Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether MTBE Full Report

PRODUCTION OF 300,000 METRIC TON OF MTBE PER YEAR
MEMBER OF GROUP AND SUPERVISORS

1
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, thank you to Allah S.W.T for giving us the strength to finish up this
project report. Without Your Willingness we would not be able to complete this project.
It would be impossible to acknowledge adequately all the people who have been
influential, directly or indirectly in forming this project.
We would like to take this opportunity to express our deepest gratitude to our
supervisors, Encik Mohd Imran Bin Zainuddin and Puan Sunita Binti Jobli who has
given us his constant encouragement constructive advises and his patient in
monitoring our progress in this project.
Our appreciation and special thanks goes, Puan Hasnora Binti Jafri, Puan Junaidah
Binti Jai, Encik Aziz Bin Ishak for supplying the valuable information and guidance for
this project.
We greatly indebted to Encik Napis Bin Sudin for his cooperation and willingness to be
interviewed and for provide us with invaluable information and for his resourcefulness
in gathering material.
Special thanks owe to Puan Masni Bt Ahmad for her willingness to be interviewed and
for the painstaking care she has shown in assisting us throughout the project.
We also would like to express our appreciation to the Malaysia Industrial Development
Authority (MIDA), Pusat Informasi Sirim Berhad, Petronas Resource Center, Jabatan
Perangkaan Malaysia and Tiram Kimia Sdn.Bhd. (Kuala Lumpur) for their generous
supply of relevant documents and material needed research.
Last but not least to all my lecturers, family, friends and collegues for their
encouragement and kind support when we need it most.
2
ABSTRACT
The purpose for this MTBE or Methyl tertiary Butyl Ether plant is to produce 300,000
metric tonne/year. MTBE is the simplest and most cost effective oxygenate to produce,
transport and deliver to customers. The additive works by changing the oxygenate /
fuel ratio so that gasoline burns cleaner, reducing exhaust emissions of carbon
monoxide, hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen, fine particulates and toxic. Two units will
be considered which are the fluidizations, (Snamprogetti) Unit and the Etherification
Unit. The raw materials used are isobutane, methanol, and water as feedstock. In
addition, two types of catalysts are chromia alumina catalyzed compound in
Snamprogetti Unit, while sulphonic ion exchanged resin catalyzed is used in the MTBE
reactor. A good deal of catalyst has been devoted to improve the activity, selectivity,
and the lifetime of the catalysts.
In the Design Project 2, we emphasize in the individual chemical and mechanical
designs for selected equipments in the plant. The chosen equipments are Catalytic
Cracking Reactor, Multitubular Fixed Bed Reactor, MTBE Distillation Column, Liquid-
Liquid Extraction Column and Heat Exchanger.
Design Project 2 also includes Process Control, Safety, Economic Evaluation, Process
Integration and as well as Waste Treatment, which are considered as group works.
3
CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE
DECLARATION II
CERTIFICATION III
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT V
ABSTRACT VI
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF NOMENCLATURES
REPORT 1
CHAPTER 1 PROCESS BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Historical Review of MTBE Production Process 2
1.2.1 UOP Oleflex Process 3
1.2.2 Philips Star Process 3
1.2.3 ABB Lummus Catofin Process 3
1.2.4 Snmprogetti Yartsingtez FBD Process 4
CHAPTER 2 PROCESS SELECTION
2.1 Method Consioderation 5
2.2 Detailed Process Description 7
2.2.1 Snaprogetti Yarsingtez fbd Process 7
2.2.2 MTBE Unit 8
2.2.3 Distillation Column Unit 8
2.2.4 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Unit 9
CHAPTER 3 ECONOMIC SURVEY
3.1 Market Survey 10
3.1.1 World Market 10
3.2 Asia Market 11
3.3 Demand 11
3.4 Production Capacity 14
4
3.5 Supply 14
3.6 Market Price 15
3.6.1 Methanol 15
3.6.2 Isobutane 16
3.6.3 Catalyst 16
3.6.4 Conclusion 16
3.7 Economic Analysis 17
3.7.1 Break Even Analysis 17
3.7.2 Data Calculation1 20
CHAPTER 4 PLANT LOCATIONS & SITE SELECTION
4.1 Plant Location 24
4.2 General Consideration On the site Selection 24
4.2.1 Location with Respect To Marketing Area 25
4.2.2 Raw Material supply 25
4.2.3 Transport Facilities 25
4.2.4 Availability Of Labor 25
4.2.5 Availability Of Utilities 26
4.2.6 Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal 26
4.2.7 Local Community Considerations 26
4.2.8 Land (Site Consideration) 26
4.2.9 Political and Strategic Consideration 27
4.3 Overview on Prospective Locations 27
4.3.1 Teluk Kalong 28
4.3.2 Tanjung Langsat 28
4.3.3 Bintulu 29
4.4 Conclusion 33
CHAPTER 5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION
5.1 Introduction 34
5.2 Stack gas 35
5.2.1 Gas Emission treatment 35
5.3 Wastewater Treatment 35
5.3.1 Wastewater characteristic 35
5.3.1a) Priority pollutants 36
5.3.1b) Organic 36
5.3.1c) Inorganic 37
5.3.1d) pH and Alkalinity 37
5.3.1e) Temperature 38
5.3.2 Liquid waste treatment 38
5.3.2a) Equalization treatment 38
5.3.2b) Solid waste treatment 39
5.3.3 Waste Minimization 41
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CHAPTER 6 SAFETY CONSIDERATION
6.1 Introduction 42
6.2 Material Safety Data Sheet 43
6.2.1 Isobutane 43
6.2.1.1 Product Information 43
Physical & Chemical Properties 43
6.2.1.2 Immediate Health Effects 44
6.2.1.3 First Aid Measure 44
6.2.2 N-Butane 44
6.2.2.1 Handling and Storage 45
6.2.3 Methanol 45
6.2.4 MTBE 46
6.2.4.1 Physical State and Appearance46
6.2.4.2 Physical Dangers 46
6.2.4.3 Chemical Dangers 47
6.2.4.4 Inhalation Risks 47
6.2.5 TBA 47
6.2.5.1 Recognition 48
6.2.5.2 Evaluation 48
6.2.5.3 Controls 48
6.3 Hazard Identification & Emergency Safety & Health Risk 49
CHAPTER 7 MASS BALANCE
7.1 Snamprogetti -Yarsingtez FBD Unit 51
7.2 Separator 53
7.3 Mixer 53
7.4 MTBE Reactor 54
7.4.1 1
st
Reaction in rector 55
7.4.2 2
nd
Reaction in reactor 56
7.4.3 3
rd
Reaction in reactor 57
7.4.4 Overall reaction 58
7.5 Distillation Column 59
7.6 Liquid Extraction Column 60
7.7 Distillation Column 61
7.8 Overall reaction system; flow diagram 62
7.9 Scales Up Factor 63
CHAPTER 8 ENERGY BALANCES
8.1 Energy Equation 64
8.2 Energy balance: Sample of calculation 65
8.2.1 Pump 1 73
8.2.2 Cooler 1 75
8.2.3 Separator 76
8.2.4 MTBE Reactor 78
8.2.5 Pump 2 79
6
8.2.6 Mixer 80
8.2.7 Expander 1 81
8.2.8 Cooler 1 82
8.2.9 Distillation Column 1 84
8.2.10 Cooler 2 86
8.2.11 Pump 3 87
8.2.12 Extraction Column 88
8.2.13 Pump 4 89
8.2.14 Pump 5 91
8.2.15 Distillation Column 2 92
8.2.16 Cooler 3 93
CHAPTER 9 HYSYS 95
APPENDICES
REPORT 2
CONTENTS
PAGE
CHAPTER 1 CHEMICAL DESIGN AND MECHANICAL DESIGN
SECTION 1 CATALYTIC CRACKING DESIGN
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Estimation of Cost Diameter of Reactor 3
1.3 Calculation of TDH Height 4
1.4 Minimum Fluidization Velocity 4
1.5 Calculation for Terminal Velocity 5
1.6 Find the Value Kih 8
1.7 Find the value Eo 9
1.8 Calculation of Solid Loading 10
1.9 Calculation for Holding Time 12
1.10 Calculation for Pressure Drop 14
1.11 Determine the Direction and Flowrate 15
1.12 Design of Cyclone 17
1.13 Calculation for Mechanical Design 21
2.2 Mechanical Design
2.2.1 Introduction 58
2.2.2 Design stress 59
2.2.3 Welded Joint Efficiency 59
7
2.2.4 Corrosion allowance 59
2.2.5 Minimum thickness of cylindrical section of shell 59
2.2.6 Minimum thickness of domed head 60
2.2.7 Loading stress 61
2.2.7.1 Dead weight load 61
1.2.7.1 Dead Weight of Vessel 61
1.2.7.2 Weight of the Tubes 62
1.2.7.3 Weight of Insulation 62
1.2.7.4 Weight of Catalyst 63
1.2.7.5 Total Weight 63
1.2.7.6 Wind Loading 63
1.2.7.7 Analysis of Stresses 64
2.2.8 Dead Weight Stress 65
2.2.9 Bending Stress 65
2.2.10 Radial Stress 66
2.2.11 Check Elastic Stability 67
2.2.12 Vessel Support 68
2.2.13 Skirt Thickness 68
2.2.14 Height of the Skirt 69
2.2.15 Bending Stress at Base of the Skirt 70
2.2.16 Bending Stress in the Skirt 70
2.2.17 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt Design 71
2.2.18 Compensation for Opening and Branches 73
2.2.19 Compensation for Other Nozzles 74
2.2.20 Bolted Flange Joint 74
2.2.20.1 Type of Flanges Selected 74
2.2.20.2 Gasket 75
2.2.21 Flange face 75
SECTION 3 MTBE DISTILLATION COLUMN
3.1 Introduction 78
3.2 Selection f Construction Material 79
3.3 Chemical Design 79
3.3.1 Determine the Number of Plate 81
3.3.2 Determination of Number of Plate 88
3.3.3 Physical Properties 89
3.3.4 Determination of Column Diameter 89
3.3.5 Liquid Flow Arrangements 90
3.3.7 Plate Layout 91
3.3.8 Entrainment Evaluation 91
3.3.9 Weeping Rate Evaluation 94
3.3.13 Number of Holes 95
3.3.14 Column size 96
3.4 Mechanical Design
3.4.1 Material construction
3.4.2 Vessel Thickness 98
3.4.3 Heads and closure 98
3.4.4 Total Column Weight 99
8
3.4.5 Wind Loads 100
3.4.6 Stiffness Ring 100
3.5 Vessel Support Design 100
SECTION 4 DESIGN OF LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION COLUMN
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2.1 Choice of Solvent 104
4.2.2 Estimation the Physical Properties 104
4.2.3 Determination the Number of Stage 105
4.2.4 Sizing of Sieve Tray 107
4.2.5 Number of Holes 107
4.2.6 Column Parameter 107
4.2.7 Weeping Evaluation 108
4.3 Mechanical Design 110
4.3.1 Material Construction 111
4.3.2 Vessel Thickness 111
4.3.3 Design of Domed Ends 112
4.3.4 Column Weight 112
4.3.4.1 Dead Weight of Vessel 113
4.3.4.2 Weight of Plate 113
4.3.4.3 Weight of Insulation 113
4.3.4.4 Total weight 114
4.3.4.5 Wind Loading 114
4.3.5 Analysis of Stress 115
4.3.5. 1 Longitudinal & Circumferential Pressure Stress 115
4.3.5.2 Dead weight 115
4.3.5.3 Bending Stress 115
4.3.5.4 Buckling 116
4.3.6 Vessel Support Design 117
4.3.6.1 Skirt Support 117
4.3.6.2 Base Ring and Anchor 119
4.3.7 Piping Sizing 122
SECTION 5 HEAT EXCHANGER DESIGN
5.1.1 Designing the heater 129
5.2.1 Physical Properties of the Stream 130
5.2.2 The Calculation 131
5.2.3 Number of Tubes Calculation 133
5.2.4 Bundle and Shell Diameter 134
5.2.5 Tube Side Coefficient 135
5.2.6 Shell Side Coefficient 137
5.2.7 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient 139
5.2.8 Tube Side Pressure Drop 140
5.2.9 Shell Side pressure Drop 140
5.3 Mechanical Design 142
5.3.1 Design Pressure 142
9
5.3.2 Design Temperature 142
5.3.3 Material of Construction 142
5.3.4 Exchanger Type 143
5.3.5 Minimum Thickness 143
5.3.6 Longitudinal Stress 144
5.3.7 Circumferential Stress 144
5.3.8 Minimum Thickness of Tube wall 144
5.39 Minimum Thickness of Head and Closure 145
5.3.10 Minimum Thickness of the Channel Cover 146
5.3.11 Design Load 147
5.3.12 Pipe Size Selection for the Nozzle 150
5.3.13 Standard Flanges 150
5.3.14 Design Of Saddles 152
5.3.15 Baffles 152
CHAPTER 2 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
2.2 Objective of control 155
2.3 Control system design sheet 156
2.3.1 Heat Exchanger 156
2.3.2 Catalytic cracking fluidized bed reactor 157
2.3.3 Compressor 158
2.3.4 Condenser 159
2.3.5 Separator 160
2.3.6 Fixed bed reactor 161
2.3.7 Distillation Column 162
2.3.8 Liquid -liquid extraction Column 163
2.3.9 Distillation Column 164
2.3.10 Mixer 165
2.3.11 Expander 166
CHAPTER 3 SAFETY CONSIDERATION
3.2 Hazard and Operability Study 168
3.3 Plant Start Up and Shut Down Procedure 170
3.3.1 Normal Start Up and Shut Down the Plant 171
3.3.1.1 Operating Limits 171
3.3.1.2 Transient Operating and Process Dynamic 172
3.3.1.3 Added Materials 172
3.3.1.4 Hot Standby 172
3.3.1.5 Emergency Shut Down 172
3.3.2 Start up and Shut down Procedure for the main
Equipment 172
3.3.2.1 Reactor 172
3.3.2.2 Distillation Column 173
3.3.2.3 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Column 174
3.3.2.4 Heat Exchanger 175
3.4 Emergency Response Plan (ERP) 175
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3.4.1 Emergency Response Procedures 176
3.4.2 Evacuation Procedures 176
3.4.3 Fires 177
3.4.4 Explosion, Line Rupture or Serious Leak 177
3.4.5 Other Emergencies 177
3.5 Plant Layout 178
CHAPTER 4 ECONOMIC EVALUATION
4.2 Cost Estimation 187
4.3 Profitability Analysis 199
4.3.1 Discounted Cash flow 199
4.3.2 Net Present Value 202
4.3.3 Cumulative Cash flow Diagram 203
4.3.4 Rate of Return 204
4.3.5 Sensitivity Analysis 205
4.3.6 Payback Period 206
4.4 Conclusion 208
CHAPTER 5 PROCESS INTEGRATION AND PINCH TECHNOLOGY
5.2 Pinch Technology 209
5.3 The Problem Table Method 210
5.4 The Heat Exchanger Network 214
5.5 Minimum number of exchangers 216
CHAPTER 6 WASTE TREATMENT
6.2 Wastewater Treatment 221
6.3 Wastewater Treatment Plant Design 224
6.4 Sludge Treatment 229
6.5 Waste Treatment Plant Layout 230
6.6 Absorption tank using granular activated carbon 231
6.6.1 Analysis of the absorption process 232
6.6.2 Breakthrough Absorption capacity 233
APPENDICES
11
LIST OF TABLES OF DESIGN I
TABLE TITLE PAGE
1.1 The Physical and Chemical Properties of MTBE 2
2.1 The Comparison of the UOP Oleflex, Philips Star
SP-Isoether FBD Process 6
3.1 Trade Balance of MTBE in Asia and Pacific 12
3.2 MTBE Balances for Asia and Pacific 13
3.3 Production, Import, Export & Consumption in Europe in
Year 2000 14
3.4 Supplies MTBE Plant in Asia & Pacific 15
3.5 Standard Price for Isobutane 16
3.6 Cost of Producing MTBE 500000 tonne/year 18
3.7 Value in US Dollar Converted to RM 20
3.8 Value in US Dollar Converted to RM per tonne 20
3.9 Data Calculation by using Microsoft Excel in RM 23
4.1 The Comparison of the Potential Site Location 30
4.2 The Comparison of Location in term of Weightage Study 31
4.3 The Electricity Tariffs (Industrial Tariff) for Peninsular
Malaysia and Sarawak 33
12
LIST OF TABLES OF DESIGN II
TABLE TITLE PAGE
Chapter 1
Section 1
1.1 Calculation for Terminal Velocity in Different Size of dp. 8
1.2 Correlation of Three Investigators 10
1.3 Data Calculation to Find Solid Loading 12
1.4 Summary of Mechanical Design 40
Section 3
3.1 The Composition in Feed Stream 80
3.2 The Composition in Top Stream 80
3.3 The Composition in Bottom Stream 80

3.4 The Average Relative Volatility, 82
3.5 The Non-key Flow of the Top Stream 82
3.6 The Non-key Flow of the Bottom Stream 83
3.7 MTBE Equilibrium Curve 85
3.8 Provisional Plate Design Specification 97
3.9 Summarized Results of Mechanical Design 101
3.10 Design Specification of the Support Skirt 102
Section 4
4.1 Provisional Plate Design Specification 106
4.2 Summary of the Mechanical Design 118
4.3 Stress Analysis for Liquid-Liquid Extraction Column 119
4.4 Design Specification of the Support Skirt 119
4.5 Piping Sizing for Liquid-liquid Extraction Column 120
Section 5
5.1 Properties of Raw Material (Isobutane and N-butane)
and Steam for (E100) 130
5.2 Summary of Chemical Design For
Heat Exchanger In Series 141
5.3 By taking D = 100 mm, the selected tube nozzle 149
13
TABLE TITLE PAGE
5.4 By taking D = 500 mm, the selected tube nozzle is: 149
5.5 Standard Flange for Inlet isobutene 150
5.6 Standard Flange for Outlet isobutene 151
5.7 Standard Flange for Inlet Steam 151
5.8 Standard Flange for Outlet Steam 151
5.9 Using Ds = 600mm, the Standard Steel Saddles
for Vessels up to 1.2m 152
5.10 Summary of Mechanical Design For
Heat Exchanger in Series 153
Chapter 2
2.1 Parameter at Heat Exchanger 151
2.2 Parameter at Catalytic Cracking Fluidized Bed Reactor 152
2.3 Parameter at Compressor 153
2.4 Parameter at Condenser 154
2.5 Parameter at Separator 154
2.6 Parameter at Fixed Bed Reactor 155
2.7 Parameter at MTBE Distillation Column 156
2.8 Parameter at Liquid-liquid Extraction Column 157
2.9 Parameter at Distillation Column 158
2.10 Parameter at Mixer 159
2.11 Parameter for Expander 160
Chapter 3
3.1 Important Features in a HAZOP Study 170
Chapter 4
4.1 Labor Cost 189
4.2 Estimation Cost of Purchase Equipment 197-198
4.3 Annual Cash flow Before Tax 200
4.4 Annual Cash flow After Tax 201
4.5 Present WorthValue 202
14
4.6 After Tax Cumulative Cash Flow 203
TABLE TITLE PAGE
4.7 Present Value (RM) When i = 30% & i = 40% 204
4.8 Future Value (RM) When MARR = 15% 205
4.9 Simple Payback Period 206
4.10 The Interpolation Simple Payback Period 206
4.11 Discounted Payback Period 207
4.12 The Interpolation Discounted Payback Period 207
Chapter 5
5.1 Shows the process data for each stream. 210
5.2 Interval Temperature for Tmin = 10
o
C 211
5.3 Ranked order of interval temperature 212
5.4 Problem Table 213
Chapter 6
6.1 Parameter Limits for Wastewater and Effluent under the Environmental Quality
Act 1974 208
6.2 Functions of Pumps in the Waste Treatment Plant 215
15
LIST OF FIGURES OF DESIGN I
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
3.1 MTBEs Role in US Gasoline grew rapidly
Through 1995 10
3.2 World MTBE Demand (1998-2010) Mod Scenario 11
3.3 MTBE supply & Demand Asia and Pacific 13
3.4 Breakeven Analysis Chart Calculated by using Excel 19
5.1 Functional Elements in a Solid-Waste Treatment System 40
.
16
LIST OF FIGURES OF DESIGN II
FIGURE TITLE PAGE
Chapter 1
Section 1
1.1 Illustration Diagram of the Reactor 2
1.2 CDRe
2
and CD/Re vs. Reynolds Number 6
Section 2
2.1 Analysis of Stresses 67
Section 3
3.1 MTBE Distillation Column 78
3.2 McCabe-Thiele Diagram 86
Section 5
5.1 Heat Exchanger in Series for the Heating Process 129
5.2 Steel Pipe Nozzle 149
5.3 Standard Flange 150
Chapter 2
2.1 Control Scheme for the Heat Exchanger 156
2.2 Control Scheme for Catalytic Cracking
Fluidized Bed Reactor 157
2.3 Control Scheme for the Compressor 158
2.4 Control Scheme for the Condenser 159
2.5 Control Scheme for the Separator 160
2.6 Control Scheme for the Fixed Bed Reactor 161
2.7 Control Scheme for the MTBE Distillation Column 162
2.8 Control Scheme for the Liquid-liquid Extraction Column 163
2.9 Control Scheme for the Distillation Column 164
2.10 Control Scheme for the Mixer 165
2.11 Control Scheme for the Expander 166
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FIGURE TITLE PAGE
Chapter 3
3.1 Methyl tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) Plant Layout 180
3.2 Methyl tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) Plant Evacuation Routes 181
3.3 PID before HAZOP 182
3.4 PID after HAZOP 183
Chapter 4
4.1 Cumulative Cash Flow (RM) Versus Year 203
Chapter 5
5.1 Diagrammatically representation of process stream 210
5.2 Intervals and streams 211
5.3 Heat Cascade 212
5.4 Grid for 4 stream problem 213
5.5 Grid for 4 Stream Problem 214
5.6 Proposed Heat Exchanger Network 216
Chapter6
6.1 The Sludge Treatment System 229
6.2 Waste Treatment Plant Layout 231
18
Ar - Archimedes number
a - acceleration
B - settling chamber longitudinal cross-sectional area
b - dimension
C - constant
CD - drag coefficient
c - concentration
D - system diameter
d - particle diameter
de - effective fiber diameter
E, - field intensity
F - cross-sectional area
Pr - Fronde number
g - gravitational acceleration
H - height
K - precipitation constant ,
A - Cross sectional area of catalytic reactor
or
A - Area of orifice
Ag
C
- Concentration of gas reactant
D
C - Drag coefficient
Bv
d
- Diameter of bubble in the bed
dp - Particle diameter
D - Diffusivity
t
D - Diameter of catalytic reactor
e - Thickness
E - Activation energy
19
FBo - Mass flow of coal to the catalytic reactor
FC - Fixed carbon mass fraction
Hbed - Height of bed
Hh - Height of Catalytic reactor
J - Joint factor
k - Reaction rate constant
k - Reaction rate constant
eq
K
- Equilibrium constant
L - Height above the bed
n - Total no of orifice
N - No of holes in 1 m
2
area
Nor - No of orifice in 1 m
2
area
O
H CO
P P
2
, - Partial pressure
Pi - Design stress
rC , rS - Rate of reaction
R - Ideal gas constant
Ret - Reynolds number
Rp - Radius of particle
t - Total holding time
T - Temperature
Uo - Superficial gas velocity
Umf - Minimum fluidization velocity
t
U
- Terminal velocity
VBed - Volume of bed
WBed - Weight of coal in bed
WC - Total mass of carbon
X - Conversion factor
- Fitting parameter (for this design is 0.21)
- Fitting parameter (for this design is 0.66)

g
- Gas density
B
- Molar density
s
- Bulk density of catalyst
p
- Particle density
20
g
- Gas viscosity
- Time for complete conversion of reactant particle

p
- Pressure drop
E - total elutriation rate of particles
Ef - frictional force of particles
Ei - entrainment rate of panicle size i
Ei
- elutriation rate of particle size i
Eo - total entrainment rate at bed surface
E
- total elutriation rate of particles

g - gravitational acceleration constant
gc - gravitational conversion constant, m kg/s
2
kg -force
Gi - solids flow rate
h - height above dense bed surface
Rep - particle Reynolds Number =
( ) /
p ts o g
d U U

Ret -
/ g dpU
t - time
Umf - minimum fluidization velocity
Uo - superficial gas velocity
Usi - solid velocity (upward)
Us - single particle terminal velocity of particle size i
W - weight fraction of bed
Ws - weight of solid particles in verlical pipe having length h
Xi - weight fraction of particle size i in bed
Greek Symbols
- voidage in freeboard
21
i
- voidage in freeboard for system having only particle size i

