 2. For meeting the various IEEE applications, the drive and mitigation assembly would be the only item at a Point of Common Coupling. It is possible to have a 6-pulse drive meet IEEE general applications if there are sufficient linear loads in addition to the converter loads on the transformer. 3. The typical total power factor for a drive with an active front-end, at no load, has much less leading power factor than that seen with a passive filter. This current is due to the notch filter on the system. 4. Passive filters do have some drawbacks, but if the system engineer takes these issues into account in his system design, the likelihood of any problem is minimized.

Ac ti v eF

18 -P

Harmonic Mitigation Solutions Check-List

Fil

ilte r

28 12. Summary Rules-of-Thumb The following are some rules-of-thumb to use when mitigating line current harmonics with AC Drives: 1. Identify the required PCC and apply techniques most cost effective for that location. 2. Add a line reactor (or DC link choke if possible) to all unbuffered 6-pulse drives. 3. Consider use of an active filter on a multiple drive system or MCC lineup to correct for harmonic distortion. 4. For an even number of equally sized drives, consider a pseudo 12-pulse solution by placing half of the load on a phase shifting delta-wye (delta-star) transformer. 5. Design the system to isolate linear and non-linear loads and create two systems with 5% and 10% voltage distortion limits. 6. For passive filters on generator power, select a filter with a dropout contactor terminal block for the filter capacitors. This will limit the leading power factor at no-load and stand-by operation. 7. Take time to understand the benefits and drawbacks of each type of mitigation solution to assure you meet the requirements of the application and that you can live with any negative effects created by the chosen harmonic solution. 8. Consider an active front-end if the application requires regenerative operation and harmonic compliance. 9. Perform a preliminary harmonic analysis on your system and explore the effects of using various harmonic mitigation methods. 10. Never use power factor correction capacitors at the input (or output) of a drive, or in parallel with passive filters. These rules should lead you to a successful AC drive application.