- solid friciion coefficient
g
- gas density
p
- particle density
22
CHAPTER 1
PROCESS BACKGROUND AND INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) is produced by reacting isobutene with methanol
over a catalyst bed in the liquid phase under mild temperature and pressure. Isobutene
can be obtained from stream cracker raffinate or by the dehydrogenation of isobutane
from refineries. Ether in general is a compound containing an oxygen atom bonded to
two carbon atoms.
In MTBE one carbon atom is that of a methyl group CH3 and the other is the central
atom of a tertiary butyl group, -C (CH3)). At room temperature, MTBE is a volatile,
flammable, colorless liquid with a distinctive odour. It is miscible with water but at high
concentrations it will form an air-vapour explosive mixture above the water, which can
ignite by sparks or contact with hot surfaces.
MTBE has good blending properties and about 95% of its output is used in gasoline as
an octane booster and an oxygenate (providing oxygen for cleaner combustion and
reduced carbon monoxide emissions). It is also used to produce pure isobutene from
C4 streams by reversing its formation reaction. It is a good solvent and extractant.
Table 1.1: The Physical and chemical properties of MTBE
23
Chemical formula C5H12O
Molecular structure (CH3)4CO
Oxygen content 18.2 wt%
Physical state (at normal
temperature and pressure)
Colorless liquid
Boiling point 55.2
o
C
Melting point -108.6
o
C
Flash point 30
o
C
Autoignition temperature 425
o
C
Flammable limits in air 1.5 8.5%
Relative density 0.7405g/ml at 20
o
C
Vapour pressure 245 mm Hg at 25
o
C
Reactive index 1.3690 at
o
C
Color Colorless
Water solubility 42000mg/l at 25
o
C (<10% in
water, miscible with ethanol and
diethyl ether)
Partition coefficient n-
octanol/water (log10)
1.06
Henrys Law Constant 65.4 Pa/m
3
/mol
1.2 HISTORICAL REVIEW OF MTBE PRODUCTION PROCESS
The MTBE plants actually consist of six units: Isomerization Unit (including
deisobutanizer), Dehydrogenation Unit, MTBE Unit, Methanol Recovery Unit,
Oxygenate Removal Unit and Olefin Saturation Unit. A common offsite utility system
will be incorporated to distribute the required utilities to each unit. There are four
method of producing MTBE implemented under license as the following:
1. UOP-Oleflex Process
2. Phillips STAR Process
3. ABB Lummus Catofin Process
4. Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez FBD (SP-Isoether) Process.
1.2.1 UOP-Oleflex Process
24
The UOP-Oleflex process uses multiple side-by-side, radial flow, moving-bed reactors
connected in series. Preheated feed and interstage heaters supply the heat of reaction.
The reaction is carried out over platinum supported on alumina, under near isothermal
conditions. The catalyst system employs UOP's Continuous Catalyst Regeneration
(CCR) technology. The bed of catalyst slowly flows concurrently with the reactants and
is removed from the last reactor and regenerated in a separate section. The
reconditioned catalyst is then returned to the top of the first reactor. The typical
processes involved are the deisobutenization, the isomerisation and the
dehydrogenation process that has been commercial in Malaysia.
1.2.2 Philips Star Process
The second one is the Philips Steam Active Reforming (STAR) Process. The Phillips
Steam Active Reforming (STAR) Process uses a noble metal-promoted zinc aluminate
spinel catalyst in a fixed-bed reactor. The reaction is carried out with steam in tubes
that are packed with catalyst and located in a furnace. The catalyst is a solid,
particulate noble metal. Steam is added to the hydrocarbon feed to provide heat to the
endothermic reaction, to suppress coke formation, and to increase the equilibrium
conversion by lowering partial pressures of hydrogen and propane.
1.2.3 ABB Lummus Catofin Process
The ABB Lummus Catofin Process uses a relatively inexpensive and durable
chromium oxidealumina as catalyst. This catalyst can be easily and rapidly
regenerated under severe conditions without loss in activity. Dehydrogenation is
carried out in the gas phase over fixed beds. Because the catalyst cokes up rapidly,
five reactors are typically used. Two are on stream, while two are being regenerated
and one is being purged. The reactors are cycled between the reaction and the
reheat/regeneration modes, and the thermal inertia of the catalyst controls the cycle
time, which is typically less than 10 minutes. The chromium catalyst is reduced from
Cr
6+
to Cr
3+
during the dehydrogenation cycle. The raw materials used to produce
MTBE by using this method are butanes, hydrogen and as well as recycled isobutene
from the system itself. In this process, there is an isostripper column, which separates
the heavies, and the light ends from which then could produce MTBE.
25
1.2.4 Snamprogetti-Yartsingtez FBD (SP-Isoether)
The Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez SP-Isoether (FBD) Process uses a chromium catalyst in
equipment, which is the fluidized bed that resembles conventional fluidized catalytic
cracking technology used in the oil refinery. The catalyst is recirculated from the
reactor to the regeneration section on a 3060-min cycle. The process operates under
low pressure and has a low-pressure drop and uniform temperature profile.
Snamprogetti has been presenting and marketing their hydrogenation technology,
ISOETHER 100, since 1997. This process is to be used to convert MTBE units by
utilizing Snamprogettis MTBE Water Cooled Tubular Reactor Technology. In this SP-
Isoether Process, the products are MTBE and isooctagenas (iso octane gas). In this
SP-Isoether Process the catalyst used in the isoetherification reactor is the same as
those other typical processes, which is Platinum. (Please refer Appendix A Figure
1.3).
Four method processes of the MTBE above are favorable among the
petrochemical firms.
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS SELECTION
26
Suitable process, which is gives a lot of profit and less problem is an important in order
to determinant for the success of a plant. This chapter will briefly discuss the best
process selected based on a few criteria. It covers general consideration, detailed
consideration for process selection and conclusion on the process selection.
2.1 METHOD CONSIDERATION.
From the processes mentioned earlier, there are many ways to produce MTBE. It is
essential to choose the best method that will be used to produce MTBE. The selection
of the method must consider the safety of the plant, minimum waste or by product
generated, efficient and economical. Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez SP- Isoether FBD
process will be chosen as the method to produce MTBE. More detailed reasons for the
selection of this process are: High conversion (greater than 98 %) with few by-products
compared to other process. From the economy aspect,Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez FBD
Process can reduce the cost of setting up the plant as it can be implied in any of typical
MTBE-produced plant, known as Financial Safety Net.(When an MTBE plant faces an
oversupplied MTBE market, Isoether makes it possible to switch production from
MTBE to a superior Alkylate.). As for the safety aspects of the plant, as the
Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez FBD is a safe process as it just use the fluidize bed to the
process of producing MTBE. The process operates under low pressure and has a low-
pressure drop and this means that the fluidized bed is physically not harmful to anyone.
As for the temperature, it operates under uniform temperature profile. As the
temperature is not high, this means that the process is not as dangerous as other high-
temperature-operated process. But, precautions should be taken seriously all the time,
as we do not know when an accident could happen even in the safest place. As for the
waste by using the Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez FBD Process, the product of the process
is only MTBE and other effluent and as well as flue gas which are not harmful to the
environment.
Table 1.1 The comparison of the UOP-Oleflex, Philips Star, ABB Lummus Catofin and
Snamprogetti- Yartsingtez SP-Isoether FBD process.
27
Method and
Consideration
UOP-Oleflex
Process
STAR Philip
process
ABB Lummus
Process
Snamprogetti-
Yarsingtez FBD
process
Economic
Consideration
Investment cost
is very modest
Investment cost
were evaluated
for 700 BPSD
(650tonne/day)
feed capacity
Lower capital
investment
Reduce the cost
of setting up the
plant as it can be
implied in any of
typical MTBE-
produced
Efficiency
(Isobutylene
Selectivity)
97-99% 98% 99 .99% Greater than 98%
Advantages 1. Higher per
pass
conversion and
at least 1-2%
higher catalyst
selectivity as a
result of lowest
operating
pressure and
temperature.
2. No catalyst
losses.
1. The Stabilized
Product Is Near
Equilibrium
Mixture Of
Isobutane.
2.The Light-End
Yield Fr. Cracker
Is Less Than 1
Wt% Butane
Feed
1.CD Tech
Efficiently Uses
The Heat
Released By An
Exothermic
Reaction.
2.Conducting 2
Unit Operations
In 1 Equipment
1.Environmental
Friendly
2.Financial
Safety Net.
(When an MTBE
plant faces an
oversupplied
MTBE market,
Isoether makes it
possible to switch
production from
MTBE to a
superior Alkylate.)
Disadvantages 1. Less
efficiencies
1. Much heat is
needed as
furnace is used.
1. The Reaction
Must Take Place
In The Liquid
Phase Catalyst
Must Remain
Completely
Wetted.
2.The Reaction
Cannot Be Overly
1. Not widely
practiced in
industry, as it
needs thorough
research to
implement it.
28
Endothermic
2.2.1 DETAILED PROCESS DESCRIPTION
2.2.2 Snamprogetti-Yartsingtez SP-Isoether (FBD) Process
The Snamprogetti-Yarsingtez SP-Isoether (FBD) Process uses a chromium catalyst in
equipment, which is the fluidized bed that resembles conventional fluidized catalytic
cracking technology used in the oil refinery with 65% isobutane (i-C4H10) conversion to
produce isobutene.
Dehydrogenation reaction that occur in this process:
iC4H10 iC4H8 + H2
The main feature of this process is that the catalyst filled annuli are connected in such a way
that small, discrete amounts of catalyst can be withdrawn from the bottom of a reactor,
and sent to the top of the reactor. Catalyst withdrawn from the bottom of the reactor is
sent to a separate regeneration section for regeneration prior to being sent to the top of
the reactor. The catalyst is recirculated from the reactor to the regeneration section on
a 3060-min cycle. The reactor and regeneration sections are totally independent of
each other. The regeneration section can be stopped, even for several days, without
interrupting the dehydrogenation process in the reactor section. The vaporized
isobutane is fed along with fresh catalyst to the first, called reactor, and the spent
catalyst is separated from the products and sent to the regenerator, where air (O2) is
added to oxidize the carbon. The reactor cracks the isobutane and forms coke on the
catalyst. Then in the regenerator the coke is burned off and the catalyst is sent back
into the reactor. The magic of this process is that the reactor-regenerator combination
solves both the heat management and coking problems simultaneously. Burning off the
coke is strongly exothermic, and this reaction in the regenerator supplies the heat
(carried with the hot regenerated catalyst particles) for the endothermic cracking
reactions in the reactor.
The process operates under low pressure and has a low-pressure drop and
uniform temperature profile. Products that have been produced from this unit are
29
isobutene. Isobutene available in the C4 stream from the Snamprogetti-Yarsintez FBD
unit will be combining with methanol, which is sourced from the Sabah Gas Industries
methanol plant in Labuan to produce, fuel-grade MTBE with a high-octane value in the
MTBE unit.
2.2.3 MTBE Unit
The MTBE unit includes two sections such as the main reaction section and the
finishing reaction. In the main reaction section, 98% conversions of isobutene occurs
mainly in the main reactor which are designed to provide the mechanical ands thermal
conditions required by the expanded catalyst bid technology.
Reactions occur in this unit are:
1. iC4H8 (isobutene) + CH3OH (methanol) C5H12O (MTBE)
2. CH3OH + CH3OH (CH3)2O + H2O (DME)
3. iC4H8 + H2O C4H10O (TBA)
The reactor is operated in an up-flow direction with an external liquid recycle to
remove the heat of reaction and to control the expansion of the catalyst bed. This
selective reaction of methanol with isobutene is conducted in liquid phase at moderate
temperature on an ion exchange resin type catalyst. The expansion of the catalyst bed
in the reactor is ensured by pump around circulation loop with a cooling water cooler to
control the reactor feed temperature to remove the heat of reaction. Resin traps on top
of each reactor to trap resin in case of carryover with the liquid. In the finishing reactor
section, isobutene final conversion is achieved in a catalytic column where reaction
and distillation are performed simultaneously.
2.2.4 Distillation Column Unit
30
This column includes a separation column yielding MTBE product at the bottom and
(isobutene, isobutene, normal butane, water and DME) with methanol entrained by
azeotropy at the top. The reaction section bed is contained in the upper part of this
column. An excess of methanol is maintained corresponding to the amount leaving the
tower in the azeotrope. The required methanol is passed through guard beds and
filtered prior to being charged to the catalytic column to achieve final conversion.
Bottom MTBE product and the other by-product such as TBA, DME is sent to rundown
tanks under level control after cooling in feed/bottom exchanger and trim cooler.
The overhead of the column is condensed in the air-cooled condenser under
pressure control. One part of the liquid is sent to the column as reflux and the other
part to the liquid-liquid extraction unit after cooling.
2.2.5 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Unit
In this unit methanol will extract from the isobutene, isobutene, normal butane to
produce C4 raffinate from the overhead of the column and at the bottom, methanol and
water are produced. C4 raffinate from this unit we decided to sell to the Korea.

CHAPTER 3
ECONOMIC SURVEY
31
3.1 MARKET SURVEY
3.1.1 World Market
The MTBE market has been in strong continuous growth since 1992. For instance, the
1998 world consumption was approximately 19.5 million tonnes, about double that of
1992, representing an annual growth rate of about 12%. Present trends indicate a mild
growth in 2000, up to 20 million tonnes, with US consumption slightly declining and
other parts of the world growing (EEA 2000). The MTBEs role in U.S. gasoline grew
rapidly through 1995 given away in figure 3.1.
Figure 3.1 MTBEs role in U.S. gasoline grew rapidly through 1995
(Sources: Local Issues, Global Implications)
3.2 ASIA MARKET
Most Asia countries such as South Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, Taiwan, China, Malaysia,
Singapore, Philippines and Thailand, have already phased lead out of their gasoline pool
and are replacing it with oxygenates such as MTBE. Due to MTBEs relative ease in
blending into gasoline, easy transportation and storage, as well as relatively cheap and
abundant supply, MTBE is the most widly use oxygenate in Asia.
However, the use of MTBE in gasoline blending is not mandatory for countries
like South Korea and Thailand. South Korea, for instance, requires a 1.3% - 2.3%
32
oxygenate content in gasoline during the winter, compared to a minimum of 0.5% for
the summer. In other Asian Countries, MTBE is mainly use as an octane booster to
replace lead. (source: features mtbe asias.html).
3.3 DEMAND
World demand of MTBE mod scenario is about 4.1 mil ton per annum consumption in
US West Coast at stake due to the legislation from 1998 to 2010. It has as an impact
on 80% of PETRONAS MTBE exports to the US. This mod scenario is representing in
figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: World MTBE demand (1998-2010) mod scenario
(Sources: Petronass Library Kuala Lumpur City Center (KLCC)
U.S. demand is about 250,000b/d, dominates MTBE consumption. Most MTBE
is used to comply with mandated oxygen content rules for gasoline supplied to either
RFG or wintertime carbon monoxide areas. A small amount may be utilized for octane
enhancement.
In Europe, MTBE demand is estimated about 60,000 b/d. MTBE use in Europe
is essentially confined to Octane enhancement, and about 6,000 b/d is exported to the
United States. Eastern Europe currently consumed about 10,000 b/d of MTBE.
In Asia, demand for MTBE in this region is expected to grow at much more
rapid rate than elsewhere in the world. The rate will taper off late in decade from about
12% per year to about 8% by the turn of the century, since the early rapid growth has
33
been fed by the lead phase down which should be nearly complete by 2000. Throughout
the period, the region will be a net importer of MTBE, mostly obtained from the Middle
East. The trade balance of MTBE in Asia and Pacific is expected to be in table 3.1.
(Sources: MTBE annual Report)
Table 3.1 Trade Balance of MTBE in Asia and Pacific
Capacities listed are the average available during the year. Details for 1995 and 1999
of MTBE Balance for Asia and Pacific are shown in table 3.2. These data are also
shown graphically in figure 3.3 which indicate for MTBE supply and demand Asia and
Pacific. (Sources: MTBE annual Report)
Table 3.2: MTBE Balance for Asia and Pacific
34
MTBE supply and demand
Asia and Pacific
Figure 3.3: MTBE supply and demand Asia and Pacific
Demand for MTBE expected to be marginally firmer in the near future as Asian
Countries such as Indonesia and India are working totally phase out lead from their
gasoline pool. Supply on other hand is expected to remain abundant, as Asia is able to
produce about 3 million Mt/yr of MTBE for its Captive consumption. In addition to this,
Asia attracts a regular supply of about 500,000 ton/yr of MTBE from Middle Eastern
and Europe sources.(Reference: features mtbe asias.html).
35
3.4 PRODUCTION CAPACITY
Commercial production of MTBE started in Europe in 1973 and in the US in 1979. Total
worldwide production capacity in 1998 was 23.5 million tones and the actual production
was 18 million tones
The annual production volume of MTBE in the year 2000 in the Europe was
2,844,000 tons. About 129,000 tonnes was imported and about 479 000 tonnes were
exported outside the Europe in the year 2000 ((Dewitt & Company Inc. 2002). The
majority of the exported volume (> 83%) was exported to USA and Canada. The
majority of exported volume (> 80%) was transported as non-blended MTBE and
minority as a component of petrol (blended). The annual consumption of MTBE within
the Europe was hence 2,495,000 tons in the year 2000 (see table below). For the future
no substantial increase in MTBE usage is expected. (Dewitt & Company Inc. 2002).
Table 3.3: Production, import, export and consumption in Europe in year 2000
(tonnes/year) souces: (Dewitt & Company Inc. 2002).
Production Import into Europe Export outside Europe Consumption
2 844 000 129 000 479 000 2 495 000
The world's MTBE industry today is operating at about 80% of capacity. The US
is by far the largest market, having about 43% of the production capacity but
consuming 63% of total global output. On stability, the Middle East is the swing
producer, exporting more than 50,000 bbl/day to the US and elsewhere.
3.5 SUPPLY
DeWitts Company estimates for local production of MTBE a summarized in table 3.4.
Most of plants unit are refinery-based units taking isobutylene from FCCU units, or as
Raffinate I from olefins plants. Since olefin plants in the region a mostly naphtha-
based, they produce significant quantities of C4 olefins for this purpose. There is one
butane-based plant in Malaysia. Table 3.4 also shown for MTBE plants suppliers to
Asia and Pacific.
36
Table 3.4 Suppliers MTBE plant in Asia and Pacific
3.6 MARKET PRICE

3.6.1 Methanol

Price of methanol, as feedstock in Asia is $240 - $280 /ton. While in Europe, the prices
is $265 - $270 / ton free on board (fob) Rotterdam. In U.S. the price of methanol is 76
cts 77cts/ gal in fob.
Global Methanol demand is expected to increase to 3.5 % per year over the
next 5 years, compared to 1.0% - 1.5% growth in 2002 and 2003. Those lower growth
rates are attributable to the phase-out of Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) as oxygenate
in gasoline in California, and slower economic growth in China caused by SARS.
Methanol growth in China is forecast at 7% - 8.5% per year, fueled by formaldehyde
and acetic acid demand. (Chemicals Week)
3.6.2 Isobutane
Standard price for isobutene is stated by followed:
37
Table 3.5 : Standard price for isobutane
Grade Purity Cylinder Size
Volume
lbs
Price per Cylinder
Grade 4.0 99.99%
LP30 117 RM900.00
LP15 60 RM600.00
LP05 23 RM370.00
LP01 6 RM200.00
Grade 3.0 99.9%
1/2 Ton 490 RM1225.00
LP30 117 RM380.00
LP15 60 RM240.00
LP05 23 RM170.00
LP01 6 RM100.00
Instrument 99.5%
1 Ton 490 RM890.00
LP30 117 RM293.00
LP15 60 RM185.00
LP05 23 RM100.00
LP01 6 RM75.00
3.6.3 Catalyst
Price of Chromia catalyst Compound USD60 000/Rottedam (Rdam) from the existing
plant. (En Mohd. Napis, from MTBE plant, Gebeng )
3.6.4 Conclusion
Our company will import the methanol and isobutane as feedstock, from Petronas
Malaysia and United State (US) respectively. Methanol feedstock will be supplied from
Gurun, Kedah production capacity of 66,000 ton/year. For the second feedstock,
isobutane (instrument grade) will be supplied by Chevron Phillips Chemical Company
LP, 10001 Six Pines Drive, The Woodlands, Texas, US by shipping method.
MTBE is suitable as a gasoline additive which simultaneously increases the
octane rating of the fuel and adds oxygen which promotes cleaner burning. When used
in place of lead-based octane enhancers, dual environmental benefits are realized, a
reduction in atmospheric lead concentrations and reduced emissions of carbon
monoxide and other smog forming chemicals. Since the 1970s, the worldwide
38
consumption of MTBE has increased significantly and many new facilities have been
constructed to support the growing market (Kirschner, 1996; Riddle, 1996).
MTBE production will increase in future in Asia, Asia Pacific, Middle East and
Europe even though MTBE is banned in California but not in the entire nation of the
United States.
3.7 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS
An economic analysis used to smooth the progress of based on existing plant. This
analysis is important to ensure that the chemical plants converge and the economics is
satisfactory before the plant operate. All the data taken from MTBE Annual 1994,
DeWitt & Company Incorporated, 16800 Greenpoint Park, Suite 120 N, Houston,
Texas, that given by Petronas Library, KLCC.
3.7.1 Break-Even Analysis
When chemical engineers determine outlay for any type commercial process, they
want these costs to be enough accuracy to provide reliable decision. To accomplish
this, they must have a complete understanding of the many factors that can affect
costs. Break-even analysis is important to ensure that the plant can give profit before
the plant can run.
The objective of break even analysis is to find the point, in dollars or in ringgits
and units, at which costs equal revenues. This point is the break even point. Break
even analysis requires an estimation of fixed costs, variable costs and revenue.
Fixed costs are costs that continue even if no units are produced. Examples
include depreciation, taxes, debt, and mortgage payments. Variable costs are those
that vary with the volume units produced. The major components of variable costs are
labor and materials. However, others cost, such as the portion of the utilities that varies
with volume, are also variable cost. The different between selling price and variable
cost is contribution. Only when total contribution exceeds total fixed cost will there be
profit.
39
Another element in break-even analysis is the revenue function. From the
graph, revenue begins at the origin and proceeds upward to the right, increasing by
selling price of each unit. Where the revenue function crosses the total cost line (the
sum of fixed and variable costs), is the break even point, with a profit corridor to the
right and a loss corridors to the left.
Table 3.6: Cost of producing MTBE 500,000 ton/year
(Sources: DeWitt & Company Incorporated, Annual Report)
Table 3.6 showed that the cost of production of MTBE based on existing plant
producing 500,000 ton/year. From table 3.6, given data, break-even analysis can be
calculated to know the break-even point figure. Figure below indicate that break-even
chart, where it has been calculated by using excel that shown in table 3.8 and based
on the data given from table 3.6.
40
Figure 3.4 : Break even analysis chart calculated by using excel.
From the break even chart figure above, the value of break-even point at the
existing capacity of 500,000 ton/year is 185,629.85 tons in units and RM
244,679,817.14 in Ringgit Malaysia (RM). This value indicates the minimum units and
values needed to be sold. The given capacity of 500,000 tons/year can give profit to
the company. The margin of safety (MOS) calculated from the graph, which is
314,370.15 tons and RM414,373,182.86. Margin of safety (MOS) in percentage of
sales is 62.87%. The sale is allowed to drop about 62.87% before the company will
incurred a loss.
In other word, at selling 300,000 tons/year capacity will also give profit to our
company. The margin of safety from the graph for 300,000 ton/year calculated is
114,370.15 tons and RM150,751,982.86. The margin of safety (MOS) as percentage of
sales is 38.12%. The sale is allowed to drop about 38.12% before the company will
incurred a loss. All the data calculation is shown in the next section.
41
3.7.2 Data Calculation
All the data based on 500,000 tons/year producing MTBE from existing plant.
Table 3.7 Values in USD converted to RM
(Sources: Data collected from table 3.6)
Total revenue, TR RM 659,053,000.00
Total variable cost, TVC RM 504,754,000.00
Total fixed cost, TFC RM 57,285,000.00
Total Revenue (TR), MTBE (500,000 ton),
TR = Quantity of MTBE X Price of MTBE
= QMTBE X PMTBE
= 500,000 tons X USD346.87 X 3.8
= RM 659,053,000
Total cost = total fixed cost + total variable cost
TC = TFC + TVC
Where,
Total fixed cost = 500,000 ton X USD30.13 X 3.8
= RM 57,285,000.00
Total variable cost = 500,000 ton X USD (226.4 + 39.26) X 3.8
= RM 504,754,000.00
Total cost, TC = RM57,285,000.00 + RM 504,754,000.00
= RM 562,039,000.00
Tables 3.7 represent cost per unit ton converted into Ringgit Malaysia (RM), taking
datas directly from the table 3.6.
Table 3.8 Values in USD converted to RM per ton
(Sources: Data collected from table 3.6)
Revenue (RM) per ton RM1,318.00
Variable cost (RM) per ton RM 1,009.51
Fixed cost (RM) per ton RM114.57
Break-even point in ton can be calculated based on formula equation, which given by
follow:
42
Break-even point, BEP (tons) = Total Fixed cost
Contribution/ton
where,
Contribution/ton = revenue / ton - variable cost / ton
BEP (tons) = ______RM 57,285,000.00_____
(RM1, 318.00 - RM 1,009.51)
= 185,629.85 tons (the minimum capacity)
Next, Break-even point in RM can be calculated based on formula equation, which
given by follow:
BEP (RM) = Break-even point, BEP (tons) X revenue / ton
= 185,629.85 tons X RM1, 318.00
= RM 244,679,817.14
Beside that, margin of safety and percentage of sale can be calculated as follows:
For 500,000 ton/year production,
Margin of safety (MOS) in units = Budgeted sale (units) - BEP (units)
= 500,000 tons - 185,629.85 tons
= 314,370.15 tons
Margin of safety (MOS) in RM = Budgeted sale (RM) - BEP (RM)
= RM 659,053,000.00 - RM 244,679,817.14
= RM 414,373,182.86
Margin of safety (MOS) as percentage of sales = MOS (RM)
x 100%
Sales(RM)
= RM 414,373,182.86
x 100%
RM 659,053,000
= 62.87%
43
For 300,000 ton/year production,
Margin of safety (MOS) in units = Budgeted sale (units) - BEP (units)
= 300,000 tons - 185,629.85 tons
= 114,370.15 tons
Margin of safety (MOS) in RM = Budgeted sale (RM) - BEP (RM)
= RM 395,431,800 - RM 244,679,817.14
= RM 150,751,982.86
Margin of safety (MOS) as percentage of sales = MOS (RM)
x 100%
Sales(RM)
= RM150,751,982.86
x 100%
RM 395,431,800
= 38.12%
Table 3.9 shown that the calculation of break-even point by using excel.
Table 3.9: Data calculation by using excel in RM
(Sources: Data taking from table 3.7)
44
CAPACITY TFC1 TVC1 TR1 TC1
0 57,285,000.00
0
0 57,285,000.00
10000 57,285,000.00 10,095,080.00 13,181,060 67,380,080.00
20000 57,285,000.00 20,190,160.00 26,362,120 77,475,160.00
40000 57,285,000.00 40,380,320.00 52,724,240 97,665,320.00
60000 57,285,000.00 60,570,480.00 79,086,360 117,855,480.00
80000 57,285,000.00 80,760,640.00 105,448,480 138,045,640.00
100000 57,285,000.00 100,950,800.00 131,810,600 158,235,800.00
120000 57,285,000.00 121,140,960.00 158,172,720 178,425,960.00
140000 57,285,000.00 141,331,120.00 184,534,840 198,616,120.00
160000 57,285,000.00 161,521,280.00 210,896,960 218,806,280.00
180000 57,285,000.00 181,711,440.00 237,259,080 238,996,440.00
200000 57,285,000.00 201,901,600.00 263,621,200 259,186,600.00
220000 57,285,000.00 222,091,760.00 289,983,320 279,376,760.00
240000 57,285,000.00 242,281,920.00 316,345,440 299,566,920.00
260000 57,285,000.00 262,472,080.00 342,707,560 319,757,080.00
280000 57,285,000.00 282,662,240.00 369,069,680 339,947,240.00
300000 57,285,000.00 302,852,400.00 395,431,800 360,137,400.00
320000 57,285,000.00 323,042,560.00 421,793,920 380,327,560.00
340000 57,285,000.00 343,232,720.00 448,156,040 400,517,720.00
360000 57,285,000.00 363,422,880.00 474,518,160 420,707,880.00
380000 57,285,000.00 383,613,040.00 500,880,280 440,898,040.00
400000 57,285,000.00 403,803,200.00 527,242,400 461,088,200.00
420000 57,285,000.00 423,993,360.00 553,604,520 481,278,360.00
440000 57,285,000.00 444,183,520.00 579,966,640 501,468,520.00
460000 57,285,000.00 464,373,680.00 606,328,760 521,658,680.00
480000 57,285,000.00 484,563,840.00 632,690,880 541,848,840.00
500000 57,285,000.00 504,754,000.00 659,053,000 562,039,000.00
CHAPTER 4
45
PLANT LOCATIONS AND SITE SELECTION
4.1 PLANT LOCATION
The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the profitability of a project and the
scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a suitable
site. A good location is required to optimise the production of the plant. It is important to
know that, not all Malaysian industrial park caters the need of a chemical plant. Also not
all industrial park allows the building of chemical plants. Our industrial parks are divided
into categories such as: -
1. Light industrial
2. Medium industrial
3. Heavy industrial
4. General industrial
5. Hi-tech industrial
4.2 GENERAL CONSIDERATION ON THE SITE SELECTION
All the information about plant locations are based on the data gathered from the
Malaysian Industrial Development Authority (MIDA). And we refer detail information on
important factors that need to be considered in the site selection. In the process of
selecting the location, we did some evaluation. Among the principle factors considered
are:
4.2.1 Location With Respect To Marketing Area
For materil that are produced in bulk quantities, such as cement, fertilizer, raw material
of petrochemical product, where the cost of product per tone is relatively low and the
cost of transport a significant fraction of the sales price, the plant must located close to
the primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume production,
high priced products; such as pharmaceuticals, plastisizer and etc. in an international
46
market, there may be an advantage to be gained by locating the plant within an area
with preferential tariff agreement.
4.2.2 Raw Material Supply
The availability and price of suitable raw materials will often determine the site location.
Plant producing bulk chemicals are best located close to the source of the major raw
material, where this is also close to the marketing area.
4.2.3 Transport Facilities
The transport of materials and products to and from the plant will be an overriding
consideration in site selection. If practicable, a site that we are consider that close to at
least two major forms of transport: road, rail, waterway or a sea port. Road transport
being increasing used, and is suitable for local distribution from central warehouse. Rail
transport will be cheaper for the long distance transport of bulk chemicals
. Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and
essential equipment and supplies and the proximity of the site to a major airport also
considered.
4.2.4 Availability of Labour
Labour that will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled
construction workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but there
should be an adequate pool of unskilled labour available locally and labour suitable for
training to operate the plant. Skill tradesman will be needed for plant maintenance.
Local trade union customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when
assessing the availability and suitability of the local labour for requirement and training
.
4.2.5 Availability of Utilities
47
Chemical processes invariably require large quantities of water for cooling and general
process used and the plant must be located near a source of water of suitable quality.
Process water may be drawn from a river, wells or purchased from a local authority.
At some site, the cooling water required can be taken from a river or lake or
from the sea; at other locations cooling towers will be needed.
Electrical power will be needed at all sites. Electrochemical processes that
required large quantities of power: for example, aluminium smelters need to be located
close to a cheap source of power. A competitively priced fuel must be available onsite
for steam and power generation.
4.2.6 Environmental Impact and Effluent Disposal
All industrial processes produce waste products and full consideration must be given to
the difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will
be covered by local regulations and the appropriate authorities must be consulted
during the initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met.
An environmental impact assessment should be made for each new project or
major modification of addition to an existing process.
4.2.7 Local Community Considerations
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it does not impose
a significant additional risk to the community.
On a new side, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities
for the plant personnel: schools, banks, housing and recreational and cultural facilities.
4.2.8 Land (site consideration)
48
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed plant for future expansion.
The land should ideally be flat, well drained suitable load-bearing characteristics. A full
site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or other special
foundations.
4.2.9 Political and Strategic Considerations
Capital grants, tax concessions and other inducements are often given by government
to direct new investment to preferred locations such as areas of high unemployment.
The availability of such grants can be the overriding factor in site selection.
4.3 OVERVIEW ON PROSPECTIVE LOCATIONS
Our process is a petrochemical base process; therefore we choose to locate our plant in a
petrochemical complex. The reason is quite simple; a petrochemical complex could
simplify the formation and the maintenance of a chemical plant. It could also cut the daily
operation cost and saving us the hassle of transportation.
In Malaysia there are only three such places, known as the Integrated
Petrochemical Complexes. These complexes are situated in each of the site below:
1. Telok Kalong Industrial Park.
2. Tanjung Langsat Industrial Park.
3. Bintulu Industrial Park.
Other than the above factors, the capacity of plant was also taken into consideration in
determining the suitability of site. Plant capacity will determine how big the space required
to build the plant and the storage area and also the mode of transportation to be use.
The manufacture of MTBE is classified as a petrochemical project. Several
locations of industrial area particular at Teluk Kalong Industrial Area in Terengganu,
Tanjung Langsat Industrial Area in Johor and Bintulu Industrial Area, Sarawak that we are
refer for location.
49
4.3.1 Teluk Kalong
Teluk Kalong Industrial Estate located 9.6 km from Kemaman. Total area available
167.46 hectares. The price of land in ranges RM 0.46 to RM 4.18 per Feet Square.
This area is proposed for petrochemical and heavy industry petrochemical.
The Electricity is generated at the following station. Total generation capacity is
900 MW. Local consumption is less than 1/3. No major breakdown, low frequency of
interruption. Water most plentiful with surplus capacity. Water supply capacity at
various treatment plants total 331000-meter cube per day, with planned upgrading for
additional requirement. Kenyir Lake with 39000 hectares of water with 134 metre
average depth, make Terengganu a potential export of water middle East. Water
supply is in Bukit Shah. Water tariffs (industrial) are RM1.15 metre cube. The raw
materials supplier of isobutene is availability from Chevron Philips Chemical Company
LP, United State and methanol is availability from Petronas Malaysia, Labuan.
1. Airport facilities
Terengganu major industrial locations are serve by 3 airports
- Kuantan
- Kerteh
- Kuala Teregganu
Kuala Teregganu
2. Port Facilities
Kemaman Port, Kerteh Port and Kuantan Port
4.3.2 Tanjung Langsat Industrial Park
Tanjung Langsat is designed as hub for heavy/medium industries with all the
necessary infrastructure and service facilities. 91.43 km distance from Johor Baharu.
The infrastructure works such as the Pasir Gudang Segamat Highway. Sungai
Johore Bridge and dedicated Port in Tanjung Langsat. Tanjung Langsat Industrial
Complex is a sprawling area just a stones through from Pasir Gudang Industrial Area.
A total hectare still available is 1,085.95. Selling price is RM8 to RM22 square feet. In
term of seaport two seaports are currently being constructed at Tanjung Pelepas,
50
located 40 km west of Johore Baharu city and Tanjung Langsat located 10 km east of
the Johore Port. Tenaga Nasianal Berhad (TNB) provides electricity.
Two airports in the 50km radius. There is the Sultan Ismail International Airport
(common known locally as Senai Airport) in Johore Baharu and the Changi
International Airport in Singapore. The Sultan Ismail International Airport, which is
located about 30km to the north west of JB city, is currently being expended and
upgrades to become the regional airport for southern peninsular Malaysia.
4.3.3 Bintulu
The distance from nearest town is 224.29 km from Sibu. Type of industries is light and
medium petrochemical. Area available is 77 hectares. Selling price RM2.5 to RM10 per
feet square. Electricity supplies by Sarawak Electricity Supply Cooperation (SESCO).
Airport facilities - Bintulu Airport
Port Facilities - Bintulu Port
51
Table 4.1 The Comparison of The Potential Site Location:
Teluk Kalong
Industrial Park
Tanjung Langsat
Industrial Park
Bintulu Industrial
Park
Distance from
the nearest town
9.6 km from Kemaman
91.43 km from Johor
Baharu
224.29 km from Sibu
Raw Material
Isobutane from US and
methanol from Labuan
Types of
Industry
Petrochemical and heavy
industry
Petrochemical light and
medium
Petrochemical light and
medium
Area Available
167.46 hectares 1085.98 hectares 77 hectares
Land Price
(RM/ft
2
)
RM 0.46 - 4.18 RM 8.00 - 22.00 RM 2.50 - 10.00
Electricity
Supply
Tenaga National Berhad Tenaga National Berhad
Sarawak Electrycity
Supply Cooperation
(SESCO)
Water Supply
Bukit Shah Water
Treatment
Syarikat Air Johor and
Logi Air Sg. Layang
Syarikat Air Sarawak
Road Facilities
Kuala Terengganu-
Kuantan-Kuala Lumpur-
Kuala Terengganu-Kerteh-
Teluk Kalong-Kuantan-
Kuala Lumpur
North-South Highway
from Bukit Kayu Hitam to
Singapore-
Major Road : Bintulu -
Sibu and Bintulu - Miri
Airport Facilities
Kuala Terengganu Airport
Kerteh Airport
Senai International
Airport
Bintulu Airport
Port Facilities
Kemaman Port,
Kerteh Port
Kuantan Port
Pasir Gudang Port Bintulu Port
Water Tariffs
(RM/m
3
)
RM 1.15
RM 1.68 (0-20 m
3
)
RM2.24 (more than
20 m
3
)
RM 0.95 (0 -25 m
3
)
RM1.20 (more than
25 m
3
)

(Source: MIDA)
A few proposed plant sites were narrowed down based on the above factors (table 4.2).
Table 4.2 is a summary of location and factors being considered. After detailed study of
52
the factors, each was given weightage and was estimated. The result tabulated in table
4.2 for the purpose of comparison.
Table 4.2 The Comparison of Location in term of Weightage Study
Weightage
Telok Kalong
Industrial
Area
Tanjung
Langsat
Industrial
Area
Bintulu
Industrial Area
Marketing Area 10 8 7 7
Raw Material 10 8 9 9
Transport 10 8 7 6
Availabillity of
Labour
10 8 8 7
Utilities 10 8 9 7
Total Land
Available
10 8 9 8
Climate 10 9 9 9
Price of Land 10 9 5 7
Local
Community
Consideration
10 6 8 9
Incentives 10 8 8 8
TOTAL 100 80 79 77
0 to 10 with 10 is the best
Table 4.3 The Electricity Tariffs (Industrial Tariff) for Peninsular Malaysia and Sarawak
53
Tariff Cost per kWh
Peninsular
Malaysia
Tariff D (Low Voltage, and less than 6.6 kV
supply) for all consumptions
25.8
Tariff E1 (Medium Voltage General, 6.6 kV - 66 kV
supply) for all consumptions. For each kW of maximum
demand per month: RM 17.30
19.8.
Tariff E2 (Medium Voltage Peak/Off-Peak, 6.6 kV -
66kV supply)
Peak period (0800-2200 hours), 20.8
Off-Peak period (2200-0800 hours). 12.8
For each kW of maximum demand per month during
peak period: RM21.70
Tariff E3 (High Voltage Peak/Off-Peak, more than 132
kV supply)
Peak period (0800 -2200 hours), 17.8
Off-Peak period (2200 - 0800) hours). 10.8
peak period: RM 20.80
Sarawak
Tariff 11
1st 100kWh 40
In excess of 100kWh to 3000 kWh 30
In excess of 3000 kWh 21
Minimum charge per month: RM 10.00
Tariff 12
All units 17
For each kW of maximum demand per month: RM12.00
Minimum charge : RM 12.00 per kW x billing demand
Tariff 13 (Peak/Off-Peak)
Peak period ( 0700 - 2400 hours) 17
Off-Peak period ( 0000 - 0700 hours) 10
peak period: RM20.00
Minimum charge: RM 20.00 per kW x billing demand.
(Source: MIDA)
54
4.4 CONCLUSION
Based on the factor weightage studied, it can be concluded that Telok Kalong Industrial
Estate is the most suitable and practical location to choose as a site for MTBE plant.
The philosophy of in situ consumption of much of the production MTBE,
together with remaining product aimed directly at the export market and also makes the
need for port facilities of paramount importance. The Tanjung Langsat and Bintulu
Industrial Area are not impressive for MTBE plant. There are many other reasons
influences our decision including:
Nearest of the Kuantan Port, Kemaman Port and Kerteh Port facilities is more
convenient and economically for export and import purposes.
Excellent and consistent support from bulky oil, gas and chemical supplier from
Kerteh.
Constantly upgrading existing and developing new infrastructure, facilities and supporting
industries. These include the construction of roads; to increase accessibility to and from
the estates are scheduled.

55
CHAPTER 5
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, environmental issues become very important. Besides this, a good waste
treatment system is also important in order to reduce and minimize
environmental pollutants. The chemical waste in the form of solid, liquid and
gases must be treated before being discharged into sewage, drain and
atmospheres.
Any chemical plant to be set up in Malaysia must follow the rules and
regulations under the Department of Environment (DOE) Malaysia, which includes the
Environmental Quality Act 1974. Under Environmental Quality Act (Sewage and
Industrial Effluents) Regulation 1979 and Environment Quality Act (Clean Air) 1978.
The plant owner or waste generator must ensure that waste generated disposed
appropriately to prevent environmental pollution. The proper and suitable methods
should be implemented in dealing with the waste disposal. Kualiti Alam Sdn. Bhd is
one of the licensed contractors specialized in the industrial waste disposal in Malaysia.
MTBE plant is not excluded from these regulations. As our plant produces
MTBE and other byproducts like raffinate but generally they are not hazardous to the
environment and human if safety measures are taken into consideration. These
environmental considerations depend on the location of our plant. The plant will follow
the Standard B of water quality measurement and also need some waste treatment
facilities to minimize the pollution from our plant.
56
STACK GASES
Gas Emission Treatment
Direct flame combustion was used to burn the excess gas. Flare is usually open ended
combustion unit. Therefore, the combustion process will be controlled by flow
rate of gases mixture to prevent incomplete combustion.
Another treatment is thermal combustion. It is an incinerator used in the cases
where the concentration of combustible gases is too low to make direct flame
incineration insufficient condition. The temperature of operation depends upon the type
of pollutant in waste gas. Thermal combustion must be carefully designed to provide
safe, efficient operation and to prevent incomplete combustion. Time, temperature, and
oxygen must be carefully monitored. (Howard et. al 1985)
Stack gas means the product of combustion process usually occur at machine or
generator. It is usually the fuels used occurred in the complete combustion
process, but it produced unwanted gas such as carbon monoxide, sulphur oxide
and other gases.
In our MTBE plant, the stack gases is only Hydrogen and it is stored in a
special tank before being sold to interested company at market price.
5.3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT
5.3.1 Wastewater Characteristics
Wastewater characteristics vary widely from industry to industry. Obviously, the
specific characteristics will affect the treatment techniques chosen for use in meeting
discharge requirements. Because of the large number of pollutant substances,
wastewater characteristics are not usually considered on a substance-by-substance
basis. Rather, substances of similar pollution effects are grouped together into classes
of pollutants or characteristics are indicated below.
5.3.1(a) Priority Pollutants
57
Recently, greatest concern has been for this class of substances for the reasons given
previously. These materials are treated on an individual-substance basis for regulatory
control. Thus each industry could receive a discharge permit that lists an acceptable
level for each priority pollutant.
5.3.1(b) Organics
The organic composition of industrial wastes varies widely, primarily due to the
different raw materials used by each specific industry. These organics include proteins,
carbohydrates, fats and oils, petrochemicals, solvents, pharmaceutical, small and large
molecules, solids, and liquids. Another compilation is that a typical industry produces
many diverse waste streams. Good practice is to conduct a material balance
throughout an entire production facility. This survey should include a flow diagram,
location and sizes of piping, tanks, and flow volumes, as well as an analysis of each
stream.
An important measure of the waste organic strength is the 5-day biochemical
oxygen demand (BOD5). As this test measures the demand for oxygen in the water
environment caused by organics released by industry and municipalities, it has been
the primary parameter in determining the strength and effects of a pollutant. This test
determines the oxygen demand of a waste exposed to biological organisms (controlled
seed) for an incubation period of five days. Usually this demand is caused by
degradation of organics according to the following simplified equation, but reduced
inorganics in some industries may also cause demand (i.e., Fe
2+
, S
2-
and SO3
2-
).
Organic waste + O2 CO2 +H2O
In general, low-molecular-weight water-soluble organics are biodegraded
readily. As organic complexity increases, solubility and biodegrability decrease. Soluble
organics are metabolized more easily than insoluble organics. Complex carbohydrates,
proteins and fats and oils must be hydrolyzed to simple sugars, aminos, and other
organics acids prior to metabolism. Petrochemicals, pulp and paper, slaughterhouse,
58
brewery, and numerous other industrial wastes containing complex organics have been
satisfactorily treated biologically, but proper testing and evaluation is necessary.
5.3.1(c) Inorganics
The inorganics is most industrial wastes are the direct result or inorganic compounds in
the carriage water. Soft-water sources will have lower inorganics than hard-water or
saltwater sources. However, some industrial wastewaters can contain significant
quantities of inorganics which result from chemical additions during plant operation.
Many food processing wastewaters are high in sodium.
While domestic wastewaters have a balance in organics and inorganics, many
process wastewaters from industry are deficient in specific inorganic compounds.
Biodegration of organic compounds requires adequate nitrogen, phosphorus, iron, and
trace salts. Ammonium salts or nitrate salts can provide the nitrogen, while phosphates
supply the phosphorus.
5.3.1(d) pH and Alkalinity
Wastewaters should have pH values between 6 and 9 for minimum impact on the
environment. Wastewaters with pH values less than 6 will tend to be corrosive as a
result of the excess hydrogen ions. On the other hand, raising the pH above 9 will
cause some of the metal ions to precipitate as carbonates or as hydroxides at higher
pH levels. Alkalinity is important in keeping Ph values at the right levels. Bicarbonate
alkalinity is the primary buffer in wastewaters. It is important to have adequate alkalinity
to neutralize the acid waste components as well as those formed by partial metabolism
or organics.
Many neutral organics such as carbohydrates, aldehydes, ketones, and
alcohols are biodegraded through organics acids which must be neutralized by the
available alkalinity. If alkalinity is inadequate, sodium carbonate is a better form to add
than lime. Lime tends to be hard to control accurately and results in high pH levels and
precipitation of the calcium which forms part of the alkalinity. In a few instances,
sodium bicarbonate may be the best source of alkalinity.
59
5.3.1(e) Temperature
Most industrial wastes tend to be on the warm side. For the most part, temperature is
not a critical issue below 37
o
C if wastewaters are to receive biological treatment. It is
possible to operate thermophilic biological wastewater-treatment systems up to 65
o
C
with acclimated microbes. Low-temperature operations in northern climates can result
in very low winter temperatures and slow reaction rates for both biological treatment
systems and chemical treatment systems.
Increased viscosity of wastewaters at low temperatures makes solid separation
more difficult. Increased viscosity of wastewaters at low temperatures makes solid
separation more difficult. Efforts are generally made to keep operating temperatures
between 10 and 30
o
C if possible.
5.3.2 Liquid Waste Treatment
5.3.2(a) Equalization Treatment
Liquid treatment generally is necessary in any plant. In our plant, we also have liquid
treatment but in general, we only state the general method, as our plant does not
produce any significant liquid waste. In any liquid waste treatment, we need
equalization treatment. The equalization treatment is an initial procedure in liquid waste
treatment. The purpose of equalization is to minimize and control the fluctuation in
liquid waste characteristic. Besides it provides the suitable and optimum condition for
biological and chemical treatment. It also provides adequate damping to minimize the
chemical consumption. The procedure will occur in the equalization tank. The size of
tank and time of equalization process depend on the liquid waste amount.
The Activated Sludge process will be used for this treatment. It is carried out in
Aerobic condition. The main purpose of activated sludge process is to remove soluble
and insoluble organic matter that converted into flocculants microbial suspension and
settable microbial. It also permits the use of gravitational solid liquid separation
technique for the above requirement.
The organic matter where measured in the form of BOD and COD serves as
food and energy source for microbial growth. It converts the pollutant into microbial cell
60
and oxidized end product such as CO2 and H2O by microbial activities. Therefore,
Submersible Aerator as mixing device will supply the oxygen and nutrient into aeration
tank and therefore improves the quality of the liquid. (Howard et. al, 1985)
5.3.2(b) Solid Waste Treatment
The solid waste treatment will be minimized by regenerating the catalyst. Regeneration
processes depend on the characteristic of catalyst after whole reaction. Licensed
contractor will dispose the solid waste to follow the DOE regulation. By the way,
the scheduled maintenance activities will be implemented.
Dewatering system will be used to solidify and extract the catalyst. Therefore,
clarifier and filter press were used in these treatments. Clarifier is used to clarify any
impurities before going through the filters. The size of equipment depends on the flow
rate and holding time of these processes. Maintenance activities will be scheduled
based on the availability of workers and machines. Skilled and experienced workers
will do the maintenance activities, (Bailed, 1995).
61
Figure 5.1 Functional Elements in a Solid-waste Treatment System.
Industrial
Process
Waste
Reduction
Waste
Generation
Re-use
Storage
Collection
Processing/
Recovery
Transfer/
Transport
Disposal
Recycling/
Reuse
62
5.3.3 Waste Minimization
Waste minimization means the optimization process to minimize the waste come out of
the plant. It will be done by source reduction and recovery of the sources. The source
reduction refers to preventative measured taken to reduce the amount of waste, which
produced in this process. Recovery of the sources is aimed to reuse the excess
methanol to produce the MTBE.
Waste production from the plant could be reduced by implementing these
procedures:
- Raw material modification,
- Product reformulation,
- Process modification,
- Improvement in operating practices.
The most important is by improving the product yield and this means
minimization of waste generation. It will be accomplished through improvement in
catalyst efficiency and proper maintenance activities.
63
CHAPTER 6
SAFETY CONSIDERATION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
For years, those employed in the chemical industry have known that the safe operation of
chemical plant is essential to the industrys continued ability to survive. The human,
political and financial costs of having accidents are just too high for the chemical
industry to not exhibit excellence in their efforts to operate plants in safe and
environmentally responsible ways. The chemical industry has an outstanding record in
both transportation safety and the safe operations of its processes. That effort has
resulted in a dramatic and steady decline in releases and waste produced at chemical
sites.
Actions that should be taken to avoid serious chemical plant accidents are as follows:
1. In most cases involving large volumes of highly hazardous chemicals, excess
flow valves are in place that would stop a rapid flow of the chemicals
2. When highly hazardous chemicals are involved, processes have fixed
protection, as well as trained emergency response teams that could handle the
incident.
3. Appropriate reaction control or inhibiting systems are in place to interrupt
runaway reactions if cooling, heating and pressure relief are not considered
adequate.
4. Control systems are designed to detect heat or pressure of a chemical reaction
and to control that reaction.
5. Work more closely with local and state law enforcement groups.
64
6.2 MATERIAL SAFETY DATA SHEET
6.2.1 Isobutane (Instrument Grade)
Product Number(S): 0001020533, 0001020534, 0001020535, 0001020536
Synonyms: Methylpropane; Iso
Company Identification:
Chevron Phillips Chemical Company Lp
10001 Six Pines Drive
The Woodlands, Tx 77380
6.2.1.1 Product Information:
Msds Requests: (800) 852-5530
Technical Information: (800) 852-5531
Colorless liquefied gas, odorless.
- Flammable gas. May cause flash fire
- Contents under pressure
- Detection of leak via sense of smell may not be possible if odorant has degraded
- Contact with liquefied gas can cause frostbite
- Liquid can cause eye and skin injury
- Reduces oxygen available for breathing
6.2.1.2 Physical And Chemical Properties
Appearance and odor: colorless liquefied gas, odorless.
Ph: na
Vapor pressure: 72 psia @ 37.8 c
Vapor density (air=1): 2.1
Boiling point: -12c (10.4f)
Solubility: negligible
Percent volatile: 100 % volume
Specific gravity: 0.564 @ 15.6 c
Evaporation rate: >1
65
6.2.1.3 Immediate Health Effects:
Eye: Because the liquid product evaporates quickly, it can have a severe chilling effect
on eyes and can cause local freezing of tissues (frostbite). Symptoms may include
pain, tearing, reddening, swelling and impaired vision.
Skin: Because the liquid product evaporates quickly, it can have a severe chilling
effect on skin and can cause local freezing of tissues (frostbite). Symptoms may
include pain, itching, discoloration, swelling, and blistering. Not expected to be harmful
to internal organs if absorbed through the skin.
Ingestion: Material is a gas and cannot usually be swallowed.
Inhalation: This material can act as a simple asphyxiant by displacement of air.
Symptoms of asphyxiation may include rapid breathing, in coordination, rapid fatigue,
excessive salivation, disorientation, headache, nausea, and vomiting.
Convulsions, loss of consciousness, coma, and/or death may occur if exposure to high
concentrations continues.
6.2.1.4 First Aid Measures
Eye: Flush eyes with water immediately while holding the eyelids open. Remove
contact lenses, if worn, after initial flushing, and continue flushing for at least 15
minutes. Get immediate medical attention.
Skin: Skin contact with the liquid may result in frostbite and burns. Soak contact area
in tepid water to alleviate the immediate effects and get medical attention.
Ingestion: No specific first aid measures are required because this material is a gas
and cannot usually be swallowed.
Inhalation: For emergencies, wear a niosh approved air-supplying respirator. Move
the exposed person to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen. Get immediate medical attention.
6.2.2 N-Butane
N-Butane synonym with I-Butane, Butane, and Normal Butane is a flammable gas. N-
Butane is heavier than air and may travel considerable distance to an ignition source.
66
N-Butane is listed under the accident prevention provisions of section 112(r) of the
Clean Air Act (CAA) with threshold quantity (TQ) of 10000 pounds.
Physical and Chemical Properties
Parameter value units
Physical state : Gas
Vapor pressure at 70
o
F : 31 psia
Vapor density at STP : 2.07
Evaporation point : not available
Boiling point : 31.1
o
F
Freezing point : -0.5
o
C
pH : not available
Solubility : insoluble
Odor and appearance : a colourless and odourless gas
Stability : stable
Condition to avoid : high temperature
6.2.2.1 Handling and storage
Protect cylinders from physical damage. Store in cool, dry, well- ventilated area away
from heavily trafficked areas and emergency exits. Do not allow the temperature where
cylinders are stored to exceed 130oF. Cylinders should be stored upright and firmly
secured to prevent falling or being knocked over. Full and empty cylinders should be
segregated. Use a first in first out inventory systems to prevent full cylinders from
being stored for excessive periods of time. Never carry a compressed gas cylinder or a
container of a gas in cryogenic liquid form in an enclosed space such as a car trunk,
van or station wagon. A leak cans re4sult in a fire, explosion, asphyxiation or a toxic
exposure.
6.2.3 Methanol
Methanol synonyms with Methyl alcohol and in chemical family alcohol with the
formula CH3OH. Methanol is a clear, colourless, mobile, volatile, flammable liquid and
its soluble in water, alcohol and ether.
67
Physical and Chemical properties:
Parameter value
Physical state : liquid
Boiling Point : 64.7
o
c
Vapor Pressure (20
o
c) : 128 mb
Vapor Density (air=1) : 1.11
Solubility in water ,%wt : full
Specific Gravity : 0.792 g/cm
3
Appearance and odor : liquid-colorless-odor specific
Fire and Explosion Hazard data:
Flash point : closed cup: 12
o
c
Flammable limits, % vol : Lel: 6, Uel : 36.5
Extinguishing media : Foam CO2 halogenated agents
Special fire fighting : Avoid contact with oxidizing materials
Unusual fire and explosion : Moderate
Reactivity Data:
Stability : Medium
Conditions to avoid : Oxidizing materials
Incompatibility : Sulfo-chromic mixtures
Special Precautions
Precaution to be taken in handling and storing Methanol: store in iron or steel
containers or tanks. Small quantities can be stored in reinforced glass containers.
6.2.4 MTBE
6.2.4.1 Physical state, appearance
MTBE is chemically stable; it does not polymerize, nor will decompose under normal
conditions of temperature and pressure. Unlike most ether, MTBE does not tend to
form peroxides (auto-oxidize). The physical state of MTBE is that MTBE is in the form
of liquid at room temperature (25
o
C). It is a colourless liquid with the billing point at
68
55.2
o
C 131.4
o
F. The freezing point of MTBE is 108.6
o
C 163.5
o
C. The density of
MTBE at 25
o
C is 735g/cm
3
.
6.2.4.2 Physical dangers
MTBE is non-reactive. It does not react with air, water, or common materials of
construction. The reactivity of MTBE with oxidizing materials is probably low. However,
without definitive information, it should be assumed that MTBE reacts with strong
oxidizers, including peroxides.
6.2.4.3 Chemical dangers
MTBE is highly flammable and combustible when exposed to heat or flame or spark,
and it is a moderate fire risk. Vapours may form explosive mixtures with air. It is
unstable in acid solutions. Fire may produce irritating, corrosive or toxic gases. Runoff
from fire control may contain MTBE and its combustion products.
Occupational exposure limits (OELs)
Routes of Exposure
6.2.4.4 Inhalation risk
Like other ethers, inhalation of high levels of MTBE by animals or humans results in the
depression of the central nervous system. Symptoms observe red in rats exposed to
4000 or 8000 ppm in air included labored respiration, ataxia, decreased muscle tone,
abnormal gait, impaired treadmill performance, and decreased grip strength. These
symptoms were no longer evident 6 hours after exposure ceased. A lower level of
MTBE, 800ppm did not produce apparent effects (Daughtrey et al., 1997).
A number of investigations have been conducted to examine the self-reported
acute MTBE in gasoline vapors during use by consumers. This research includes both
epidemiological studies and studies involving controlled exposure of volunteers to
MTBE at concentrations similar to those encountered in refueling an automobile
(Reviewed in USEPA, 1997, and California EPA, 1998). In general, the studies
involving controlled human exposures in chambers to levels of MTBE similar to those
experienced during refueling and driving an automobile have not shown effects of
69
MTBE on physical symptoms (e.g. irritation), mood, or performance based tests of
neurobehavioral function.
6.2.5 TBA (TERT - BUTYL ACOHOL)
CAS Number: 75-65-0
Synonyms: tert-Butanol
2-methyl-2-propanol
TBA
t-butylhydroxide
1,1-dimethylethanol
trimethylmethanol
trimethylcarbinol
6.2.5.1 Recognition
NIOSH/OSHA Health Guideline. Summarizes pertinent information about for workers
and employers as well as for physicians, industrial hygienists,and other occupational
safety and health professionals who may need such information to conduct effective
occupational safety and health programs.
6.2.5.2 Evaluation
1. Health Hazards . Routes of exposure, summary of toxicology, signs and
symptoms, emergency procedure.
2. Workplace Monitoring and Measurement .
3. Medical Surveillance . Workers who may be exposed to chemical hazards
should be monitored in a systematic program of medical surveillance that is
intended to prevent occupational injury and disease. The program should
include education of employers and workers about work-related hazards,
placement of workers in jobs that do not jeopardize their safety or health, early
detection of adverse health effects, and referral of workers for diagnosis and
treatment.
70
6.2.5.3 Controls
1. Exposure Sources and Control Methods .
2. Personal Hygiene Procedures .
3. Respiratory Protection . Conditions for respirator use, respiratory protection
program.
4. Personal Protective Equipment . Protective clothing should be worn to prevent
any possibility of skin contact. Chemical protective clothing should be selected
on the basis of available performance data, manufacturers' recommendations,
and evaluation of the clothing under actual conditions of use.
5. Emergency Medical Procedures . Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS's) include
chemical specific information on emergency medical and first aid procedures as
referenced under the OSHA Hazard Communication standard, 29 CFR
1910.1200, (g)(2)(X). This standard requires chemical manufacturers and
importers to obtain or develop an MSDS for each hazardous chemical they
produce or import. Employers shall have an MSDS in the workplace for each
hazardous chemical, which they use.
6. Storage .
7. Spills and Leaks . In the event of a spill or leak, persons not wearing protective
equipment and clothing should be restricted from contaminated areas until
cleanup has been completed.
6.3 HAZARD IDENTIFICATION & EMERGENCY SAFETY & HEALTH RISK
ASSESSMENT
Safety & Health Risks vary with the type of industry & the magnitude of the emergency.
The severity of the risk too will vary with especially where there are chemicals,
combustible gases, potential for fire & explosion etc. These hazards may not only pose
a danger to the health of working in a particular plant but also the adjacent community.
In the event of a major disaster property both within and outside the plant will be
damaged. The real and potential hazards at the work place must be identified and the
Safety & Health Risks that they pose assessed. This will require a close scrutiny of all
71
work place buildings, their design, electrical wiring, transport and storage facilities, the
work processes, workstation design, safe operating procedures, list of chemicals
substances used, their quantity, storage, daily transfer, safe usage and disposal.
MSDSs of the chemical too have to be studied as regards their toxicity, volatility, and
their potential for a fire and/or explosion and adverse health affects both short term and
long term.
The possible emergencies/disaster in a industry could be:
Fire/ explosion
Chemical spill
Radioactive material spill
Biological material spill
Personal injury
The best action plan is prevention from an emergency. This is where one has to
work closely with operation personnel to make sure that all operations are safe and
comply with OSH Legislations. All persons at work are aware of the safe procedure
and also follow those procedures. Unfortunately in the real world, mostly human
factors- accident & emergency do occur. This is why emergency response plans have
to be written up, communicated to all concerned and tested for effectiveness.
Depending on the gravity the workplace emergency can be categorized in to Level 1,
Level 2, or Lever 3 emergency.
Level 1 Emergency- the first responder without having to call the disaster
response team or outside help can effectively manage such incident. Examples; a
small fire easily smothered, chemical spill easily contained and cleaned, injury minor
and treated at site by rendering first aid.
Level 2 Emergency - an incident that requires technical assistance from the
disaster response team and may need outside help. Examples; fire that need technical
from trained personnel and specialized equipment spill that can only be properly
contained by specialized equipment.
72
Level 3 Emergency- these are major disaster that are difficult to contain even
with trained personnel and outside help. Examples, spill that cannot be properly
contained or abated even by highly trained team and the use of sophisticated special
equipment. Fire involving toxic material that is too large to control and are to burn. This
may require the evacuation of civilians across jurisdictional boundaries
73
100 kgmole/hr
0.996 iC4H10
0.004 nC4H10
Stream S5 = 164.74 kgmole/hr
0.393 C4H8
0.393 H2
0.212 iC4H10
0.002 nC4H10
CHAPTER 7
MASS BALANCE
7.1 SNAMPROGETTI UNIT (REACTOR AND REGENERATOR)
Assume steady-state system,
Basis = 100 kgmole/hr of S2
74
S2
Given from
MSDS
The fraction at stream S2 acquired from isobutane instrument grade, MSDS.
Reaction occurred in the reactor,
iC4H10 C4H8 + H2
Flowrate in kgmole/hr of iC4H10 in the feed stream of S2 = 0.996 (100)
= 99.6 kgmole/hr iC4H10
Balanced Based upon the stoichoimetric ratio with 65% conversion of iC4H10 to obtain
C4H8.
Since, 65% conversion in the reactor,
kgmole/hr of C4H8 obtained = 0.65 (99.6)
= 64.74 kgmole/hr
35% of iC4H10 unreacted = 99.6 - 64.74
= 34.86 kgmole/hr
Based upon stoichiometric ratio
(inert) (unreacted) (inert)
n C4H10 + iC4H10 C4H8 + H2 + iC4H10 + n C4H10
0.4 99.6 64.74 64.74 34.86 0.4
(kgmole/hr) (kgmole/hr)
Input Output
Stream S2 S5
Component MW
kg/kgmole
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow kg/hr Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow kg/hr
C4H8
H2
iC4H10
n C4H10
56
2
58
58
-
-
99.6
0.4
-
-
5776.8
23.2
64.74
64.74
34.86
0.4
3625.44
129.4
2021.88
23.4
Total 5800 5800
75
1 H2
Stream S11 = 100 kgmole/hr
0.6474 C4H8
0.3486 iC4H10
0.0040 nC4H10
0.393 C4H8
0.393 H2
0.212 iC4H10
0.002 nC4H10
S14 = 71.62 kgmole/hr
0.996 CH3OH
0.004 H2O
7.2 SEPARATOR
Input Output
Stream S9 S10 S11
Component MW
kg/kgmole
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow
kg/hr
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow
kg/hr
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow
kg/hr
C4H8
H2
iC4H10
n C4H10
56
2
58
58
-
-
99.6
0.4
-
-
5776.8
23.2
-
64.74
-
-
-
129.4
-
-
64.74
64.74
34.86
0.4
3625.44
129.4
2021.88
23.4
Total 5800 129.4 5670.6
7.3 MIXER
76
S13 = 64.74kgmole/hr
1 CH3OH
0.3596 CH3OH
0.6404 H2O
S15 kgmole/hr
C4H8
iC4H10
nC4H10
CH3OH
C5H12O
C4H10O
C2H6O
H2O
S14 = 71. 214 kgmole/hr
CH3OH
H2O
Stream S11 = 100 kgmole/hr
0.6474 C4H8
0.3486 iC4H10
0.0040 nC4H10
Input Output
Stream S13 S27 S14
Component MW
kg/kgmole
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow
kg/hr
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow
kg/hr
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow
kg/hr
CH3OH
H2O
32
18
71.214
-
2278.848
-
0.146
0.26
4.67
4.68
71.36
0.26
2283.52
4.685
Total 2278.848 9.356 2288.205
7.4 MTBE REACTOR
Assumption : 98% conversion of C4H8 (2% remains unconverted)
Reactions involve in the reactor,
1. C4H8 + CH3OH C5H12O
2. 2CH3OH C2H6O + H2O
3. C4H8 + H2O C4H10O
7.4.1 1
st
REACTION IN REACTOR
C4H8 + CH3OH C5H12O
77
R
e
ac
to
r
98%
conv.
kgmole/hr
C4H8
CH3OH
C5H12O
64.74 kgmole/hr
1 CH3OH
64.74 kgmole/hr
1 C4H8
kgmole/hr of C4H8 in the stream S11 = 100(0.6474)
= 64.74 kgmole/hr C4H8
Balance based upon stoichiometric ratio with 98% conversion.
CH3OH is classified an excess.
The unreacted of CH3OH (excess) = (71.36 - 64.74)
= 6.62 kgmole/hr
Since 98% conversion in the reactor,
kgmole/hr of C5H12O obtained = 0.98 (64.74)
= 63.44 kgmole/hr C5H12O obtained
From the stoichiometric ratio,
C4H8 + CH3OH C5H12O + C4H8 + CH3OH
64.74 71.214 63.44 1.3 7.92
unconverted
kgmole/hr kgmole/hr
Input Output
Component MW Molar flow Mass flow Molar flow Mass flow
78
R
e
ac
to
r
98%
conv.
kgmole/hr
CH3OH
C2H6O
H2O
7.92 kgmole/hr
1 CH3OH
(kg/kgmole) (kgmole/hr) (kg/hr) (kgmole/hr) (kg/hr)
C4H8
CH3OH
C5H12O
56
32
88
64.74
71.36
-
3625.44
2283.52
-
1.3
7.92
63.44
72.8
253.44
5582.72
Total 5908.96 5908.96
7.4.2 2
nd
REACTION IN REACTOR
From 2
nd
reaction, stoichiometric ratio shown below:
Since the ratio between methanol and dimethylether is 2CH3OH : 1C2H6O ,
98% conversion methanol (CH3OH) into dimethylether (C2H6O) = 1.3 (0.98)
2
= 0.637 kgmole/hr
2CH3OH C2H6O + H2O + 2CH3OH
7.92 3.88 3.88 0.16
unconverted
kgmole/hr kgmole/hr
Input Output
79
R
e
ac
to
r
1.3 kgmole/hr
1 C4H8
Component MW
kg/kgmole
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mol
Fraction
Mass flow
(kg/hr)
CH3OH
C2H6O
H2O
32
46
18
7.92
-
-
253.44
-
-
0.16
3.88
3.88
0.02
0.49
0.49
5.12
178.48
69.84
Total 253.44 1.0 253.44
7.4.3 3
rd
REACTION IN REACTOR
The 3
rd
reaction and its stoichiometric below,
From 1
st
reaction, kgmole/hr of C4H8 remain is 1.3 and 3.88 kgmole/hr of H2O is
obtained in 2
nd
reaction.
Since C4H8 is limiting reactant to react with H2O, only 1.3 kgmole/hr of H2O needed to
react with C4H8
H2O is classified an excess.
The unreacted of H2O (excess) = (4.14 - 1.3)
= 2.84 kgmole/hr
C4H8 + H2O C4H10O + C4H8 + H2O
1.3 4.14 1.274 0.026 2.866
unconverted
kgmole/hr kgmole/hr
80
S11 = 100 kgmole/hr
0.6474 C4H8
0.3486 iC4H10
0.0040 nC4H10
4.166 kgmole/hr
0.3058C4H8
0.3058C4H10O
0.688H2O
4.14 kgmole/hr
1 H2O
Input Output
Component MW
kg/kgmole
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar
flow
kgmole/hr
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar
flow
kgmole/hr
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
C4H8
H2O
C4H10O
56
18
74
1.3
-
72.8
-
-
4.14
-
74.52
0.026
2.866
1.274
1.456
51.588
94.276
Total 1.3 72.8 4.14 74.52 4.166 147.32
7.4.4 OVERALL MASS BALANCE ON MTBE REACTOR
81
R
e
ac
to
r
S15 = 100.676 kgmole/hr
0.0002 C4H8
0.3261 iC4H10
0.0037 nC4H10
0.0015CH3OH
0.5934 C5H12O
0.0119 C4H10O
0.0363 C2H6O
0.0268 H2O
1 CH3OH

Input Input Output
S11 S14 S15
Component MW
(kg/kg
mole)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole
/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/h
r)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
C4H8
iC4H10
n C4H10
CH3OH
C5H12O
C2H6O
C4H10O
H2O
56
58
58
32
88
46
74
18
64.74
34.86
0.4
-
-
-
-
-
3625.44
2021.88
23.2
-
-
-
-
71.36
-
-
-
0.26
-
-
-
2283.52
4.68
0.026
34.860
0.4
0.16
63.44
3.88
1.274
2.866
1.456
2021.88
23.2
5.12
5582.72
178.48
94.276
51.588
Total 100 5670.52 71.62 2288.2 106.906 7958.72
7.5 DISTILLATION COLUMN
Assume that 90% of methanol in bottom.
82
R
e
ac
to
r
S15 = 100.906 kgmole/hr
0.0002 C4H8
0.3261 iC4H10
0.0037 nC4H10
0.0015 CH3OH
0.5934 C5H12O
0.0119 C4H10O
0.0363 C2H6O
0.0268 H2O
0.0006 C4H8
0.8646 iC4H10
0.0099 nC4H10
0.0037 CH3OH
0.0249 H2O
0.0962 C2H6O
0.9528 C5H12O
0.0191 C4H10O
0.0279 H2O
0.0002 CH3OH
S 21 = 39.166 kgmole/hr
0.0007 C4H8
0.8901 iC4H10
0.0102 nC4H10
0.0991 C2H6O
S 20 = 12.029 kgmole/hr
1 H2O
S15 S16 S17
Component
MW
kg/kgmole
Molar
flow
kgmole/hr
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
C4H8
iC4H10
n C4H10
CH3OH
C5H12O
C2H6O
C4H10O
H2O
56
58
58
32
88
46
74
18
0.026
34.86
0.4
0.16
63.44
3.88
1.274
2.866
1.456
2021.88
23.2
5.12
5582.72
178.48
94..276
51.588
-
-
-
0.011
63.44
-
1.274
1.860
-
-
-
0.352
5582.72
-
94..276
33.48
0.026
34.86
0.4
0.003
-
3.88
-
0.013
1.456
2021.88
23.2
4.768
-
178.48
-
18.108
Total 106.906 7958.72 66.585 5710.828 40.321 2247.892
7.6 LIQIUD LIQUID EXTRACTION
83
0.0006 C4H8
0.8646 iC4H10
0.0099 nC4H10
0.0037 CH3OH
C2H6O
0.0249 H2O
0.0113 CH3OH
0.9887 H2O
0.0113 CH3OH
0.9887 H2O
0.146 CH3OH
0.260 H2O
0.0962
Input Output
S18 S20 S21 S23
Component
MW
kg/kgmole
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
C4H8
iC4H10
n C4H10
CH3OH
C5H12O
C2H6O
C4H10O
H2O
56
58
58
32
88
46
74
18
0.026
34.86
0.4
0.149
-
3.88
-
1.006
1.456
2021.88
23.2
4.768
-
178.48
-
18.108
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
12.029
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
216.522
0.026
34.86
0.4
-
-
3.88
-
-
1.456
2021.88
23.2
-
-
178.48
-
-
-
-
-
0.149
-
-
-
13.035
-
-
-
4.768
-
-
-
234.63
Total 40.321 2247.892 12.029 216.522 39.166 2225.016 13.184 239.398
7.7 DISTILLATION COLUMN
84
S3
L i q u i
d -
l i q u i d
e x t r a
c t i o n
S11
S17 S18
1 H2O
S24 S25 S26
Component
MW
kg/kgmole
Molar
flow
kgmole/hr
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
C4H8
iC4H10
n C4H10
CH3OH
C5H12O
C2H6O
C4H10O
H2O
56
58
58
32
88
46
74
18
-
-
-
0.149
-
-
-
13.035
-
-
-
4.776
-
-
-
234.63
-
-
-
0.003
-
-
-
12.775
-
-
-
0.096
-
-
-
229.95
-
-
-
0.146
-
-
-
0.260
-
-
-
4.680
-
-
-
4.685
Total 13.185 239.411 12.778 230.046 0.407 9.365
7.8 OVERALL REACTION SYSTEM, FLOW DIAGRAM
85
S9
C a
t a l
y t i c
r e a
c t o
r
R
e a
c t
o r
D i s t i l l
a t i o n
c o l u
m n
R e
a c t
o r
S e
p a
r a t
o r
D i s t i l l
a t i o n
c o l u
m n
L i q u i d
l i q u i d
e x t r a c
t i o n
S10 S2 S12 S15
Overall mass balance is shown below:
Input = output
Input
S4 S13 S20
Molar flow
kgmole/hr
Mass flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass flow
(kg/hr)
5800 2278.848 216.522
Total input 8295.37
Output
S10 S16 S26 S21
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr
)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
Molar flow
(kgmole/hr)
Mass
flow
(kg/hr)
129.48 5710.828 230.046 2225.016
Total
output
8295.37
7.6 SCALE-UP FACTOR
Determination of the scale-up factor for the end product (MTBE)
With a basis 100 kgmole/hr of feed at stream S2, the product at stream S12 acquired is
5658.934 kg/hr.
This amount if converted to kg/yr, by conversion unit,
5582.72kg/hr * 7920 hr/yr = 44.215142 * 10
6
kg/yr of MTBE
Targeted production of MTBE = 300 X10
6
kg/yr (300,000 metric tonnes/yr)
86
Therefore, the scale-up factor = Targeted Amount
Actual Amount
= 300,000 x10
3
kg/yr
44.8188 x10
6
kg/yr
= 6.785005854
6.785
To determined whether the scale-up factor can proceed or not,
Target amount = Actual Production x Scale-up factor
= 44.215 x 10
6
x 6.785
= 299.9997385 x10
6

300 x10
6
kg/yr at stream S14
Therefore, the scale-up factor of 6.785 is acceptable for this process.
CHAPTER 8
ENERGY BALANCE
8.1 ENERGY EQUATION
The equation that we used to calculate the power Q or W at each equipment is:
87
Q W = HR + (-Hin) + (Hout) + (KE) + (PE)
To calculate H, first we need to find the Cp values for every component in each of the
stream. To find the Cp values, we need to use this equation to find the values of Cp
CP
o
= a + bT + cT
2
+ dT
3
The values of a, b, c and d are taken from Appendix D, Coulson and Richardson
Chemical Engineering, Volume 6. If the temperature and pressure is more than the
critical temperature and pressure of the component, we need to find the (Cp Cp
o
) for
that specific component. But as for all of our temperatures and pressures none of them
exceed the critical temperature and pressure; we need not to find the (Cp Cp
o
).
To find the value of H, we use this equation:
H =
T2
T1
P C
dT x (n)
Should there is any reaction in the process; we need also to find the values of HR
which takes place in the equipment. The equation, which we used to find HR is:
HR = (F product - F reactant) x n
and if the equipment has KE and PE, we also need to calculate the values by using
this equation:
KE = 0.5 m(vout
2
- vin
2
)
PE = mg x (zout zin)
so, after we have calculated all the values of the energy for each and every of the
stream, we then can calculate the value of Q or W.
And for this sample of calculations, listed are the values of constants in the ideal gas
heat capacity equation based on R. K Sinnot, Coulson & Richardson, Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6, Third Edition, Butterworth Heinemann:
88
S2
T = -15
0
C
P = 750 Kpa
(liquid)
S1
T = -18
0
C
P = 450 Kpa
(Liquid)
Table 8.1 Table of Constant in the Ideal Heat Capacity
Component a b c d Delta HF
kJ/kmol.K kJ/kmol
C5H12O 2.53 5.14 x 10
-1
-2.60 x 10
-4
4.30 x 10
-8
-292990
CH3OH 2.12 x 10
1
7.09 x 10
-2
2.59 x 10
-5
-2.85 x 10
-8
-201300
H2O 32.243 1.93 x 10
-3
1.06 x 10
-5
-3.60 x 10
-9
-242000
C4H8 -2.994 3.53 x 10
-1
-1.98 x 10
-4
4.46 x 10
-8
-130
i-C4H8 16.052 2.8043 x 10
-1
-1.091 x 10
-4
9.098 x 10
-9
-16900
i-C4H10 -1.39 3.85 x 10
-1
-1.85 x 10
-4
2.90 x 10
-8
-134610
C4H10O -4.86 x 10
1
7.17 x 10
-1
-7.08 x 10
-4
2.92 x 10
-7
-312630
n-C4H10 9.85 3.31 x 10
-1
-1.11 x 10
-4
-2.82 x 10
-9
-126.23
(CH3)2O 1.70 x 10
1
1.79 x 10
-1
-5.23 x 10
-5
-1.92 x 10
-9
-184180
H2 2.71 x 10
1
9.27 x 10
-3
-1.38 x 10
-5
7.65 x 10
-9
0
8.2 ENERGY BALANCE: SAMPLE OF CALCULATIONS
(Methods of calculations are based on, Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering,
Volume 6, page 78).
8.2.1 P-100 (Pump 1)
Calculations are based on Yunus A. Cengel, Micheal A. Boles, Thermodynamics:
An Engineering Approach, WCB/Mc Graw-Hill, 1989, page, 354-355.
Assumptions:
1. Steady operating conditions exist
2. Kinetic and potential energy negligible
3. The process is to be isentropic
Specific volume:
Isobutane = 0.255 m
3
/mol
n-butane = 0.263 m
3
/mol
89

S2 S3
T = -15
o
C T = 117
o
C
P = 750Kpa P = 450Kpa
(Liquid) (Gas)
(Data of these specific volumes are based on Coulson & Richardson, Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6, Third Edition, Butterworth Heinemann, page 947)
Isobutane
0.255m
3
/mol x 1000mol/kmol x 1kmol/58kg = 9.11 m
3
/kg
n-butane
0.263m
3
3
/kg
Vavg = (9.11 + 4.53) m
3
/kg / 2 = 6.82 m
3
/kg
(Which remains essentially constant during the process)
22365.62kW /hr 80516238kJ
39353kg/hr x 2046kJ/kg
kg 2046.00kJ/
6.82(300)
) J/1kpa.m 450)kpa(1k /kg(750 6.82m
) P (P V
Vdp W
3 3
1 2 1
2
1
in

8.2.2 E-100 (Heat Exchanger 1)

Stream 2
Component Flowrates F To T, K H
Kmol/hr kJ/Kmol K kJ/hr
i-C4H10 675.786 -1.35 x10
5
298 258 -690.04
n-C4H10 2.714 -1.26 x10
5
298 258 -2.81
90
H =
-692.86
Stream 3
i-C4H10 676.786 -1.35 x10
5
298 390 1902.85
n-C4H10 2.714 -1.26 x10
5
298 390 7.66
H =
1910.51
Sample of calculations for i-C
4
H
10
at stream 3
H =
T2
T1
P C
dT x (n)
T2
T1
P C
dT =
+ + +
T2
T1
3 2
dT cT bT a
=
1
]
1
+
4
) T d(T
3
) T c(T
2
) T b(T
) T a(T
4
1 2
3
1 2
2
1 2
1 2

4
4
) 298 - 390 (
9
10 952 . 28
3
3
) 298 - 390 )(
4
10 846 . 1 (
2
2
) 298 - 390 (
2
10 473 . 38
) 298 390 )( 390 . 1 (
+
= 10100 kJ/kmol
H = 10100 kJ/kmol x 675.786 kmol/hr
= 6825438.6 kJ/hr
= 1902.85 kW (for i-C
4
H
10
)
And as for n-C
4
H
10
, the H = 7.66 kW
So
H = 1910.51
Energy balance,
91
S3 S4
T = 117
o
C T = 250
o
C
P = 450 kPa P = 325 kPa
(Gas) (Gas)
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= 1910.51- (-692.86)
= 2603.37kW
Steam flowrate, Q = mCpT
Cp of isobutane, 2155 J/kg
o
C (Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes, W.
Rousseau et. al)
9.152g/s
C (-15)) - (117 x C 2155J/g
J/s 2603370

T Cp
Q
m
o o
Therefore the supply of steam flow rate required is 9.152 g/s.

8.2.3 E-101 (Heat Exchanger 2)

Stream 3
i-C4H10 676.786 -1.35 x10
5
298 390 1902.85
n-C4H10 2.714 -1.26 x10
5
298 390 7.66
H =
1910.51
Stream 4
i-C4H10 676.786 -1.35 x10
5
298 523 5356.57
n-C4H10 2.714 -1.26 x10
5
298 523 21.46
92
H =
5378.03
Sample of calculations for i-C
4
H
10
at stream 4
H =
T2
T1
P C
dT x (n)
T2
T1
P C
dT =
+ + +
T2
T1
3 2
dT cT bT a
=
1
]
1
+
4
) T d(T
3
) T c(T
2
) T b(T
) T a(T
4
1 2
3
1 2
2
1 2
1 2

4
4
) 298 - 523 (
9
10 952 . 28
3
3
) 298 - 523 )(
4
10 846 . 1 (
2
2
) 298 - 523 (
2
10 473 . 38
) 298 523 )( 390 . 1 (
+
= 28500 kJ/kmol
H = 28500 kJ/kmol x 675.786 kmol/hr
= 19259901 kJ/hr
= 5349.97 kW (for i-C
4
H
10
)
And as for n-C
4
H
10
, the H = 21.46 kW
So
Hout = 5371.43kW
Energy balance,
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= 5371.43- (1910.51)
= 3460.92kW
93
S5
Air Out
S4
T=250
o
C
P=325kPa S6
(gas) Air In
S7
T=180
o
C
P=110kPa
(Liquid)
Cp of isobutane, 2155 J/kg
o
C (Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes, W.
Rousseau et. al)
12.17g/s
C 118) - (250 x C 2155J/g
J/s 3460920

T Cp
Q
m
o o

8.2.4 R-101 (Snamprogetti Fluidized Bed Reactor)

Stream 4
i-C4H10 676.786 -1.35 x10
5
298 523 5356.57
n-C4H10 2.714 -1.26 x10
5
298 523 21.46
H =
5378.03
Stream 7
94
i-C4H8 237 -1.30 x10
-1
298 453 1056.59
i-C4H10 2.71 -1.35 x10
5
298 453 13.82
n-C4H10 439 -1.26 x10
5
298 453 2236.41
H2 439 0.00 298 453 549.84
H =
3856.66
To calculate the value of H
R
:
1) i-C
4
H
10
C
4
H
8
+ H
2
so,
R
= (
F
C
4
H
8
) + (
F
H
2
) -(
F i-
C
4
H
10
)
= (-130) + (0) (-134610)
= 134480 kJ/kmol
therefore,
H
R
= (
R
kJ/kmol x 236.53 kmol/hr)
= (134480 kJ/kmol x 236.53 kmol/hr)
= 31808554.4 kJ/hr
= 8835.71 kJ/s
= 8835.71 kW
Although there is stream flow, but the KE is too small and negligible and there is also
now work so, W is zero and as for the PE, the value is neglected, as it is also too
small.
Now we calculate the value of Q,
Q W
0
= H
R
+ (-H
in
) +(H
out
) +KE
0
+ PE
0
Q = H
R
+ (H
out
) - (H
in
)
Q = 8835.71 + (1980.66) - (3856.66)
Q = 6959.71kW (heat have been absorbed)
8.2.5 C-100 (Compressor 1)
95
S7 S8
T = 180
0
C T = 193
0
C
P = 110 Kpa P = 120 Kpa
(Gas) (Gas-liquid)

T
7
= 453K T
8
=?
P
7
= 1.1 bar P
8
= 1.2 bar
T4 = 453K, P4 = 1.1 bar, P8 = 1.2 bar is based on the literature review of process
Snamprogetti fluidized bed.
By assuming polytropic and ideal gas condition:
T7= T6(P7/P6)
m
(Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 85)
m = 1/ Ep = CPmean/CV = CPm/CPm R
Where R = 8.314 kJ/kmol.K
For hydrogen, a = 27.143, b = 97.38 x 10
-4
, c = -1.31 x 10
-5
, d = 76.451 x 10
-10
CPHydrogen = kJ/kmol.K 16200 dT cT bT a
1000K
453K
3 2
+ + +
For butene, a = -2.994 , b = 3.53 x 10

-1
, c = -1.98 x 10
-4
, d = 4.46 x 10
-8
,
CPbutene = kJ/kmol.K 89400 dT cT bT a
1000K
453K
3 2
+ + +
For Isobutane, a = -1.39 , b = 3.85 x 10

-1
, c = -1.85 x 10
-4
, d = 2.90 x 10
-8
,
CPisobutane = kJ/kmol.K 103000 dT cT bT a
1000K
453K
3 2
+ + +
For n-butane, a = 9.85 , b = 3.31 x 10

-1
, c = -1.11 x 10
-4
, d = -2.82 x 10
-9
,
CPn-butane = kJ/kmol.K 103000 dT cT bT a
1000K
453K
3 2
+ + +
) 453 466 (
) e tan bu n , Cp e tan Cpisobu butene , Cp Hydrogen , Cp ( 25 . 0
Cpmean
+ + +
ol.K 167.5kJ/km
453 1000
103000) 103000 89400 0.25(16200
+ + +
So , = CPm/CPm R = 167.5/(167.5-8.314) = 1.07

96

S8 S9
T = 193
o
C T = 53
0
C
P = 120 Kpa P = 100 Kpa
(Liquid) (Liquid)
To find Ep(efficiency),
Flow rate =
0.5
1
x
273
453
x22.4x
3600s
l 1117.76kmo
s / m 08 . 23
3
From Figure 3.6, Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 83,
Ep = 75%
m = (1/ Ep) = 1.07-(1/1.07 (0.75) ) = 0.3690
To determine T6,
T8 = T7(P8/P7)
m
= 453(1.2/1.1)
0.3690
= 466.83K (193
o
C)
Tc and Pc for H2, isobutene, isobutane and n-butane, Tc = 417.07K, Pc = 38.17 bar
Trmean = (T7 + T8)/2Tc = (453+ 466.83K)/2(417.07) = 1.10 K
Prmean = (P5 + P6)/2Pc = (1.1+1.2)/2(38.17) = 0.030 bar
From Figure 3.8, Compressibility factors (Coulson & Richardson, Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6, page 87).
Z = 1.00
Then find n, n = 1/(1-m) = 1/(1-0.3456) = 1.53
Polytropic work = zRT1(n/n-1)x((P1/P2)
(n-1/n)
1)
=
1
1
]
1

,
_
1
]
1
1
1 . 1
2 . 1
x )
53 . 0
53 . 1
)( 453 )( 314 . 8 ( 00 . 1
53 . 1
53 . 0
= 332.69 kJ/kmol
Actual work = Polytropic work / Ep
= 332.69 /0.75
= 443.60 kJ/kmol
Compressor power = 443.60 kJ/kmol x 1117.76 kmol/hr x 1hr/3600s
= 137.73 kW
Therefore the compressor power required to increase the pressure from 1.1 bar to 1.2
bar is 137.73kW.
8.2.6 E-102 (Cooler 1)
97

Sample of Calculation for Cooler 1
Stream 8
C4H8 4.39x10
02
-1.69x10
-4
298 466 2155.41
i-C4H10 2.37x10
2
-1.35x10
5
298 466 1323.43
n-C4H10 2.71x10
0
-1.26x10
5
298 466 15.15
H2 4.39x10
2
0.00 298 466 596.20
H =
4090.20

Stream 9
i-C4H8 6.47x10
1
-1.69x10
4
298 326.3 47.45
i-C4H10 3.49x 10
1
-1.35 x10
4
298 326.3 27.84
n-C4H10 4.00x10
1
-1.26 x10
5
298 326.3 0.32
H =
75.61
Energy balance,
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= 75.61 4090.20
= -4014.59 kW (heat is being released to the surrounding)
98
Cp of pure water, 4.184 J/g
o
C (Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes,
W.Rousseau et. al)
g/s 6869.36
C 53.3) - (193 x C 4.184J/g
4014590J/s

T mCp
Q
m
o o

8.2.7 V-100 (Separator)

Sample of Calculation for Hydrogen Splitter Vessel
Stream 9
C4H8 2.37x10
2
-1.69x10
4
298 326.3 166.03
i-C4H10 2.71x10
2
-
1.35Ex10
5
298 326.3 2.17
n-C4H10 4.39x10
2
-1.26x10
5
298 326.3 353.50
H2 4.39x10
2
0.00 298 326.3 99.88
S10
T = 53.3
o
C
P = 90 kPa
(gas)
S9
T= 53.3
o
C
P= 100kPa
(liquid-gas)
S11
T=53.3
o
C
P=100kPa
99
S11
T = 53.3
o
C
P = 2000kPa
(liquid)
S14
T = 27
o
C
P = 100kPa
(liquid)
S15
T = 101
o
C
P = 2000kPa
(liquid)
H =
621.57
Stream 10
H2 4.39x10
2
0.00 298 326.3

H =
99.88

Stream 11
C4H8 439.26 -16910 298 326.3 321.92
i-C4H10 236.53 -134610 298 326.3 188.89
n-C4H10 2.71 -126230 298 326.3 2.18
H =
512.99
Energy balance,
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= (512.99)-(621.57+99.88)
= -208.46 (heat is being released to the surroundings)
8.2.8 R-102 (MTBE Reactor)
100

The pressure increases from 100kPa to 2000kPa. As there is a heat exchanger (heater)
in the MTBE reactor.

Stream 11
C4H8 439.26 -16910 298 326.3 321.92
i-C4H10 236.53 -134610 298 326.3 188.89
n-C4H10 2.71 -126230 298 326.3 2.18
H =
512.99
Stream 14
CH3OH 4.84x10
2
-2.01x10
4
298 300 11.81
H2O 1.76 -2.42x10
5
298 300 -4.79
H =
7.02
Stream 15
C5H12O 4.30x10
2
-2.93x10
5
298 374 1339.10
CH3OH 1.09 -2.01 x10
5
298 374 1.07
101
H2O 1.94 -2.44 x10
5
298 374 13.94
i-C4H8 0.176 -0.123 298 374 0.35
i-C4H10 2.37x10
2
-1.35 x10
5
298 374 539.59
C4H10O 8.64 -3.13 x10
5
298 374 22.49
n-C4H10 2.71 -1.26 x10
5
298 374 6.22
(CH3)2O 26.3 -1.84 x10
5
298 374 39.56
H =
1962.32
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= 1962.32 7.02 512.99
= 1442.31 kW
To calculate the value of H
R
:
1.) C
4
H
8
+ CH
3
OH C
5
H
12
O
2.) 2CH
3
OH C
2
H
6
O + H
2
O
3.) C
4
H
8
+ H
2
O C
4
H
10
O
so,
R
1 = (
F
C
5
H
12
O) - (
F
CH
3
OH) + (
F
C
4
H
8
)
= (-292990) ((-201300) + (-130))
= -91820 kJ/kmol
R
2 = (
F
C
2
H
6
O) + (
F
H
2
O) -(2
F
CH
3
OH )
= (-242000) + (-184180) (2 x -201300)
= -23580 kJ/kmol
R
3 = (
F
C
4
H
10
O) (
F
H
2
O) -(
F
C
4
H
8
)
= (-312630) - (-184180) (-130)
= -128270 kJ/kmol
Therefore,
H
R
= (
R 1
kJ/kmol x (63.44kmol/hr) + (
R 2
kJ/kmol x 0.039kmol/hr) +
(
R 3
kJ/kmol x 0.624kmol/hr)
=(-91820kJ/kmolx63.44kmol/hr)+(-23580kJ/kmolx0.039kmol/hr) +
102
S13
T = 27
0
C
P = 115 Kpa
(liquid)

S12
T = 27
0
C
P = 110 Kpa
(Liquid)
(-128270 kJ/kmol x 0.624kmol/hr)
= -5906020.9 kJ/hr
= -1640.56 kW
Although there is stream flow, but the KE is too small and negligible and there is also
now work so, W is zero and as for the PE, the value is neglected, as it is also too small
Now we calculate the value of Q
Q W
0
= H
R
+ (-H
in
) +(H
out
) +KE
0
+ PE
0
Q = H
R
+ (-H
in
) +(H
out
)
Q = -1640.56 + 1442.31 = -198.25 kW
8.2.9 P-101 (Pump 2)

Calculations are based on Yunus A. Cengel, Micheal A. Boles, Thermodynamics: An
Engineering Approach, WCB/Mc Graw-Hill, 1989, page, 354-355.
Assumptions:
4. Steady operating conditions exist,
Specific volume:
103
S13 S14
T= 27
o
C T= 27
o
C
P=115kPa P= 115kPa
(liquid) (liquid)
S29
T=27
o
C
P=130kPa
(liquid)
methanol = 0.118 m
3
/mol
(Data of these specific volumes are based on Coulson & Richardsons)
Methanol
0.118m
3
3
/kg
Vavg = 1.78 m
3
/kg
Which remains essentially constant during the process
kW 79.19 J/hr 285080.63k
kg/hr 15462 x 18.44kJ/kg
kJ/kg 44 . 18
) J/1kpa.m 110)kpa(1k /kg(115 3.6875m
) P (P V
Vdp W
3 3
1 2 1
2
1
in

8.2.10 M-101 (Mixer)

Stream 13
CH3OH 4.83 x10
2
-2.01 x10
2
298 300

H =
11.79
104
S15

T = 101
0
C T = ?
0
C
P = 2000 kPa P = 450 Kpa
(liquid) (Gas-liquid)
Stream 29
CH3OH 9.91 x10
1
-2.01 x10
5
298 300 0.02
H20 1.76 -2.42 x10
5
298 300 0.03
H =
0.06

Stream 14
CH3OH 4.84 x10
5
-2.01 x10
5
298 300 11.81
H20 1.76 -2.42 x10
5
298 300 0.03
H =
11.84
Energy balance = out - in
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= 11.84 0.06 11.79
= 0.04 kW
8.2.11 EX-100 (Expander 1)
T
15
= 453K T
16
=?
P
15
= 2 bar P
16
= 0.45 bar
105
S16
By assuming polytropic and ideal gas condition:
T16= T15(P16/P15)
m
(Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 85)
m = 1/ Ep = CPmean/CV = CPm/CPm R
Where R = 8.314 kJ/kmol.K
For MTBE, a = 2.533 , b = 51.372 x 10
-2
, c = -2.59 x 10
-4
, d = 43.04 x 10
-9
,
CPMTBE = kJ/kmol.K 151000 dT cT bT a
1000K
374K
3 2
+ + +
For TBA, a = 3.266 , b = 41.80 x 10

-2
, c = -2.242 x 10
-4
, d = 46.85 x 10
-9
,
CP(TBA) = kJ/kmol.K 126000 dT cT bT a
1000K
374K
3 2
+ + +
For DME, a = 17.015 , b = 19.907x 10

-2
, c = -5.23 x 10
-5
, d = -1.918 x 10
-9
,
CP(DME) = kJ/kmol.K 70700 dT cT bT a
1000K
374K
3 2
+ + +
For CH3OH, a = 21.152 , b = 70.924 x 10

-3
, c = 25.870 x 10
-6
, d = -2.852 x 10
-8
,
CP(methanol) = ol.K 44900kJ/km dT cT bT a
1000K
374K
3 2
+ + +
For H2O, a = 27.143 , b = 92.738 x 10

-4
, c = -1.381 x 10
-5
, d = 76.451 x 10
-10
,
CP(water) = ol.K 23500kJ/km dT cT bT a
1000K
374K
3 2
+ + +
For butene, a = -2.994 , b = 3.53 x 10

-1
, c = -1.98 x 10
-4
, d = 4.46 x 10
-8
,
CPbutene = kJ/kmol.K 113000 dT cT bT a
1000K
374K
3 2
+ + +
For Isobutane, a = -1.39 , b = 3.85 x 10

-1
, c = -1.85 x 10
-4
, d = 2.90 x 10
-8
,
CPisobutane = kJ/kmol.K 126000 dT cT bT a
1000K
374K
3 2
+ + +
For n-butane, a = 9.85 , b = 3.31 x 10

-1
, c = -1.11 x 10
-4
, d = -2.82 x 10
-9
,
CPn-butane = kJ/kmol.K 113000 dT cT bT a
1000K
374K
3 2
+ + +
) 453 1000 (
) e tan bu n , Cp e tan Cpisobu butene , Cp , Cp methanol , Cp DME , Cp TBA , Cp MTBE , Cp ( 125 . 0
Cpmean
H2
+ + + + + + +
mol.K 153.37kJ/k
374 1000
113000) 126000 113000 23500 44900 70700 126000 00 0.125(1510
+ + + + + + +
So , = CPm/CPm R = 153.37/(153.37-8.314) = 1.06

106

S16 S17
T = 193
o
C T = 64.5
0
C
P = 120 Kpa P = 100 Kpa
(Liquid) (Liquid)
To find Ep(efficiency),
Flow rate =
0.5
1
x
273
374
x22.4x
3600s
ol 53999.92km
s / m 61 . 920
3
From Figure 3.6, Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 83,
Ep = 85%
m = 1/ Ep = (1.06-1/1.06 (0.85)= 0.0665
To determine T6,
T16 = T15(P16/P15)
m
= 374(0.45/2.0)
0.0665
= 338.68K (65.6
o
C)
Tc = 417.07K, Pc = 38.17 bar
Trmean = (T15 + T16)/2Tc = (374+ 228.68K)/2(417.07) = 0.723 K
Prmean = (P15 + P16)/2Pc = (2+0.45)/2(38.17) = 0.0321 bar
From Figure 3.8, Compressibility factors (Coulson & Richardson, Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6, page 87).
Z = 0.8
Then find n, n = 1/(1-m) = 1/(1-0.0665) = 1.07
Polytropic work = zRT1(n/n-1)x((P15/P16)
(n-1/n)
1)
=
1
1
]
1

,
_
1
]
1
1
45 . 0
2
x )
07 . 0
07 . 1
)( 374 )( 314 . 8 ( 00 . 1
07 . 1
07 . 0
= 4872.06 kJ/kmol
Actual work = Polytropic work / Ep
= 4872.06 /0.80
= 6090.07 kJ/kmol
Compressor power = 6090.07 kJ/kmol x 53999.12x 1hr/3600s
= 91349kW
Therefore the compressor power required to decrease the pressure from 2 bar
(2000kPa) to 0.45 bar (450kPa) is 91349kW.
8.2.12 E-103 (Cooler 1)
107

Stream 16
C5H12O 4.30 x10
2
-2.93 x10
5
298 466 3270.13
CH3OH 5.02 -2.01 x10
5
298 466 11.81
H2O 1.21 x10
2
-2.42 x10
5
298 466 194.19
i-C4H8 8.16 -1.69 x10
5
298 466 40.93
I-C4H10 2.37 x10
2
-1.35 x10
5
298 466 1323.40
C4H10O 6.65 x10
1
-3.13 x10
5
298 466 4.26
n-C4H10 2.71 -1.26 x10
5
298 466 15.17
(CH3)2O 1.21 x10
2
-1.84 x10
5
298 466 438.54
H =
5298.44

Stream 17
C5H12O 4.30 x10
2
-2.93 x10
5
298 337.5 665.50
CH3OH 5.02 x10
2
-2.01 x10
5
298 337.5 2.50
H2O 1.21 x10
2
-2.42 x10
5
298 337.5 44.96
i-C4H8 8.16 -1.69 x10
5
298 337.5 8.45
I-C4H10 2.37 x10
2
-1.35 x10
5
298 337.5 267.64
C4H10O 0.665 -3.13 x10
5
298 337.5 0.85
n-C4H10 2.71 -1.26 x10
5
298 337.5 3.09
(CH3)2O 1.21 x10
5
-1.84 x10
5
298 337.5 91.16
H =
1084.15
Energy balance,
108

S19
P = 305 Kpa
T = 53.3
o
C
(gas)

S17
P = 450 Kpa
T =64.5
o
C
( liquid )
S18
P = 400 Kpa
T = 103.3
o
C
( liquid )
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= 1084.15 5298.44
= -4214.29 kW (heat is being released to the surrounding)
o
W.Rousseau et. al)
g/s 7838.44
C 64.5) - (193 x C 4.184J/g
4214290J/s

T mCp
Q
m
o o

8.2.13 T-101 (Distillation Column 1)
Sample of Calculations:
R = L/D
Overall:
(NL), L = D x 1.5
109
= 451.779 x 2.5
= 1129.45 kmol/hr
(NV), V = L + D
= 1129.45+ 451.779
= 1581.23 kmol/hr
Stream 17
C5H12O 4.30 x10
2
-2.93 x10
5
298 337.5 665.50
CH3OH 5.02 -2.01 x10
5
298 337.5 2.50
H2O 1.21 x10
2
-2.42 x10
5
298 337.5 44.96
i-C4H8 8.16 -1.69 x10
5
298 337.5 8.45
I-C4H10 2.37 x10
2
-1.35 x10
5
298 337.5 267.64
C4H10O 0.665 -3.13 x10
5
298 337.5 0.85
n-C4H10 2.71 -1.26 x10
5
298 337.5 3.09
(CH3)2O 1.21 x10
2
-1.84 x10
5
298 337.5 91.16
H =
1084.15
Stream 19
CH3OH 1.01E+00 -2.01 x10
5
298 376.3 1.03
H2O 6.83E+00 -2.42 x10
5
298 376.3 5.04
i-C4H8 1.76E-01 -1.69 x10
4
298 376.3 0.38
(CH3)2O 2.63E+01 -1.84E+05 298 376.3 40.85
i-C4H10 2.37E+02 -1.35 x10
5
298 376.3 557.49
n-C4H10 2.71E+00 -1.26 x10
5
298 376.3 6.42
H =
611.21
Stream 18
110

S19 S20
T = 53.3
o
C T = 40
0
C
P = 305 Kpa P =100 Kpa
(Liquid) (Liquid)
CH5H12O 4.30E+02 -2.93 x10
5
298 326.3 469.97
CH3OH 7.50E-02 -2.01 x10
5
298 326.3 0.03
C4H10O 8.64E+00 -3.13 x10
5
298 326.3 7.82
H2O 1.26E+01 -2.42 x10
5
298 326.3 3.35

H =
481.17
Energy balance,
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= (481.17 + 611.21) 1084.15
= 8.23 kW
8.2.14 Cooler 2 (E-104)

Stream 19
CH3OH 1.01E+00 -2.01 x10
5
298 376.3 1.03
H2O 6.83E+00 -2.42 x10
5
298 376.3 5.04
i-C4H8 1.76E-01 -1.69 x10
4
298 376.3 0.38
(CH3)2O 2.63E+01 -1.84x10
5
298 376.3 40.85
i-C4H10 2.37E+02 -1.35 x10
5
298 376.3 557.49
n-C4H10 2.71E+00 -1.26 x10
5
298 376.3 6.42
H =
611.21
Stream 20
111
S22
T = 27
0
C
P = 30 kPa
(liquid)
S21
T = 27
0
C
P = 25 kPa
(Liquid)

CH3OH 1.01E+00
-2.01
x10
5
298 313 0.19
H2O 6.83E+00
-2.42
x10
5
298 313 0.96
i-C4H8 1.76E-01
-1.69
x10
4
298 313 0.07
(CH3)2O 2.63E+01
-1.84
x10
5
298 313 7.33
I-C4H10 2.37E+02
-1.35
x10
5
298 313 98.29
N-C4H10 2.71E+00
-1.26
x10
5
298 313 1.14
H =
107.97
Energy balance,
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= 107.97 611.21
= -503.24 kW
o
W.Rousseau et. al)
g/s 9043.40
C 40) - (53.3 x C 4.184J/g
503240J/s

T mCp
Q
m
o o

8.2.15 P-102 (Pump 3)
112

Assumptions:
Specific volume:
Water = 0.056m
3
/mol
(Which remains essentially constant during the process)
Water
0.056m
3
/mol x 1000 mol/kmol x 1 kmol/18kg = 3.11 m
3
/kg
Which remains essentially constant during the process.
22.85kW kJ/hr 22851
1469kg/hr x 15.55kJ/kg
15.55kJ/kg
3.11(5)
) /1kpa.m 25)kpa(1kJ /kg(30 3.11m
) P (P V
Vdp W
3 3
1 2 1
2
1
in

8.2.16 T-102 (Extraction Column)

113
Sample of Calculation for Extraction Column
Stream 20
CH3OH 1.01E+00
-2.01
x10
5
298 313 0.19
H2O 6.83E+00
-2.42
x10
5
298 313 0.96
i-C4H8 1.76E-01
-1.69
x10
4
298 313 0.07
(CH3)2O 2.63E+01
-1.84
x10
5
298 313 7.33
I-C4H10 2.37E+02
-1.35
x10
5
298 313 98.29
N-C4H10 2.71E+00
-1.26
x10
5
298 313 1.14
H =
107.97
Stream 22
H2O 8.16E+01
-2.42
x10
5
298 300

H =
1.53
S22 S23
T=27
o
C T=40
o
C
P=30kPa P=250kPa
(liquid) (liquid)
S20
T=40
o
C
P=100kPa S25
(liquid) T=27oC
P=100kPa
(liquid)
114
Stream 23
i-C4H8 1.76E-01
-1.69
x10
4
298 313 0.07
(CH3)2O 2.63E+01
-1.84
x10
5
298 313 7.33
i-C4H10 2.37E+02
-1.35
x10
5
298 313 98.30
n-C4H10 2.71E+00
-1.26
x10
5
298 313 1.14
H =
106.83
Stream 25
CH3OH 1.01E+00 -2.01 x10
5
298 300 0.02
H2O 8.84E+01 -2.42 x10
5
298 300 1.65
H =
1.68

Energy balance,
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= (106.83+1.68) (107.97+1.53)
= -0.91 kW
8.2.17 Pump 4 (P-103)
115
S24
T = 40
O
C
P =
300 Kpa
(liquid)

Assumptions:
Specific volume:
Specific volumes:
DME = 0.178m
3
/mol
Butene = 0.240 m
3
/mol
Isobutane = 0.255m
3
/mol
n-butane =0.263 m
3
/mol
DME
0.178m
3
3
/kg
butene
0.240m
3
3
/kg
Isobutane
0.255m
3
3
/kg
n-butane
0.263m
3
3
/kg
Vavg = (3.87 + 4.29 + 9.11 + 4.53) m
3
/kg / 4 = 5.45 m
3
/kg
Which remains essentially constant during the process
116
1142.76kW kJ/hr 4113932.50
kg/hr x g 272.50kJ/k
g 272.50kJ/k
5.45(50)
) J/1kpa.m 250)kpa(1k /kg(300 5.45m
) P (P V
Vdp W
3 3
1 2 1
2
1
in

8.2.18 Pump 5 (P-104)

Assumptions:
Specific volume:
Water = 0.056 m
3
/mol
Methanol = 0.118m
3
/mol
Water
0.056 m
3
3
/kg
Methanol
0.118m
3
3
/kg
117
S26
T = 27
O
C
P =
150 Kpa
( liquid
)
S28
T=53
0
C
P=100kPa
(liquid)
S26
T=27
o
C
P=150kPa
(Liquid)
S27
T=30
o
C
P=70kPa
(liquid)
Vavg = (4.26 m
3
/kg + 3.6875 m
3
/kg)/2
= 3.974 m
3
/kg
Which remains essentially constant during the process.
kW 75 . 322 kJ/hr 322752.384
hr 1624.32kg/ x 198.7kJ/kg
198.7kJ/kg
3.974(50)
) J/1kpa.m 100)kpa(1k /kg(150 3.974m
) P (P V
Vdp W
3 3
1 2 1
2
1
in

8.2.19 T-102 (Distillation Column 2)

Sample of Calculations:
R = L/D
Overall:
(NL), L = D x 1.5
= 88.44 x 1.5
= 132.66 kmol/hr
(NV), V = L + D
118

S28 S29
T = 53
o
C T = 27
0
C
P = 100Kpa P = 130 Kpa
(Liquid) (Liquid)
= 132.66 + 88.64
= 221.30 kmol/hr
Stream 26
CH3OH 9.91E-01 -2.01 x10
5
298 300 0.02
H2O 1.76E+00 -2.42 x10
5
298 300 -4.79
H =
-4.77
Stream 27
CH3OH 2.00E-02 -2.01 x10
5
298 300 0.00
H2O 8.67E+01 -2.42 x10
5
298 300 -235.48
H =
-235.48

Stream 28
CH3OH 1.10E-02 -2.01 x10
5
298 326 0.00
H2O 8.84E+01 -2.42 x10
5
298 326 -240.26
H =
-240.26
Energy balance,
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= (-235.48+(-240.26)) (-4.77)
= -470.97 kW
8.2.20 Cooler 3 (E-105)
119

Stream 28
CH3OH 1.10E-02 -2.01 x10
5
298 300 0.00
H2O 8.84E+01 -2.42 x10
5
298 300 -240.26
H =
-240.26
Stream 29
CH3OH 9.91E-01 -2.01 x10
5
298 300 0.02
H20 1.76E+00 -2.42 x10
5
298 300 0.03
H =
0.06
Energy balance,
Q = (
H)out (
H)in
= 0.06 (-240.26)
= 240.32 kW
o
W.Rousseau et. al)
g/s 2209.15
C 27) - (53 x C 4.184J/g
J/s 240320

T mCp
Q
m
o o
120
CHAPTER 9
121
HYSYS
9.0 THE DESIGN MADE BASED ON HYSYS SIMULATION
There are two method that was used in calculating the mass balance and energy
balance for the process which is:
i) Manual calculation
ii) Hysys simulation
Hysys program was used to see whether the design could be run or not. Using
Hysys the calculation of the process was calculated automatically when the parameter
that needed was insert. Then if the parameter that was insert is logic so Hysys program
can calculated the result and the equipment can converge. If the data that was inserted
was illogical the equipment cannot converge and the calculation cannot be done.

At the back of this page show the simulation using Hysys that was converge
and include with the manual log book.
REFERENCES
Alber V.G Hahn (1970). The Petrochemical Industry Market & Economics, USA
Mc Graw Hill Book Company. 363- 372.
122
Coulson & Richardsons, Chemical Engineering Volume 6 Third Edition, Butterworth
Heinemann.
Norman N. Barish and Seymour Kaplan, Economic Analysis for Engineering and
Managerial Decision Making, Second Edition, Mc Graw Hill
Robert H. Perry and Don W. Green, Perrys Chemical Engineerings Handbook,
Seventh Edition, Mc Graw Hill.
Encik Mohd Napis Bin Sudin. 2003, Production of MTBE, Malaysia, Kuantan. Interview,
8 July
Puan Masri. 2003. Information of MTBE production, Malaysia, Kuantan. Interview, 28
Jun.
Lanny P. Schmidt (1998), The Engineering of Chemical Reaction, Oxford University
Press.
James, G. Speight, Baki Ozum (1985). Petroleum Refining Process, Apex
Engineering Inc. Marcell Dekkir New York.
MTBE and Oxygenates (1990), An International Marketing Guide Dewitt & Company
Incorporated 16800 Greenport park, Suite 120N Houston, Texas 77060-2386.
Page 51-62.
The 1992-1995 Worldwide Catalyst Product, Process Licensing & Service Directory-
Technical articl-1992/3. Page 9.
Annual Report 1994, Section 4. Area Summary for asia and the Pacific. Page 135-169.
Ray/Johnston (1989). Chemical Engineering Design Project, a case study approach,
volume 6. Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.
Wentz (1998). Safety, Health, And Environmental Protection, Mc Graw Hill
Companies, Inc.
Wiley (2000). Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes, John Willey & sons,
Inc.
Chemical Week June 11, 2003 Volume 165 page 31
George S. Brandy ,Henry R.Clauser & John A. Vaccari. Material Handbook 4
th
edition-
Joshua D.Tayloy, Jerrey I. Steinfeld and Jefferson W.Tester Ind. Eng. Chem. Res
2001,40, 67-74 page 71.
Monica Bianchi & Rachl Uctas,ECN ACN/CMR/ ECN NPRA Supplement, March 2002.
Petronas Resource Center, Tingkat 4, Menara 2, Menara Berkembar Petronas, Kuala
Lumpur City Center.
123
Malaysia Industrial Development Authority (MIDA), Plaza Central, K L Sentral. Kuala
Lumpur.
Pusat Informasi SIRIM Berhad. 1, Persiaran Dato Menteri, PO Box 7035, Seksyen 2,
40911 Shah Alam.
Jabatan Perangkaan Malaysia, Pusat Pentadbiran Kerajaan, Putrajaya.
Tiram Kimia Sdn. Bhd, Tingkat 1, Bangunan Shell, Off Jalan Semantan, Damansara
Heights, 50490 Kuala Lumpur.
http://www.Manufacturing.net/pur/index.asp
http://www.ceh.sric.sri.com/Publichtml
http://ww2.cemr.wvu/edu/~wwwche/publications/project/index.html
http://www.illallc.com/engarticle.html
http://www.huntsman.com/pertochemicals/ShowPage.cfm
http://www.cmt.anl.gov/science_technology/basicci/onestep_phenol.shtml
http://www.illallc.com/engpatent3am.html
http://www.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/chemicals/chem_profiles/acetone/basic_ace
http://www.atsdr.ede.gov/toxfag.html
http://www.shellchemicals.com/chemicals/products/1,1184,806,00.html
http://www.mida.gov.my
http://eneken.ieej.or.jp/en/data/pdf/142.pdf
http://www.matheson-trigos.com/mathportal/-pdfs/product/isobutane.pdf
http://www.specialgas.com/isobutane.html
http://www.gas.com.pdf/gas.pdf
http://www.boc.com/microsite/america/products/gases/mixed/isobutane.html
http://www.boc.com/microsite/america/products/gases/aps/geiger.html
http://www.airliquide.com/safety/msds/en/129-Al-
En.pdf http://www.cpchem/msds/specchem/isobutaneinstrumengradi.pdf
124
DESIGN
PROJECT II
125
SECTION 1
Catalytic Cracking Design
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A bed of solid particles can be fluidized by a stream of gas through it. The fluidization
of solids in a stream of gas occurs only if the gas velocity achieved a certain value
which is called minimum fluidization velocity Umf. Once the gas velocity achieved this
value, the bed expands and pressure drop across the fluidized bed remains constant
once fluidization occurred.
In this commercial fluidized-bed catalytic cracking reactor, catalysts flow up through the
reaction regeneration section in a riser type of flow regime. The over head catalyst
captured by cyclones is returned to the hopper where it is fluidized with air to recapture
any entrained hydrocarbon vapor. The catalyst was then discharged from the hopper,
down through a standpipe. The solids flow through the standpipe was controlled by
slide valve located at the base. From there, the solids went into the riser where they
are carried by stream of air to the regenerator vessel.
The regenerator operation in these plants resembled that of the reactor except for the
systems use of air instead of oil vapor. A portion of the catalyst from the regenerated
catalyst hopper was returned to the regenerator through catalyst fresh feed
exchangers. This action controlled the regenerator temperature and served to preheat
the feed. Another bypass line from the hopper to the regenerator was used to control
the dense bed level or holdup in the regenerator. Catalyst from the regenerated
catalyst hopper flowed through a standpipe back into riser where the feed was injected.
The commercial cracking catalysts used most widely is silica-alumina. High content
catalysts are characterized by higher equilibrium activity level and surface area. These
126
catalysts could be offered at a lower price. An advantage of this catalyst grade is that a
lesser amount of adsorbed, unconverted, heavy products on the catalyst were carried
over to the stripper zone and regenerator. As a result, a higher yield of more valuable
products and also smoother operation of the regenerator was achieved.
Basically the design of the fluidized bed system can be divided into several sections:
1. Reaction vessel which included:
Fluidized bed portion
Gas disengaging space or freeboard
Gas distributor
2. Solids feeder or flow control
3. Solids discharge
4. Dust separator for the exit gas
5. Instrumentation and control
6. Gas supply
Figure 1.1 : Illustration diagram of the reactor
127
1.2 Estimation of diameter of reactor
The fluidized bed diameter depends on the operating gas velocity. A larger diameter is
required for a low gas velocity while for a high gas velocity, a small diameter is
required.
However the gas velocity must exceed the terminal velocity (Ut) of the particle
transport of solid particles may occur. The operating velocity should be between
minimum fluidization velocity and terminal falling velocity to maintain fluidization of
solids.
Operating gas velocity, Uo =
g
g p p
g d

18
) (
2

Where dp = diameter of particle
p = density of particle
g = density of gases
= viscosity of gases
g = gravitational acceleration
so, the value of Uo =
) 10 15 . 1 ( 18
) 484 . 1 1282 ( 81 . 9 ) 10 80 (
5
2 6

= - 0.388 m/s (rising)
= 0.388 m/s
Flowrate of gas stream , Q = 39353 kg/hr
=
3600 484 . 1
39353
m
3
/s
= 7.366 m
3
/s
The bed diameter will be depending on the area of reactor used:
Cross sectional area, A =
V
Q
=
388 . 0
366 . 7
= 18.985 m
2

128
Diameter of bed, D =
A 4
=
985 . 18 4
= 4.9164 m
5 m
1.3 Calculation of the Transport disengagement height, TDH
According to M. Rhodes (1998), the TDH region is considered as the region where
located above the bed surface to the top of disengagement zone. While the
disengagement zone is the region above the splash zone or region just above the bed
surface in which the upward flux and suspension concentration of fine particles
decrease with increasing in height.
There are so many correlations that can be used to find the TDH value. For this
design Amitin et al. (1968) was used.
( ) ( )
0 10
2 . 1
0
log 2 . 1 33 . 7 85 . 0 U U F TDH (1.1)
( ) m F TDH 8 740968 . 7
1.4 Minimum fluidization Velocity
The minimum fluidization velocity (Umf) is determined from Ergun equation:
For Reynolds number, 0.01 < Re < 1000:
According to the Martin Rhodes (1999), Ar =
g
g g p p
g d

18
) (
2
and
f p mf
D U
Re
129
And
( )
2
3 3
Re
1
75 . 1 Re
1
150

Ar (1.2)
By rearranging the equation (1.2) above we can get the new equation for minimum
fluidization, Umf. As a result, the equation is becomes:
( ) 7 . 33 0408 . 0 7 . 1135 Re
5 . 0
+ Ar
d
D U
p g
f p mf
( ) 7 . 33 44 . 72 0408 . 0 7 . 1135
10 80 484 . 1
10 15 . 1
5 . 0
6
5
+

mf
U
s m U
mf
/ 00425 . 0
1.5 Calculation for the value of terminal velocity
t
U
The value of
t
Re
need to be calculated first, then the value of
t
U
can be calculated.
The range of particle size is 65 m to 95 m. The mean particle size is 250 m.
When
m d
p
6
10 80

( )
2
3
2
3
4
Re
g
p g p g
t D
gd
C
( ) ( )
( )
96.227883 Re
10 15 . 1
10 80 81 . 9 484 . 1 1282 484 . 1
3
4
Re
2
2
5
3
6
2
t D
t D
C
C
From the chart of
2
Re
t D
C and
t
D
C
Re
vs Reynolds number, for value of
130
Figure 1.1 : CDRe
2
and CD/Re versus Reynold number
96.227883 Re
2
t D
C the value of
3 Re
t
Now from this we can calculate the value of
t
U
, where
1
5
6
0.290599
10 15 . 1
10 8 484 . 1
3
Re
ms U
U
d U
t
t
g
p t g
t
131
when
m d
p
6
10 85

( )
( ) ( )
( )
5 115.421775 Re
10 15 . 1
10 85 81 . 9 484 . 1 1282 484 . 1
3
4
Re
3
4
Re
2
2
5
3
6
2
2
3
2
t D
t D
p g p g
t D
C
C
gd
C

From the chart of
2
Re
t D
C and
t
D
C
Re
vs Reynolds number from figure 1.1 for value
of 5 115.421775 Re
2
t D
C the value of
5 . 3 Re
t
Now from this we can calculate the value of
t
U
, where
1
5
6
0.3190899
10 0 . 5
10 85 54 . 5
3
Re
ms U
U
d U
t
t
g
p t g
t
Table 1.1 : Calculation for terminal velocity in different size of dp.

132
Sieve
size dp,
m
Weight,
%, xi
Weight
fraction,
xi CDReT
2
Reynold
number
Terminal
velocity, Vt
0.000095 3.5 0.035 161.1394175 4.5 0.367073344
0.00009 7.5 0.075 137.0119672 4 0.344414495
0.000085 24 0.24 115.4217755 3.5 0.3190899
0.00008 44 0.44 96.22788368 3 0.29059973
0.000075 9.5 0.095 79.28933286 2.5 0.258310872
0.00007 7 0.07 64.46516426 2 0.221409318
0.000065 4.5 0.045 51.61441905 1.8 0.214596724
1.6 Find the value of K i*
Using the correlation for estimating entrainment rates are reported in the literature. The
entrainment rate can be expressed by the following equation, as follows:
Ei = Ei
+ (Eio -Ei
)exp (-afh) ( 1.3)
Where Ei = entrainment rate at a point h above bed surface
af = a constant in freeboard
Ei
= rate of elutriation of the fines with diameter dpi above the TDH
Ei
= K i
Xi (1.4)
Where Ki
is the elutriation rate constant for which numerous correlations have
been reported. Table 2.2 from Appendix lists various published correlations
for the elutriation rate constant.
The constant, af, in equation (1.2) is independent of the beds composition and can be
evaluated from experimental data for Fi as a function of h. Following Chen et al. (1979),
is the entrainment rate of particles at the bed surface, where:
Eio = KoXi (1.5)
Where Ko = Elutriation rate constant at bed surface
Xi = weight fraction of the particle cut size dpiA
1.7 Find the value of Eo
133
( )
5 .. 2
5 . 2
5 . 0 5 . 3 9
10 07 . 3
mf
g
eqmt
o
U U
g
Ad
E
Eo =
( )
( )( ) 5 98 . 18
) 10 15 . 1 (
7 0.00425416 388 . 0 ) 81 . 9 ( ) 484 . 1 ( 10 07 . 3
5 .. 2 5
5 . 2 5 . 0 5 . 3 9

Eo = 10.676 kg/m
2
s
The following correlation is used to calculate the value of E i*
by using three different

investigators which is :
Merrick and Highley (1974)
1
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
25 . 0
5 . 0
4 . 10 exp 130
mf
mf
t
g
i
U U
U
U
v
A
U
E
Geldart et al. (1979) revised
,
_
U
v
U
E
t
g
i
4 . 5 exp 7 . 23
and Colakyan et al (1979)

2
1 33
,
_
U
v
E
t
i
From this correlation we find that the average of the correlation for these three
investigators, shown in the table below:
134
Table 1.2 : Correlation of three investigators
Colakyan (1979)
Merrick and Highley
(1974)
Geldart et al.
(1981)
K
i
*
K
i
*
K
i
*
K
i
*
, average
10.27741771 2.810456563 0.008247282 4.36537385
8.238989106 3.115064954 0.011304929 3.788452996
6.227114828 3.509080841 0.016081902 3.25075919
4.299839595 4.035580234 0.023907858 2.786442562
2.545780992 4.76909596 0.037471784 2.450782912
1.100824216 5.849694145 0.062625124 2.337714495
0.8993437 6.085514067 0.068853496 2.351237088
1.8 Calculation of solid loading
First find the value of Kih ,
s
h a K E K K
i i o i ih
2
* *
kg/m 4.36537385
12) - )(2.69398E 4.36537385 - 53 (10.676996 4.36537385
) exp( ) (
+
+

R = R
i
= RmRi
( ) A K R F
Fm
m
i
Fi
Bi
135
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) 98 . 18 8 2.35123708 93 . 10
0.0045 93 . 10
98 . 18 5 2.33771449 93 . 10
0.07 93 . 10
98 . 18 2 2.45078291 93 . 10
0.0095 93 . 10
98 . 18 2 2.78644256 93 . 10
0.044 93 . 10
98 . 18 3.25075919 93 . 10
0.024 93 . 10
98 . 18 6 3.78845299 93 . 10
0.075 93 . 10
98 . 18 4.36537385 93 . 10
0.035 93 . 10
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
R
R R
R R
R R
m
Bi
So the value of Rih calculated by excel is = 0.564147556 kg/s
s m kg
2
T
h
/ 0297 . 0
98 . 18
0.5641475
A
R
Ei
Rti = Kih
*

A

8.98 1 8 2.35123708
8.98 1 5 2.33771449 8.98 1 2 2.45078291 8.98 1 2 2.78644256
8.98 1 3.25075919 8.98 1 6 3.78845299 8.98 1 4.36537385
+ + +
+ + +
= 404.8578835 kg/s
Ri = Kih A. Xi
kg/s 55.90386
0.045 18.98 8 2.35123708
0.07 18.98 5 2.33771449 0.095 18.98 2 2.45078291 0.44 98 . 18 2 2.78644256
.24 0 18.98 3.25075919 0.075 18.98 6 3.78845299 0.035 18.98 4.36537385

+ +
+ +
136
Table 1.3 : Data calculation to find solid loading
Mbi MRi Ki
*
Rti Ri
0.004103705 0.602699773 4.36537385 82.85479568 2.899918
0.009964059 1.269994045 3.788452996 71.90483787 5.392863
0.03640034 3.981014237 3.25075919 61.69940943 14.80786
0.076031739 7.127685256 2.786442562 52.88667983 23.27014
0.018254549 1.505148839 2.450782912 46.51585967 4.419007
0.013978087 1.099367014 2.337714495 44.36982112 3.105887
0.008943974 0.707506537 2.351237088 44.62647993 2.008192
Total 0.167676452 16.2934157 55.90386
a) Solid loading unreturned = 0.029723 / 0.388
= 0.076606351kg/s
b) solid loading return = 55.90386 / 18.98
= 2.94540903 kg/s
1.9 Calculation of holding time and residence time
The outlet concentration of a plug flow reactor is related to the inlet concentration of the
reactant by the same equation as in a batch reactor with the same residence time -.
For an equilibrium reaction between A and B, is first order.
Based on studied of Khabtou, S., Chevreau, T., and Lavalley, J.C., Micropor. Mat. 3,
133 (1994), express the rate per catalyst mass instead of reactor volume.
1 1 3 3
10 785 . 4
75 . 0
35 . 0
35 . 0 1 ln
1 75 . 0
75 . 0
92 . 151
1

1
]
1

+

hr kg m
k
mA
where x is the conversion in this process, x = ([A] 0 - [A]) / [A]0 = 0.35,
137
[A] is experssed in concentration in mol/m3, K the rate mol m-3 s-1, kA in s-1.
The value K = [i-C4=]eq/[i-C4]eq = 0.75 and ST = 151.94 g.hr/m
3
based on study by
Yamamoto, S. Asaoka, et al (1997).
Then from below equation given, w can find :

( )
A A
A
A
X
X
k

1
1
ln 1
=
( ) ) 065 ( 41 . 0
65 . 0 1
1
ln 41 . 0 1
= 2256.48/ 4.785x10
-3

= 417574.39 hr
= 115.99 s
when the total holding time are calculate then the weight of the bed of fluidized bed can
be calculated. The formula used is as below:
0 B
Bed
F
W
t
kg W
W
Bed
Bed
7 95679.7761
39353 3600
830

1.10 Calculation for the pressure drop
B
P
The equation that can be used to calculate the pressure drop across the bed is:
138
( )
A
W W
p
p
g
Bed Bed

,
_
( )
( ) ( )
( ) kPa Pa p
p
383 . 49 78 . 49382
985 . 18
1282
484 . 1
81 . 9 95679.78 81 . 9 95679.78

,
_

According to Kunii and Levenspield, the pressure drop across the distributor
d
p
is
% 10 from the value of pressure drop across the bed when fluidized
B
P . So the value
of
d
p
is:
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
5035 . 0 938 . 4
) 382 . 49 ( % 10
% 10

kgm kPa P
kPa p
p p
d
d
B d
According to Kunii and Levenspield (1991), to determine the number of holes in the
distributor the
t
Re
need to be calculated first:
250344 Re
10 15 . 1
0 . 5 388 . 0 484 . 1
Re
Re
5
0
t
t
g
t g
t
D U
1.11 Determine the direction and flow rate of gas passing between the vessels.
139
Assuming that in fluidized flow the apparent weight of the solids will be supported by
the gas flow, the equation below gives the pressure gradient for fluidized bed flow:
( )
( ) ( ) g
H
P
g p

1
( )
( ) ( )
m / Pa 7411.499
81 . 9 484 . 1 1282 42 . 0 1

H
P
Actual pressure gradient =
( )
m Pa / 3600
10
10 89 . 2 25 . 3
5

Since the actual pressure gradient is well below that for fluidized flow, the standpipe is
operating in packed bed flow.
The pressure gradient in packed bed flow is generated by the upward flow of gas
through the solids in the standpipe. The Ergun equation above provides the
relationship between gas flow and pressure gradient in packed bed.
Knowing the required pressure gradient, the packed bed voidage and the particle and
gas properties, equation below can solve for IUrelI, the magnitude of the relative gas
velocity:
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2
2
2
! !
1
75 . 1 ! !
1
150
rel
sv
f
rel
sv
U
x
U
x H
P
1
]
1

+
1
]
1

For standpipes it is to take downward velocities as positive. In order to create the
pressure gradient in the required direction, the gas must flow upwards relative to the
solids. Hence, IUrelI is negative:
IUrelI = -0.291 m/s
140
From the continuity for the solid,
Solid flux, = ( )
p p
U 1
A
G
p
The solid flux calculated is 55.9 kg/m
2
s as and so
Up =
1282 ) 41 . 0 1 (
9 . 55

= 0.072715 m /s
Solids flow is downward, so Up = + 0.072715 m/s
The relative velocity, Urel = Uf - Up
Hence, actual gas velocity, Uf = - 0.291 + 0.072715
= - 0.21829 m/s (upwards)
Therefore the gas flows upwards at a velocity of 0.21829 m/s relative to the standpipe
walls. The superficial gas velocity is therefore :
U = Uf = -0.0895 m/s (upward )
From the continuity for the gas, mass flow rate of gas,
Mf =
A U
p f

= -0.10431 kg/s
So, for the standpipe operate as required, 0.10431 kg/s of gas must flow from the lower
vessel to the upper vessel.
1.12 Design of cyclone
Size a cyclone separator for removing particles above 80 m in diameter entrained in a
flue gas stream. The following information is supplied:
141

= 0.21

= 0.66
dp = 0.00008 m
gas volumetric flow = 1.8 m
3
/s
particle density = 1282 kg/m
3
gas density = 1.484 kg/m
3
viscosity gas = 0.0000115 Ns/m
kinematic viscosity v = 0.0000278 m
2
/s
inlet gas velocity = 0.388 m/s
specific wall thickness = 5 mm
The particles are approximately round with a shape factor of 0.77
All dimensions of a cyclone of any design are selected depending on the width of inlet
duct b or on the diameter of cyclone Dc. The problem is to properly select one of these
dimensions from which the other dimensions are proportionally evaluated.
The cyclone diameter, settling velocity, gas velocity, and parameters of the suspension
to be separated are all interrelated parameters. Therefore, we select a preliminary
diameter for approximate calculations and then refine our estimate to a more exact
design.
According Nicholas P. Cheremisinoff at al. (1984), the relative dimensions of the
cyclone are specified as:
b =
C
D
and hin =
C
D
For the chosen cyclone = 0.21 and = 0.66
The continuity equation for the inlet nozzle is:
in
W
V
bh
sec
(1.5)
142
where win is the inlet gas velocity; which for a primary cyclone operation is typically 18
to 22 m/s. Expressing b and hin in terms of diameter DC, equation above is rearranged
to solve for the cyclone diameter:
m
w
V
D
in
C
85 . 0
18 66 . 0 21 . 0
8 . 1
5 . 0
5 . 0
sec
,
_
,
_
For design purposes, assume a value of 0.9 m for DC.

The diameter of the discharge pipe is:
Dd = 0.58Dc = 0.58 x 0.9 = 0.52 m
The gas velocity in discharge pipe is thus:
s m
D
V
W
d
d
/ 5 . 8
52 . 0 142 . 3
8 . 1 4 4
2 2
sec
Specifying a wall thickness = 5 mm for the gas discharge pipe, its outside diameter
will be:
m D D
d out d
53 . 0 ) 005 . 0 ( 2 52 . 0 2
,
+ +
The width of the circular gap between the pipe and cyclone shell is:
m
D D
out d c
185 . 0 265 . 0 45 . 0
2 2
,

The height of the circular gap from a spiral surface to the lower edge of discharge pipe
is:
H = 0.775 Dc = 0.775 X 0.9 = 0.7 m
The calculated dimensions of the cyclone can be checked by comparing the particle
settling time:
143
o o
out d c
w w
R R

,
0

to the residence time of gas in the cyclone:
g
av
w
n R
where Rc and Rd,out are the radii of the cyclone and discharge pipe, respectively; n =
number of gas rotations around the discharge pipe (we may assume n = 1.5)
The peripheral velocity of gas is:
s m
H
V
w
g
/ 9 . 13
185 . 0 7 . 0
8 . 1
sec
For this cyclone, this value must be in the range of 12 to 14 m/s

The average radius of the gas rotation is :
m
D
R
out d
av
357 . 0
2
185 . 0
2
53 . 0
2 2
,
+ +

The centrifugal acceleration (at the average radius) is:
2
2 2
/ 542
357 . 0
9 . 13
s m
R
w
a
av
g

The separation criterion is:
2 . 55
81 . 9
542

g
a
K
s
In this case, the centrifugal field in the cyclone is 55.2 times more intensive than the
gravitational.
The Archimedes number is:
144
Ar =
g
g p
d g
2
3

=
2 5
3 5
) 10 15 . 1 (
484 . 1 ) 484 . 1 1282 ( ) 10 80 ( 81 . 9

= 77.44
The settling number is:
S1 = Ar x 1 x Ks = 72.44
55.08843 x
= 3999
Because 3.6 < S1 < 82,500 the flow regime through the cyclone is transitional.
Therefore, the theoretical velocity of the particles is:
( ) ( )
s m
d d w
f f
/ 638 . 4
10 15 . 1
1282 10 42 . 5
10 10 22 . 0
22 . 0 22 . 0
2
5
333 . 0
2
333 . 0
2
1
]
1

1
1
]
1
1
1
]
1

The particles have a shape factor of
= 0.77 and the gas inlet gas stream contains a

low volume of solid particles. Based on the operating conditions specified, the settling
velocity is
Ws = R w = 0.77 x 4.634 = 3.568 m/s
Because the concentration of the suspension is low, we may assume R = 1
145
The settling time is therefore:
w
= 0.0518s
The residence time for the gas is:
9 . 13
5 . 1 357 . 0 142 . 3 2
2

g
avg
w
n R
= 0.2424 s
Since
0
< the diameter of the cyclone selected is acceptable and we may now
specify the other dimensions as based on the recommended proportions.
As a final calculation for the design, we evaluate the hydraulic resistance of the
cyclone:
P =
2
2
1
in D
w C
Where CD is the typical number of cyclone.
= 0.5 x 1 x 1.484 x 18
2
= 240.4 N/m
2

1.13 Calculation for mechanical design
For mechanical design, the temperature and pressure are imperative properties in
calculate the thickness and the stress of the material. For that reason, the safety factor
also required as safeguard and determined by certain consideration such as corrosion
factor, location and process characteristic.
From Hysys data, the operating temperature inlet into the reactor is 250
o
C and
regenerator is 180
o
C. The design temperature is related to the operating temperature.
The design pressure and temperature for this reactor are showed as follow:
Reactor
1. Design Pressure
Operating pressure = 2.89 bar
= 0.289 N/mm
2
146
For safety reason take pressure 10% above operating pressure
Design Pressure, Pi = 0.289 N/mm
2
x 1.1
= 0.3179 N/mm
2
Design Temp. , T = 200C
2. Material Construction
The material used is stainless steel (18Cr/8Ni, 304). For this material, the design stress
at 200 C, R.K.Sinnot (1999).
Design stress, f = 115 N/mm
2
Diameter vessel, Di = 5.0 m
Tensile strength, = 510 N/mm
2
3. Vessel Thickness
e =
Pi jf
Di Pi
2
=
( ) ) 3179 . 0 ( ) 115 ( 1 2
) 5000 )( 3179 . 0 (
= 7 mm + 4 mm
= 11 mm
From R.K.Sinnot (1999), this value should not be less than 12 mm (including 2 mm of
corrosion allowance). For vessel diameter around 5 m, this take e = 15 mm. A much
thicker wall will be needed at the column base to withstand the wind and dead weight
loads.
4. Heads and Closure
This section covers the choice of closure to be used in the design. Basically there are
two types of ends, which are domed ends. A standard torispherical heads and
ellipsoidal heads as well as the flat heads are calculated in order to select the most
economical head regarding its thickness. All the calculation is referring to the R.K.
Sinnot, Coulson and Richardson Vol.6 page 815-817.
Take, crown radius, Rc = Di = 5.0 m
147
Knuckle radius, Rk = 6% Rc = 0.03 m
A head of this size would be form by pressing: no joints, so J = 1.0
Cs =
,
_
+
k
c
R
R
3
4
1
=
,
_
+
3 . 0
0 . 5
3
4
1
= 1.77
Therefore, minimum thickness:
e =
( ) 2 . 0 2
s
i
C Pi Jf
Di P
=
( )( )
( )( ) ( ) 2 . 0 77 . 1 3179 . 0 115 1 2
5000 3179 . 0

= 11 mm
5. Column Weight
Dead weight of vessel, Wv
For a steel vessel,
Wv = 240 Cv Dm (Hv + 0.8Dm) t
Where,
Dm = mean diameter, m
= (Di + t)
Cv = a factor, take 1.15
Hv = height or length between tangent lines, m
t = wall thickness, m
148
To get a rough estimate of the weight of this vessel is by using the average thickness,
11mm
Therefore,
Dm = 5 + 2 x 0.011
= 5.022 m
So,
Wv = 240 (1.15) (5.022) [7.6 + 0.8(5.022)] 0.011
= 177.13 N
= 0.17713 kN
Weight of insulation, WI
Assume material is Mineral wool.
of Mineral wool = 130 kg/m
3
thickness = 75 mm
Volume of insulation
= x Dm x Hv x thickness of insulation
= (5.022) (7.622) (0.075)
= 9.018967m
3
= Volume of insulation x x g
= 9.018967 x 130 x 9.81
= 11501.89N
= 11.50189kN
Double this value to allow fittings, so weight of insulation will be = 23.004 kN
Weight of bed
149
Weight of bed in reactor
WB = 95679.78 x 9.81
= 938618.6 N
= 938.6186 kN
Weight of cyclone
Volume of cyclone in reactor = 2.438 m
3
Weight of cylone = 2.438 x 9.81 x 1282
= 30661.31 N
= 30.661 kN
There fore,
Total weight = Wv +WI +WB + Wc
= (177.1311 + 23003.78 + 938618.6 + 30661.31)N
= 992.461 kN
For Regenerator
1. Design Pressure
= 0.26 N/mm
2
For safety reason take pressure 10% above operating pressure
2
x 1.1
= 0.286 N/mm
2
Design Temp. , T = 180C
2. Material Construction
The material used is stainless steel (18Cr/8Ni, 304). For this material, the design stress
at 200 C, R.K.Sinnot (1999).
2
Diameter vessel, Di = 6.5 m
150
2
3. Vessel Thickness
e =
Pi f
Di Pi
2
=
( ) ) 286 . 0 ( ) 121 ( 1 2
) 6500 )( 286 . 0 (
= 8 mm + 4 mm
= 12 mm
4 Heads and Closure
This section covers the choice of closure to be used in the design. Basically there are
two types of ends, which are domed ends. A standard torispherical heads and
ellipsoidal heads as well as the flat heads are calculated in order to select the most
economical head regarding its thickness. All the calculation is by referring to the R.K.
Sinnot, Coulson and Richardson Vol.6 page 815-817
Take, crown radius, Rc = Di = 6.5 m
A head of this size would be form by pressing: no joints, so J = 1.0
Cs =
,
_
+
k
c
R
R
3
4
1
=
,
_
+
39 . 0
5 . 6
3
4
1
= 1.77
Therefore, minimum thickness:
e =
( ) 2 . 0 2
s
i
C Pi Jf
Di P
151
=
( )( )
( )( ) ( ) 2 . 0 77 . 1 286 . 0 121 1 2
5000 286 . 0

= 14 mm
5. Column Weight
Dead weight of vessel, Wv
For a steel vessel,
Wv = 240 Cv Dm (Hv + 0.8Dm) t
Where,
= (Di + t)
Cv = a factor, take 1.15
Hv = height or length between tangent lines, m
To get a rough estimate of the weight of this vessel is by using the average thickness,
12 mm
Therefore,
Dm = 6.5 + 2 x 0.012
= 6.524 m
So,
Wv = 240 (1.15) (6.524) [8 + 0.8(6.524)] 0.012
= 285.6337 N
= 0.2856 kN
Assume material is Mineral wool.
of Mineral wool = 130 kg/m
3
152
thickness = 75 mm
Volume of insulation
= x Dm x Hv x thickness of insulation
= (6.524) (8) (0.075)
= 12.29745 m
3
= Volume of insulation x x g
= 12.29745 x 130 x 9.81
= 15682.94N
= 15.68294kN
Double this value to allow fittings, so weight of insulation will be = 31.36588kN
Weight of bed
Weight of bed in reactor
WB = 75060.19 x 9.81
= 736340.5 N
= 736.3405 kN
Weight of cyclone
Volume of cyclone in reactor = 2.438 m
3
Weight of cylone = 2.438 x 9.81 x 1282
= 30661.31 N
= 30.661 kN
There fore,
Total weight = Wv +WI +WB + Wc
= 0.2856 + 31.36588 + 736.3405 + 30.661
= 798.652 kN
153
Total weight for reactor and regenerator = 992.461 + 798.652 kN
= 1791.113 kN
6. Wind Loads
Take,
Win speed, Uw= 160 km/hr
For a smooth cylindrical column stack, the following semi-empirical equation can be
used to estimate wind pressure.
Pw = 0.05Uw
2
= 0.05(160)
2
= 1280 N/m
2
Loading per Unit Length of column, Fw
Fw = Pw Deff]
Where,
Deff = Effective column diameter
= Diameter + 2(tshell + tinsulation )
= 6.5 + 2(12 + 75 ) x 10
-3
= 6.68 m
Therefore,
Fw = 1280 x 6.68
= 8550.4 N/m
Bending Moment
Mx =
2
) (
2
X F
w
154
Where,
X = Distance measure from the free end
= 8 m
Therefore,
Mx =
2
) 18 ( 4 . 8550
2
= 1385164.8 Nm
= 1385.1648 kNm
7. Analysis of Stress
From bottom tangent line,
Longitudinal pressure stress,
h =
t
D P
eff i
2
=
) 12 ( 2
) 6680 )( 286 . 0 (
= 79.6033N/mm
2
Circumferential pressure stress,
L =
t
D P
eff i
4
=
) 12 ( 4
) 6680 )( 286 . 0 (
= 39.802 N/mm
2
Dead weight stress,
w =
t t D
W
i
) ( +
155
=
12 ) 12 6500 (
10 113 . 1791
3
+
= 7.2958 N/mm
2
Bending Stress,
b = t
,
_
+ t
D
I
M
i
v
2
where,
M = total bending moment
Iv = ( )
4 4
64
i o
D D
Iv = second moment of area

which,
Di = 6500 mm
Do = (6500+ 2(12))
= 6524 mm
so,
Iv = ( )
4 4
6500 6524
64

= 1.3013 x 10
12
mm
4
Therefore,
b = t
,
_
12
2
6500
10 3013 . 1
1000 8 . 1385164
12
= t 3.47

N/mm
2
The resulted longitudinal stress, z is:
z(upwind) = L - w + b
= 39.802 - 7.2958 + 3.47
= 35.9762 N/mm
2
156
z(downwind) = L - w - b
= 39.802 - 7.2958 - 3.47
= 29.0363 N/mm
2
8. Elastic Stability
Critical bulking stress
1 = 2 x 10
4
,
_
m
D
t
= 2 x 10
4
,
_
6512
12
= 36.855 N/mm
2
Maximum compressive stress will occurs when the vessel not under pressure
= w + b
= 7.2958 + 3.472

= 10.768 N/mm
2
This is below critical bulking stress, so acceptable.
9. Vessel Support Design (Skirt Design)
Type of support : Straight cylindrical skirt
s : 80
Material construction : Carbon steel
Design stress, fs : 135 N/mm
2
at ambient temperature, 20C
Skirt height : 4.0 m
Young modulus : 200, 000 N/mm
2
Therefore,
The total weight of vessel from calculation before = 1791.113 kN
Wind load,
Fw = 8550.4 N/m
= 8.5504 kN/m
157
Bending moment at skirt base,
Ms = Fw
( )
1
]
1
+
2
2
skirt v
H H
= 8.5504
( )
1
]
1
+
2
2 18
2
= 1710.08 kNm
As a first trial, take skirt thickness as same as the thickness of the bottom section of
the vessel, ts = 12 mm
Bending stresses in skirt,
bs =
( ) [ ]
s s s s
s
D t t D
M
+
4
Where,
Ms = maximum bending moment (at the base of the skirt)
ts = skirt thickness
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt base
= 3.0 m
Therefore,
bs =
( ) [ ] ) 6500 )( 12 ( 12 6500
) 1000 )( 1000 )( 08 . 1710 ( 4
+
= 4.287 N/mm
2
Dead weight stress in the skirt,
ws =
( ) [ ]
s s s
t t D
W
+
2
Where,
158
W = Total weight of the vessel and content
= 1791.113 kN
Therefore,
ws(test) =
( ) [ ] ) 012 . 0 ( 012 . 0 5 . 6
1000 113 . 1791 2
+

= 14591753.05 N/m
2
= 14.592 N/mm
2
bs,(operating) =
( ) [ ] ) 012 . 0 ( 012 . 0 5 . 6
1000 113 . 1791
+
= 7295876.525 N/m
2
= 7.2958 N/mm
2
Thus, the resulting stress in the skirt, s :
Maximum s (compressive) = ws (test) + bs
= 14.592 + 4.287
= 18.879 N/mm
2
Maximum s (tensile) = bs - ws (operating)
= 4.287 - 7.2958
= 0.0323 N/mm
2
10. General consideration for design
Take the joint factor J as 0.85,
159
s (tensile) < fs J sin s
s (compressive) < 0.125 E s
s
s
D
t
sin
Where ,
fs = maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material
= 135 N/mm
2
J = weld joint factor
s = base angle of a conical skirt

E = modulus young = 200, 000 N/mm
2
Therefore,
s (tensile) < 135 x 0.85 sin 80
0.1892 N/mm
2
< 113.007 N/mm
2
s (compressive) < (0.125)(200,000)
80 sin
3000
148
0.4014 N/mm
2
< .1214.473 N/mm
2
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2 mm for corrosion, give design thickness of 150 mm
11. Base Rings and Anchor Bolts
Assume pitch circle diameter = 5.0 m
Circumference of bolt circle = 5000
Bolt stress design, fb = 125 N/ mm
2
Recommended spacing between bolts = 600 mm
160
Minimum number bolt required, Nb =
600
5000
= 26.18
Closest multiple of 4 = 28
Bending moment at base skirt, Ms = 212.101 kNm
Total weight of vessel, W = 236.7534 kN
Area of bolt,
Ab =
,
_
W
D
M
f N
b
s
b b
4 1
E.1.19
=
,
_
) 1000 )( 046 . 184 (

0 . 3
) 1000 )( 101 . 212 ( 4
) 125 ( 28
1
= 28.22 mm
2
bolt root diameter,
d =
4 22 . 28
= 6 mm
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length,
Fb =
1
]
1
+
s s
s
D
W
D
M

2
4
=
1
]
1
) 3 (
1000 7534 . 236
) 0 . 3 (
1000 ) 101 . 212 ( 4
2

= 55.12 kN/m
Assuming that a pressure of 4 N/mm
2
is one of the concrete foundation pad, fc
Minimum width of the base ring,
Lb =
3
10
1
c
b
f
F
161
=
3
3
10 4
10 12 . 55
= 13.78 mm
12. Feed Nozzle Sizing
Optimum duct diameter,
dopt,t = 293G
0.53
-0.37
Where,
G = flow rate = 1.32121 x 10
5
kg/hr
= 36.7 kg/s
= density = 30.698 kg/ m
3
Therefore,
Dopt = 293 (36.7)
0.53
(30.698)
-0.37
= 500 mm
Nozzle thickness,
t =
Ps
d Ps
opt
+ 20
Where,
Ps = Operating pressure = 2.74945 N/mm
2
= Design stress at working temperature = 30 N/mm
2
Therefore
162
t =
74945 . 2 ) 30 ( 20
) 118 )( 74945 . 2 (
+
= 0.2 mm
So, thickness of nozzle = corrosion allowance + 0.2 mm
= 4 + 0.2 mm
= 4.2 mm
5 mm
13. Top Product Nozzle Sizing
Optimum duct diameter,
dopt,t = 260G
0.52
-0.37
Where,
G = flowrate = 223938.68 kg/hr
= 62.205 kg/s
= density = 56.69 kg/m
3
Therefore,
dopt = 226(62.205)
0.50
(56.69)
-0.35
= 500 mm
Nozzle thickness,
t =
Ps
d Ps
opt
+ 20

163
Where
Ps = Operating pressure = 2.74945 N/mm
2
= Design stress at working temperature = 30 N/mm
2
Therefore
t =
74945 . 2 ) 30 ( 20
) 1000 )( 74945 . 2 (
+
= 2 mm
So, thickness of nozzle = corrosion allowance +2 mm
= 4 + 2
= 6 mm
6 mm
Table 1.4 : Summary of the Mechanical Design
Design Pressure
Reactor Operating Pressure 2.89 bar
Reactor Operating Temperature 160
0
C
Reactor Design Pressure 3.179 bar
164
Reactor Design Temperature 200
0
C
Regenerator Operating Pressure 2.6 bar
Regenerator Operating Temperature 150
0
C
Regenerator Design Pressure 2.86 bar
Regenerator Design Temperature 180
0
C
Safety Factor 0.10
Design of Domed Ends
Types Torispherical head
Crown Radius 6.5 m
Knuckle Radius 0.039 m
Joint Factor 1
Stress Concentration Factor 1.77
Minimum Thickness 14 mm
Corrosion Allowance 4 mm
Column Weight
Dead Weight of Vessel 389 kN
Weight of Bed 736.34 kN
Weight of cyclone 30.66 kN
Weight of Insulation 31.366 kN
Total Weight reactor and regenerator 1791.11 kN
Wind Pressure 1280 N/m
2
Loading 8550.4 N/m
Bending Moment 1385.1648 kNm
REFERENCES
Cheremisinoff, Nicholas P., 1984, Hydrodynamics of Gas-Solids Fluidization, 279 - 231
Amitin et al. 1985, The Hydrodynamic of Fluidization, Powder Technology,(42): 67-78
Geldart, D ,. et al., 1979, Transition Institute Chemical Engineers, 57-269.
Dolignier J. C, Marty E., Martin G. & Delfosse L., 1998, Modelling of gaseous pollutants
emission in circulating fluidized bed of municipal refuse. Elsevier Science
Ltd(77): 1399-1409
Gregory et al, 1985, The design of distributor for gas-fluidized bed, Powder
Technology. (42): 100-145
165
Horio et al. 1980, The Hydrodynamic of Fluidization, Powder Technology,(42):
67-78
Sinclair, J.L. and R. Jackson, Gas-Particle Flow in a Vertical Pipe with Particle-Particle
Interactions, AIChE J., 35, 1473-1486 (1989)
Sinclair, J.L., Hydrodynamic Modeling, in Circulating Fluidized Beds, ed. Grace,
J.R., Avidan, A.A. and T. M. Knowlton, Chapman and Hall, Great Britain (1997)
Wang, Z., D. Bai and Y. Jin, "Hydrodynamics of Concurrent Downflow Circulating
Fluidized Bed (CDCFB)", Powder Technology, 70, 271-275 (1992)
Wei, F., Wang, Z., Jin, Y., Yu, Z. and W. Chen, Dispersion of Lateral and Axial Solids
in a Cocurrent Downflow Circulating Fluidized Bed, Powder Technology, 81, 25-
30 (1994)
Himmelblau M. D. 1996, Basic Principles and calculation in Chemical Engineering.
Sixth edition. United States of America: Prentice Hall International, Inc.
Levinspiel O. 1999. Chemical reaction engineering. Third edition. United States of
America: John Wiley & Sons.
Rhodes, M. 1998. Introduction to particle technology. Chichester England. John Wiley
& Sons 97-130.
Sinnot, R.K. 1999.Chemical engineering volume 6. Third edition. Great Britain:
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Zhang H, Hydrodynamics of a Gas-Solids Downflow Fluidized Bed Reactor, Ph.D.
thesis, The University of Western Ontario (1999)
Zhang, H., Zhu, J-X., Hydrodynamics in Downflow Fluidized Beds (2): Particle Velocity
and Solids Flux Profiles, Chemical Engineering Science, 55, 4367-4377 (2000)
Matsen, J. M. "Some Characteristics of Large Solids Circulation Systems". In
Fluidization Technology, Keairns, D. L., Ed.; Hemisphere: New York, Vol. 2,
Chapter1 (1976)
166
Ouyang, S. Potter, S.E., Consistency of Circulating Fluidized Bed Experimental Data,
Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 32, 1041-1045 (1993)
Wei, F., R. Xing, Z. Rujin, L. Guohua, J. Yong, A Dispersion Model for Fluid Catalytic
Cracking Riser and Downer Reactors, Ind. Eng. Chem. Res., 36, 5049-5053
(1997)
Yang Y.L., Y. Jin, Z.Q. Yu, Wang, Z.W., Investigation on Slip Velocity Distribution in
the Riser of Dilute Circulating Fluidized Bed, Powder Tech., 73, 67-73 (1992)
http://thor.tech.chemie.tu_muenchen.de/~tc2/eng/teaching/industr_chem_process/crac
king%20lecture%201.pdf
http://www.refiningonline.com/EngelhardKB/npra/NPR8851.htm
http://iglesia.cchem.berkeley.edu/ChemicalCommunications_1764_2003.pdf
http://www.caer.uky.edu/energeia/PDF/vol10-3.pdf
http://www.netl.doe.gov/publications/proceedings/96/96ps/ps_pdf/96ps3_2.pdf
http://tetra.mech.ubc.ca/CFD03/papers/paper29AF3.pdf
http://www.netl.doe.gov/products/r&d/annual_reports/2001/stpt/cfb%20operating
%20regimes%20cork.pdf
http://www.flotu.org/~weifei/twophase-ces.pdf
http://www.gtchouston.com/articles/GTC%20online%20reprint%2011-99.pdf
167
SECTION 2
MULTITUBULAR FIXED BED REACTOR
2.1 CHEMICAL DESIGN
2.1.1 INTRODUCTION
168
Fixed bed reactors are the most important type of the reactor for the synthesis of large
scale basic chemicals and intermediates. In these reactors, the reaction takes place in
the form a heterogeneous catalyst. In addition to the synthesis of valuable chemicals,
fixed bed reactors have been increasingly used in recent years to treat harmful and
toxic substances. The most common arrangement is the multi tubular fixed bed reactor,
in which the catalyst is arranged in the tubes, and the heat carrier circulates externally
around the tubes. Fixed bed reactor for industrial synthesis are generally operated in a
stationary mode under constant operating conditions over prolonged production runs,
and design therefore concentrates on achieving an optimum stationary operation.
However, the non stationary dynamic operation mode is also great importance for
industrial operation control.
CATALYST FORM FOR FIXED BED REACTOR
The heart of fixed bed reactor and the site of the chemical reaction is the catalyst. The
processes taking place on the catalyst may formally be subdivided into the following
separate steps:
1. Mass transfer of reactants from the main body of the fluid to the gross exterior
surface of the catalyst particle.
2. Molecular diffusion /Knudsen flow of reactants from the exterior surface of the
catalyst particle into the interior pore structure.
3. Chemisorption of at least of the reactants on the catalyst surface.
4. Reaction of the surface
5. Desorption of absorbed species from the surface of the catalyst.
6. Transfer of products from the interior catalyst pores to the gross exterior
surface of the catalyst by ordinary molecular diffusion/Knudsen flow.
7. Mass transfer of products from the exterior surface3 of the particle into the bulk
of the fluid.
169
For industrial use, a particle size is a compromise between the speed of the exchange
reaction (which is greater with small beds) and high flow rates (which require coarse
particles to minimize the head loss). Standard resins contain particle with diameter
from 0.3 to 1.2 mm, but coarser or finer grades are available. For the MTBE production
process, the fine sulphonic ion exchange resin particles with its size less than 1.0 mm
have to be enveloped in various conceivable shapes
The catalyst properties are as below:
Shape of Catalyst = Spheres
Diameter of catalyst (dc) = 0.6 mm (ref: Jon J.Ketta)
Effective Diameter surface dp = 0.5mm
Bulk Density of Catalyst (b) = 810 kg/m
3
Specific Solid Sphere surface = 34.25 m
2
/g
(ref:PerrysHandbook,pg 16.10)
Voidage (b) = 0.32 (ref:Tech Info.Buletin)
Surface Area (Sa) = 45 m
2
/g
Specific Surface = 0.034 m
2
/g
Specific Gravity = in range 1 to 1.4
Internal Void Fraction (p) = 0.54
Molecular Weight = 98 g/mole
2.1.2 PARTICLES SOLID DENSITY
Particle solid density (p) can be obtained from the equation below (ref: Particle
Technologys book):
p = b
1-b
= 810
1 - 0.32
= 1191.2 kg/m
3
170
2.1.3 VOID VOLUME OF CATALYST
Void volume of catalyst, Vg can be determined as below:
Vg = p
p (2.1)
= 0.32
1191.2
= 0.268 cm
3
/g
2.1.5 PORE RADIUS OF CATALYST
Pore radius of particle, r is the determined,
r = 2. Vg
Sa (2.2)
= 2 * 0.268
45 x 10
4
= 1.194 x10
-5
m

2.1.6 KNUDSEN DIFFUSIVITY
Knudsen Diffusivity is given by the equation below:
Dk = 9.7 x10
3
r (T)
1/2

(M) (2.3)
where M = molecular weight of the catalyst
= 98 g/mole
T = operating temperature
= 393 K
Dk = 9.7 * 10
3
* 1.194 *10
-5
*( 393)
1/2
171
98
= 0.013 cm
2
/ s
The effectiveness factor is given in term of Thiele Modulus as:
= 3 ( - 1 ) (ref: Jon J.Mc Ketta)
2
tan h (2.4)
= 0.928 where = 1.1 (ref: Perry,s Handbook)
2.1.7 REACTION RATE
The synthesis of MTBE from methanol and isobutylene catalyzed by Amberlyst-15
or similar sulphonic ion exchange resin catalyst is a reversible etherification as shown
in equation 1:
iC4H8 (isobutene) + CH3OH (methanol) C5H12O (MTBE)

k1
CH3C(CH3)=CH2(B) + CH3OH CH3C(CH3)2OCH3 (M)
K2
Reaction kinetics:
According to Yang et al, the forward reaction of reaction above is first order with
respect to the isobutylene concentration and zero order with respect to the methanol
concentration, respectively, and the reverse reaction is first order with respect to the
MTBE concentration as shown below:
Table 1: Arhenius parameters of rate constant K1 and K2 for MTBE
synthesis catalyzed by Sulphonic ion exchange acidic resin catalyst. (Ref: Chem. Eng.
Journal)
172
-rB = k1CB k2CM
where: k1 = A1 exp (-E1/RT) & k2 = A2 exp (-E2/RT)
k1 = A1 exp (-E1/RT) (2.5)
= 6.5 * 105 exp (-4.74*104/ 8.314 * 326 K)
= 0.0165 / min
k2 = A2 exp (-E2/RT) (2.6)

= 1.36 * 108 exp (-7.04 * 104 / 8.314 * 326 K)
= 0.00071/ min
The main side reactions are the dimerization of isobutylene to diisobutylene, and the
hydration of isobutylene to tert-butyl-alcohol (TBA) as shown below:
2CH3C(CH3)=CH2 CH2=C(CH3)CH2C(CH3)2CH3 (DIB) (3)
CH3C(CH3)=CH2 + H2O CH3C(CH3)2OH (TBA) (4)
The kinetic study shows that reaction (3) can only take place when the addition of
methanol is unsufficient. Since the methanol addition is carefully arranged to allow the
molar ratio of methanol to isobutylene to be higher than 0.8, the reaction (3) can be
A1 A2 E1(J/mole) E2(J/mole)
6.50E+05 1.36E+08 4.74E+04 7.04E+04
173
neglected. For reaction (4), the minor water in hydrocarbon and methanol feedstock is
consumed in the pre-reactor before it is fed into reactor. Therefore, reaction (4) can
also neglect. The products of the two side reaction are considered in the vapor-liquid
equilibrium calculation, whereas the reaction kinetics is not included in the calculation.
-rB = k1CB k2CM

= k1(CBo CBXB) k2( MCBo CBXB)
CB = CBo since Pi = 2000Kpa and Ti = 326 K
CBo = Pi /RT
= 73.79 mol /m
3
M = CMo / CBo = 0.138
Substitute all the value, -rB = 173.8 mole/ m
3
hr
2.1.8 WEIGHT OF CATALYST
The weight of catalyst can be determined from the equation,
W = dX
F r 2.7)
Where r = overall reaction rate
W = weight of catalyst needed for the conversion
F = mole flow rate of the feed to the reactor
Substitute all the value and the by integration, the weight of catalyst is found to be
2998 kg.
2.1.9 DETAIL DESIGN OF THE REACTOR
2.1.9.1 Heat Exchanger for Reactor
174
For isothermal operation, heat may be supplied or removed continuously along with the
reaction path. In order to accomplish effective heat transfer with the packed bed, the
width of the bed must be small. In other words, isothermal reactors usually consist of a
number tube arranged as in large heat exchangers with the catalyst inside the tubes
and the cooling or heating medium outside the tubes.
2.1.9.2 Direction of the Reactant Flow
For the fixed bed reactor to be designed so that reactants remain isothermal, the rate
of heat required for the exothermic reaction must be exactly balance the heat transfer
from the heating medium. For any isothermal reaction of positive order, the reaction
rate falls as the reaction approaches equilibrium. Therefore a more rapid heating is
need at the reactant entrance than the reactant exit. Therefore the reactors have to be
designed as co-current to match the requirement and heat transfer.
2.1.9.3 Volume of Catalyst Bed
Volume of catalyst bed (Vb) = W / b
= 2998
810
= 3.70 m
3
(2.8)
2.1.9.4 Pressure Drop in the Bed
Pressure drop is an important variable in the rate equations. The maximum allowable
pressure drop criteria below have to be concerned.
1. The resulting force must not be exceeding the crushing strength of the
particle. For the down flow bed this force created by the pressure drop is
transmitted by contacting solid to the bottom of the bed.
2. Mass velocity through the bed must be high enough to minimize interphase
gradients and assure good distribution. Incremental increases in pressure
175
drop however should not exceed savings release from improved reactor
performance. In many bed systems the maximum economical pressure drop
is in the range of 3 to 5% of the total pressure.
2.1.9.5 Estimating Pressure Drop
(P) = u2 f
L dp (2.9)
Where = friction factor, the correlation of Ergun (1952) will be used
= [1.75 + 150 / (1-b) / Re] (1-b)/ b
3
Re = dp u f = dp G
f f (2.10)
Where G is mass velocity = m/ A since m= 12.12 kg/s and G = 1.968 kg/m
2
s
f = ( 0.28 E-6 + 1.001 E-3 +7.86 E-6)/3
= 3.36 E-4 kg/ms
Substitute the value, so Re = 2.928 (transition region) and = 73.75.
Since f = 796.57 kg/m
3
and u= 0.0178x4/ x2.8
2
=0.003 m/s,
(P) will be 1060 N/m
2
2.1.9.6 Height of Bed
From the criteria shown above, the optimum value of pressure drop is between 3 to
15% of the total pressure. Let the height of bed equals to 4 m, the pressure drop in the
bed is 4240 N/m
2
which is equal to 4.2% of the operating pressure. Therefore, the
height of bed is taken as 4m
2.1.9.7 Total cross Section Area of the Tube
Total cross section area of the tube can be obtained by dividing the volume of the bed
with the height of the bed.
At = 3.70
176
4
= 0.925 m
2
(2.11)
2.1.9.8 Tube Diameter
If the tube diameter to particle diameter ratio is less than 10, the effect of wall can
become predominate, the void fraction and thus fluid velocity near the wall become
more dominant. However, if high value of tube to particle diameter ratio is obtained, the
heating effects through the tube wall will not be efficient. Therefore, tube with the inside
diameter Di =0.1143m and thickness 0.005m is used in this reactor, where the ratio is
approximately 11.5.
The inside diameter of the tube (Di) = 0.1143 2 x 0.005
= 0.1043 m
The cross section of the tube is then obtained from the equation:
At = Di
2
/4
= 0.009 m
2
(2.12)
2.1.9.9 Total Number of Tubes
Total number of tube can then obtained by dividing the total cross section area of one
tube.
Nt = 0.925
0.009
= 103 tubes (2.13)
2.1.9.10 Tube Arrangement
The tubes in an exchanger are usually arranged in an equilateral triangular, square or
rotated square pattern. Since the triangular pattern gives higher heat transfer rates, it is
recommended for this reactor.
177
2.9.1.11 Pitch of the Tube
From reference (Process Heat Transfers book), the pitch of the tube is recommended
to be 1.25 times of the outside tube diameter Do.
Therefore,
Pitch of the tube (Pt) = 1.25Do
= 1.25 x 0.1143
= 0.143 m
(2.14)
2.1.9.12 Bundle Diameter
The bundle diameter depends not only on the number of tubes but also can also on the
number of tube passes. For a single pass heat exchanger type reactor, the bundle
diameter can be obtained from the empirical equation base on standard tube layout as
shown:
Bundle diameter, Db = Do ( Nt)
n-1
K1 (2.15)
Where n1 and K1 = constant for use in the equation above given in reference (Process
Heat Transfers book). For single pass, n1 and K1 is given as 2.142 and 0.319
respectively. Hence,
Db = 0.1143 x (103 / 0.319)
(1/2.142)
= 1.70 m
2.1.9.13 Number of Tubes In the Centre Row
The number of tubes in the centre row is then given by equation:
Nc = Db / Pt
= 1.70/ 0.143
178
= 11.8 or 12 tubes (2.16)
2.1.9.14 Shell Diameter
By using split ring floating head type from Fig 12.6 in Reference (Chem. Eng. Vol.6s
book),
Ds Db = 95.14 mm
Where Ds = Shell Diameter
Ds = 1.7 + 0.09
= 1.79 m
2.1.10 Baffles
Baffles are used in the shell to direct the fluid stream across the tubes, increase the
fluid viscosity and create turbulence so as to improve the rate of heat transfer. The
baffles used in this reactor are a common type i.e the single segmented baffles with
baffles cut 35 %.
2.1.11 Baffles Spacing
The optimum baffles spacing will usually be between 0.3 to 0.5 times of the shell
diameter. Here, it is taken as 0.3 times of the shell diameter.
Bs = 0.3 Ds
= 0.3 x 1.79
= 0.55 m say 0.6 m (2.17)
2.1.12 Number of Crosses
Number of crosses in the shell side,
179
Nc = L - 1
Bs
= 4 (2.18)
Area for Cross Flow
As = (Pt Do) * Ds * Bs
Pt (2.19)
= (0.143 - 0.114) * 1.79 * 0.6
0.143
= 0.218 m
2
2.1.14 Shell side heat transfer and pressure drop calculation
The flow pattern in the shell of a segmental baffled heat exchanger type of reactor is
complex, and this makes the prediction of the shell side heat transfer coefficient and
pressure drop much more difficult than for the tube side. However, Kern has developed
a method base on experimental work on commercial exchangers with standard
tolerances and gives a reasonably satisfactory prediction of the heat transfer coefficient
and pressure drop for standard design.
2.1.15 Shell side Mass Velocity
Mass velocity, Gs
s m / kg 10.14 G
0.218
2.211
G

A
W
G
2
s
s
s
s
(2.20)
Shell side velocity
180
s / m 0.01 u

1209
10.14
u

G
u
s
s
s
s
(2.21)
Shell side equivalent diameter for triangular pitch arrangement

Das = 4(Pt/2).0.87.Pt .D o
2
/8
. Do/2
= 0.084 m (2.22)
Reynolds number
2505 Re
0.00034
084) (10.14)(0.
Re

d G
Re
as s
(2.23)
Prandtl number
12.3 Pr
0.086
.00034) (3124.5)(0
Pr

k
CP
Pr
f

(2.24)
Choose buffle cut of 35%, from figure 12.30 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering), we can obtained
Jf =1.3 x 10
-1
181
Assumed that the viscosity correction is negligible
C m W / 763.2 h
0.084
) 12.3 13)(2505)( (0.086)(0.
h

d
Pr Re j k
h
o 2
s
1/3
s
e
3 / 1
f f
s
(2.25)
Shell side pressure drop
Reynolds number
Re = 2505
From figure 12.30 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering),
Jf = 1.3 x 10
-1
Shell side pressure drop can be calculated using equation below
( )( )( )( )
8.93kPa P
/ 2 / L/I d / D 8j P
-0.14
s B e d f

w

(2.26)
2.1.16 Tube side coefficient, hi
Mean temperature of the tube
182
C 80 t

2
27 + 53
t

2
t t
t
o
mean
mean
2 1
mean
(2.27)
cross sectional area = d1
2
/ 4
= (3.142)(0.1043
2
) / 4
= 0.009 m
2
Tube / pass = 103 / 1
= 103 tube / pas (2.28)
Total flow rate area = (cross sectional area)(tube / pass)
= (0.009)(103)
= 0.927 m
2
velocity, Gt = (2.211)/(0.927)
= 2.05 kg / sm
2

v = 0.002 kg / ms
Ratio of L / di = 4 / 0.104 (2.29)
= 38.46
Reynolds number, Re
1000 Re
0.00034
(0.1043) ) 002 . 0 ( 1209) (
Re

d
Re
i

183
Heat transfer factor figure 12.31 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering),
Jh = 2 x 10
-2
Prandtl number, as 12.3
12.3 Pr
Tube side coefficient, hi can be calculated using equation below.
C m W / 393 h
0.104
000)(12.3) )(0.086)(1 10 (2x
h

d
Pr Re k j
h
o
i
0.33 1 -
i
i
33 . 0
f h
i
(2.30)
Tube side pressure drop
Reynolds number, Re = 1000
jf = 2 x 10
-1
Neglect the viscosity correction term
[ ]
[ ]
kPa 10.89 P
2
) 00034 . 0 )( 1209 (
2.5 )(4/0.104) 10 x 8(5 2 P

2
2.5 ) / )( L/d ( j 8 N P
t
2
3 -
t
2
m -
W i f p t

+
+
i i

(2.31)
2.1.17 Correction for Tube Heat Transfer Coefficient
184
Since the tube side heat transfer coefficient calculated is based on the inside diameter
of the tube, correction has to be done to obtain the heat transfer coefficient for outside
diameter of tube.
HO = hI . Di
Do
= 192 W/ m
o
C (2.32)
2.1.18 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient
Uc = HO . hS
HO + hS
= 100.1 W/ m
o
C (2.33)
2.1.19 Reactor cooling system
mfCPf (t1 - t2) = mcCpc (t1 - t2) (2.34)
Log Mean Temperature difference (LMTD) :
TLMTD = Ti To
ln(Ti-To)/(Ti-To) (2.35)
= 45
o
C
From this value can get mc = 39.63 kg/s where CPc=4220 and ti-t2 =135
o
C
2.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN
2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
The mechanical design of chemical plant are of particular interest to chemical
engineers, but not usually be called on to undertake the detailed mechanical design of
185
the plant, especially the reactor vessels. However, the chemical engineer will be
responsible for developing and specifying the elementary design information for the
reactor, and need to have a general appreciation of pressure vessel design to work
effectively with the specialist designer.
Therefore, the design of wall thickness, head, column support, flange joint,
reinforcement and maximum allowable pressure are considered here.
Material of construction:
In this design, reference will mainly be based on the current British Standard BS 5500
and Bs 1515 where the current addition of Bs 5500 covers vessels fabricated in carbon
steel. The most common types used in the petroleum industry are Types 304, 316,321,
and 347.Because of their inherent high temperature strength propertied and high
corrosion resistance, they are particularly suitable for use in this process, in areas of
moderate and high temperature, and where substantial resistance such as in heater
tubes, reactors, reactor effluent exchangers and piping. In this design, material of
construction: can be constructed by using carbon steel. Type 304
DESIGN STRESS
It is necessary to decide a value for the maximum allowable stress that can be
accepted in the material of construction, for example, it can withstand without failure
under standard test conditions. The nominal design strengths (allowable design stress)
for the range of materials covered are listed in BS 5500. By using carbon steel (semi
killed or silicon Killed), the design stress is given, D as 125 N /mm
2
at design
temperature.
WELDED JOINT EFFICIENCY
The strength of a welded joint will be depending on the type of joint and the quality of
the welding. The soundness of welds is checked by visual inspection and non
destructive testing (radiography).
For the reactor, it is assumed that the joint is equally as strong as the virgin plate; this
is achieved by radio graphing the complete weld length and cutting out and remarking
186
any defects. Therefore, the non destructive testing is assumed to be 100% and the
joint efficiency, J is taken as 1.0.
2.2.4 CORROSION ALLOWANCE
1. Corrosion and erosion or scaling will cause material lost, so an additional thickness
of material called corrosion allowance must be added to be calculated wall
thickness.
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF CYLINDRICAL SECTION OF SHELL
The minimum thickness of cylindrical section of shell to resist the internal pressure can
be determined by using equation below:
e = PD DIs
2J D - PD
= 2.0*1.8
2.125-2
= 0.015 m (2.36)
By adding corrosion allowance 2 mm,
e = 0.015 + 0.002m
= 0.017 m
MINIMUM THICKNESS OF DOMED HEAD
There are three types of commonly used domed head:
1. Hemispherical heads
2. Ellipsoidal heads
3. Torispherical heads
187
The selection of head depends on the cost and the thickness required for the head.
The design equations and charts for the various types of domed head are given in the
codes and standards (BS 5500) used in this design.
A standard dished head (torisphere) is used as first trial. The crown radius of this head
equals to the diameter of the shell, DIS. On the other hand, the knuckle radius is taken
as 6% of the crown radius. Since this type of head is formed by pressing, no joint is
needed. Therefore, the joint factor is taken as 1.
For the torispherical head, the minimum thickness of the head can be determined from
equation below:
eh = P D RC CS
2 J TD + PD(CS 0.2) (2.37)
where Rc is the crown radius, equal to DIS in this case.
CS = stress concentration factor for torispheriical head.
It is given by equation below:
CS = 1 / 4(3 + (Rc + Rk)
1/2
) (2.38)
Since Rk is 0.06 of Rc,
CS = 1 / 4 (3 + (1/ 0.06)
1/2
)
= 1.771
Therefore,
eh = 2.0 x1.8 x1.771
2 x 1x125 + 2.0 (1.771 - 0.2)

= 0.025 m
However, for a standard ellipsoidal head,
eh = PDDIs
2J D - 0.2PD
= 0.014 m (2.39)
Therefore, an ellipsoidal head would probably be the most economical to be used. For
convenience, the thickness is taken to be as same of wall thickness 17 mm.
188
LOADING STRESSES
2.2.7.1 Dead Weight of Loading
2.2.7.2 Dead Weight Of vessel
The major source of dead weight loads are:
1. vessel shell
2. vessel fitting : manway, nozzles
3. internal fittings: where the main item is tube
4. insulation
5. catalyst
The preliminary calculation of the approximate weight of a cylindrical vessel with
domed ends, and uniform wall thickness can be estimated from the following equation,
Wv = Cv..m.Dm.g.(Hv + 0.8Dm)t x 10
-3
Where Wv = total weight of the shell, excluding internal fitting
Cv = a factor to account for the weight of nozzles, internal
support etc.
Cv is given as 1.08 for vessels with only a few internal
fitting.
Hv = height between 2 tangent lines, 4m in this case
g = gravitational acceleration, 9.81 m/s
2

t = wall thickness, mm
m = density of vessel material, kg/m
3
. by using carbon steel,
m = 6870 kg/m
3
Dm = mean diameter of vessel
= DIs + t * 10
-4
Since the wall thickness = 0.017 m
Therefore, Dm = 1.8 + 0.014
= 1.817 m
As a result, by substituting into the equation above:
Wv = 39000

N
= 39 KN
189
Weight of the Tubes
From BS 3059, the mass per length of tubes is equal to 13.5 kg/ m for carbon steel.
Therefore, the weight of one tube
= 13.5 x 3 x g
= 4.529 * 10
4
N
45 KN (2.40)
Total weight of the tubes,
Wt = 103 x 13.5 x3 x9.81
= 4.1x10
4
Weight of Insulation
To avoid heat loss from the surface of the shell, mineral wool is used as the insulator.
From (Chem. Eng. Vol. 6s book),
Density of mineral wool = 130 kg/m
3
Let the thickness of mineral wool = 75 mm
The approximate weight of the insulator,
Wi = 2Hvtiig (2.41)
= 2 x3 x0.075 x30 x9.81
= 1.803 x10
3
N
This value should be double to allow for fittings, etc.
= 3.6 x10
3
N
190
Weight of Catalyst
Weight of catalyst, Wc = 2998 kg
= 2.998 x10
4
N
Total Weight
Since only 4 baffles are used in the reactor, their weight is neglected compared to
others.
W = Wv + Wi + Wt +Wc
= 39000N+ 4.1x10
4
N+ 3.6x10
3
N +2.998x10
4
N
= 1.1x 10
5
N
Wind Loading
Take dynamic wind pressure as 1300 N/m
2
Mean Diameter, including insulation = 2+2(17+75) x10
-3

= 2.18 m
The wind loading is then given by equation below:
Fw = Pw Dm
= 1300 x2.18 m
= 2.8 x 10
3
N/m (2.42)
Therefore, the bending moment at bottom tangent line can be determined from
equation below:
Mx = Fw L
2

191
2 (2.43)
= 2.8 x 10
3
x 4
2

2
= 2.24 x10
4
N
2.2.7.8 ANALYSIS OF STRESSES
Uniform thickness is used for analyzing stresses in the column. If it is found satisfactory
at the bottom of the vessel which is the highest loading point, then the entire column
structure is feasible.
At bottom tangent line, the longitudal and circumferential stresses due to pressure is
given by:
Longitudal, L = Pi Di
4t
= 2.0 x1.8
4 x 0.017 (2.44)
= 53 N /mm
2
Circumrerential, h = Pi Di
4t
= 2.0 x1.8
2 x 0.017
= 106 N /mm
2
Dead Weight Stress
The direct stress is mainly due to the weight of vessel, its contents and any attachment
which is often called the dead weight stress. The stress is compressive since it is at the
bottom of the vessel to support the direct loading.
192
Dead Weight stress, W = W
(Di + ti) * t
= 1.1 x 10
5

(1800 + 17) x 17 (2.45)
= 1.13 N /mm
2
(compressive)
Bending Stress
The second moment of area of the vessel about the plane of bending,
Iv = (Do
4
Di
4
) (2.46)
64
Where Do = outer diameter of vessel
= Di + 2t
= 1.8 + 2 x 0.017
= 1.834 m
Iv = (1834
4
1800
4
)
64
= 4.0 x10
10
mm
4
Therefore, the bending stress is then given by equation below:
b = Mx (Di /2 + t) (2.47)
Iv
= 0.51 N/mm
2
The resultant longitudal stress
Z = L + W + b
For upwind,
Z = 53 1.13 + 0.51
= 52.38 N/mm
2
For downwind,
193
Z = 53 1.13 - 0.51
= 51.36 N/mm
2
Radial Stress
= Pi = 2.0
2 2 (2.48)
= 1.0 N/mm
2
Since radial stress obtained is a small value and there are torsional stress in the
system, therefore the principle stress will be Z and h
52.38 N/mm
2
51.36 N/mm
2
Figure 2.1: Analysis of Stresses
194
Therefore, the greatest difference between the principles stresses,
d = h - Z ( downward)
= 106 51.36
= 54.64 N/mm
2
The value obtained is well bellow the maximum allowable design, 125 N/mm
2.
2.2.11 CHECK ELASTIC STABILITY
The design of this vessel have to be checked to ensure that the maximum value of the
resultant axial stress does not exceed the critical value at which buckling will occur.
By applying a factor of safety of 12, the critical buckling stress gives:
C = 2x10
4
(t/Do)
= 185.4 N/mm
2
(2.49)
The maximum compressive stress will occur when the vessel is not under pressure,
= W + b
= 1.13 + 0.51
= 1.64 N/mm
2
Which is well below the critical buckling stress, C .
2.2.12 VESSEL SUPPORT
The method used to support a vessel will depend on the size, shape and weight of the
vessel; the design temperature and pressure; the vessel location and arrangement;
and the internal and external fittings and attachment. Since the reactor is a vertical
vessel, skirt support is used in this design.
195
A skirt support consists of a cylindrical or conical shell welded to the base of the
vessel. A flange at the bottom of the skirt transmits the load to the foundations. The
skirt may be welded to the bottom, level of the vessel.
Skirt supports are recommended for vertical vessels as they do not imposed
concentrated loads on the vessel shells; they are particularly suitable for use with tall
columns subject to wind loading.
2.2.13 SKIRT THICKNESS
The skirt thickness must be sufficient to withstand the dead weight loads and bending
moments imposed on it by the vessel; it will not be under the vessel pressure.
The resultant stresses in the skirt will be:
S (tensile) = bS - WS
and
S (compressive) = bS + WS
where bS = bending stress in the skirt
= 4Ms
(Ds + ts) tsDs (2.50)
WS = the dead weight stress in the skirt
= W
(Ds + ts) ts
Where Ms = maximum bending moment, evaluated at the base of the skirt.
W = total weight of the vessel and contents
Ds = inside diameter of the skirt, at the base
ts = skirt thickness
196
The skirt thickness should be such that under the worst combination of wind and dead
weight loading the following design criteria are followed:
S (tensile) < fs.J sin s
S (compressive) < 0.125 E (ts/Ds) sin s
Where fs is the maximum allowable design stress for the skirt material, normally taken
at ambient temperature, 20
o
C.
J = weld joint factor
s = base angle of conical skirt, 90
o
is used in this design
The maximum thickness should not less than 6mm.
2.2.14 HEIGHT OF THE SKIRT
The height of the skirt, Hs is taken to be 1m.
2.2.15 BENDING STRESS AT BASE OF THE SKIRT
Mbs = Fw (Hv + Hs)
21

2 (2.51)
= 2.8x 10
3
(4 + 1)
2

2
= 3.5 x 10
4
Nm
BENDING STRESS IN THE SKIRT
As the first trial, the thickness of skirt is taken to be 20 mm.
Substitute into the equation (19),
bS = 4 x 2.24 x10
4

(1.9 + 0.020) 1.9x0.020
= 3.9 x 10
5
N/m
2
197
WS = 1.1 x 10
5

(1.9 +0.020)*0.020
= 9.1 x 10
5
N/m
2
The maximum stress (compressive),
S = bS + WS
= 3.9 x 10
5
N/m
2
+9.1x 10
5
N/m
2
= 1.3 x 10
6
N/m
2
The maximum stress (tensile),
S = bS - WS
= 3.9 x 10
5
N/m
2
9.1 x 10
5
N/m
2
= 5.2 x 10
5
N/m
2
(negative)
Let the joint factor for skirt support, J = 0.85
Criteria for design,
fs.J sin s = 125 x 0.85 xsin( 90
o
) (2.52)
= 10.63 * 10
7
N/m
2
> S (tensile) , therefore it satisfied.
Modulus Young = 200,000 N/mm
2
at ambient temperature, (from Bs 5500:1998),
0.125 E (ts/Ds) sin s = 0.125x2x10
5
(0.02/1.9) sin 90
o
= 26.3 x 10
7
N/m
2
> S (compressive) , therefore it satisfied
Both criteria are satisfied, add 2mm for corrosion allowance, and give a design
thickness of 22 mm.
198
BASE RING AND ANCHOR BOLT DESIGN
The loads carried by the skirt are transmitted to the foundation slab by the skirt base
ring (bearing plate). The moment produced by wind and other lateral loads will tend to
overturn the vessel. Since the reactor can be considered as the small vessel, the
simplest types, rolled angle ring are used. The preliminary design of base ring is done
by using Scheimans short cut method.
The anchor bolts are assumed to share the overturning load equally, and the bolt area
required is given by:
= 1 (4.Mbs W) (2.53)
Nbfb Db
Where Ab = area of one bolt at the root of the thread, mm
2
Nb = number of bolts
fb = maximum allowable bolts stress, typical design = 125 N/mm
2
Mbs = bending (overturning) moment at the base, Nm
W = weight of the vessel, N
Db = bolt circle diameter, m
Scheiman gives the following guide rules which can be used for the selection of the
anchor bolts.
1. bolts smaller than 25 mm diameter should not be used
2. minimum number of bolts = 8
3. use multiples of 4 bolts
4. bolts pitch should not be less than 600 mm
The base ring must be sufficiently wide to distribute the load to the foundation. The
total compressive load on the base ring is given by:
fb = (4 Mbs + W ) = 28255 N/mm (2.54)
Ds
2
Ds
Where Fb is the compressive load on the base ring and Ds = skirt diameter, m
The minimum width of the base ring is given by:
199
Lb = fb 1
fc 10
3
(2.55)
Where Lb = base ring width, mm
fc = the maximum allowable fc on the concrete foundation pad,
And typically range from 3.5 to 7 N/mm
2
fb = 28255 N/mm
Take the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm
2
, fc = 5 N/mm
2
Substitute into the equation above,
Lb = 28255
5 x10
3
= 5.65 mm
This is the minimum width required; actual width will depend on the chair design
Actual width required= Lr + ts +50 mm
Where Lr = the distance from the edge of the skirt to the outer edge of the ring, mm
= 64 mm (from BS 4190:1967)
Therefore, actual width required = 64 + 22 +50
= 136 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:
fc = 28255
136 x10
3
= 0.21 N/mm
tb = 64 ( 3 x 0.21)

(2.56)

140
200
= 4.3 mm
COMPENSATION FOR OPENING AND BRANCHES
All process vessels will have opening for connections, man ways, sight holes, hand
holes and instrument fittings. The presence of an opening weakens the shell, and gives
rise to stress concentrations. The stress at edge of a hole will be considerably higher
than the average stress in the surrounding plate. To compensate for the effect of an
opening, the wall thickness is increased in the region adjacent to the opening.
Sufficient reinforcement must be provided to compensate for the weakening effect of
opening without altering the general dilation pattern of the vessel opening.
2.2.19 COMPENSATION FOR OTHER NOZZLES
Pipe size for inlet and outlet of the reactor are all less than 10 mm, therefore, the
reinforcement area can be usually is provided by increasing the wall thickness of the
branch pipe. This already done on piping, where extra thickness is provided, thus no
compensation area needed.
2.2.20 BOLTED FLANGE JOINT
Flanged joints are used to connect pipes and instruments to vessels and from
removable vessel heads when ease of access is required. Flanges may also be used
on the vessel body, when it is necessary to divide the vessel into section for transport
or maintenance. Flanged joints are also used to connect pipes to other equipment,
such as pumps, valves.
2.2.20.1 Type of Flanges Selected
a) Welding neck Flanges
201
Have a long tapered lub between the flange ring and the welded joint. This gradual
transition of the section reduces discontinuity stresses between flange and branch,
and increases the strength of the flange assembly.
Welding neck flanges are suitable for extreme service conditions, where the flange
is likely to be subjected to temperature, shear and vibration loads.. For this reactor,
the welding neck flanges are suitable for use in connecting the inlet and outlet
piping of reactor.
b) Gasket
Gaskets are used to make a leak tight joint between two surfaces. It is impractical to
machine flanges to the degree of surface finish that would be required to make a
satisfactory seal under pressure without a gasket. Gasket are made from semi plastic
materials, which will deform and flow under load to fill the surface inequalities between
the flange faces, yet retain sufficient elasticity to take up the changes in the flange
arrangement that occur under load.
Several factors must be considered when selecting a gasket material:
1. The process condition: pressure, temperature, corrosive nature of
process fluid.
2. Whether repeated assembly and disassembly of the joint is required
3. The type of flange and flange face.
Judging from process conditions, where the operating temperature is quite high, 393K,
metal reinforced gaskets is recommended, since it have a quite good heat resistance
property.
2.2.21 Flange Face
The raised face, narrow feed flange are used for all the flanges. Where the flange has
a plain face, as for the flange faces mentioned above, the gasket is held in place by
friction between the gasket and flange surface.
202
S
SUMMARY OF CHEMICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS
Reactor Design
Catalyst weight required 2998 kg
Volume of Catalyst bed 3.7 m
3
Height of Bed 4.0 m
Diameter of Bed 1.817 m
Tube inside pressure drop 1.06E-4 N/m
2
% of pressure drop 0.042
Tube inner diameter 0.1043 m
Total number of tubes 103 tubes
Tube arrangement equivalent triangular pitch
Tube side heat transfer coefficient 293 W/m
o
C
Pitch of tube 0.143 m
Bundle diameter 1.70 m
203
Shell diameter 1.79 m
Baffles cuts 0.35
Baffles Spacing 0.6 m
Number of crosses 4
Inlet flow rate 0.647 kg/s
Inlet temperature 326 K
Outlet temperature 373 K
Shell side heat transfer coefficient 191 W/m
o
C
Shell side pressure drop 0.557 kPa
Design overall heat transfer area 100.1 W/m
o
C
SUMMARY OF MECHANICAL DESIGN PARAMETERS
204
Operating Conditions and Material of construction
Design pressure 2.0 bar
Design temperature 323 K
Material of construction Carbon Steel plate (Type 304)
Design Stress 125 N/mm
2
Welded joint efficiency 1
Corrosion allowance 2 mm
Designed Column Diameter
Shell thickness 17 mm
Domed end thickness(ellipsoidal heads) 17 mm
Vessel Support (skirt)
Skirt thickness 22 mm
Skirt diameter 1.9 m
Skirt height 1 m
Base Ring and Anchor Bolt
Base ring Rolled angle rings
Minimum ring thickness 4.5 mm
Minimum base ring width 7.06 mm
Anchor bolt M24
Number of bolts 8
Bolt root diameter 21.2 m
205
SECTION 3
MTBE DISTILLATION COLUMN
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Distillation is a method used to separate the components of a liquid solution, which
depends upon the distribution of these various components between a vapor
and a liquid phase. All components are present in both phases. The vapor
phase is created from the liquid phase by vaporization at the boiling point.
MTBE is our main product that needs to be separated. For individual design,
MTBE distillation column was chosen. The characteristics required in the chosen types
of distillation column are the separation objective satisfied in the column, the cost of
construction and the design of the selected distillation column.
T=64.5
o
C
LC
TC
T=53.3
o
C
T=103.3
o
C
Condenser
Reboiler
Relief Valve
Figure 3.1 MTBE Distillation Column
3.2 SELECTION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
206
Materials chosen are based on the characteristics of the component in the distillation
column, the location and the environmental consideration of the MTBE plant. Stainless
steel 304 is used in construction of the MTBE distillation column - The stainless steels
are the most frequently used corrosion resistant materials in the chemical industry
Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 295.
Carbon steel is used in skirt support material and the insulation material used is
fiberglass. The selection is based on the chemical and mechanical design as stated in
Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6. Most parameters used in
design were referred to mass, energy balance data and also data generated by
Chemical Engineering Simulation Software; HYSIS Version 3.2. Other materials
chosen were based on the British Standard BS 5500, BS4505 and BS 750.
3.3 CHEMICAL DESIGN
In the MTBE distillation column design, the McCabe-Thiele method in
determining the number of stages needed was used. The McCabe-Thiele method is
based upon representation of the material-balance equations as operating lines on the
X-Y diagram. The lines are made straight (and the need for the energy balance
obviated) by the assumption of constant molar overflow. The liquid-phase flow is
assumed to be constant from tray to tray in each section of the column between
addition (feed) and withdrawal (product) points. If the liquid rate is constant, the vapour
rate must also be constant.
Table 3.1 The Composition in Feed Stream
FEED Component T (K) Operating Op Pressure, Feed Flowrate Fraction, zi
207
T (K) kPa
kmol/hr
i-C4H10 313 337.5 450 34.860 0.3261
n-C4H10 313 337.5 450 0.400 0.0037
C4H8 313 337.5 450 0.026 0.0002
DME 313 337.5 450 3.880 0.0363
CH3OH 313 337.5 450 0.160 0.0015
H2O 313 337.5 450 2.866 0.0268

MTBE 380 337.5 450 63.44 0.5934
TBA 380 337.5 450 1.274 0.0119
=106.906 = 1.0000
Table 3.2 The Compositions in Top Stream
Top Component T (K)
Operating
T (K)
Op Pressure,
kPa Top Flowrate Yi
kmol/hr
i-C4H10 313 326.3 305 33.860 0.839760919
n-C4H10 313 326.3 305 0.400 0.009920389
S16
(top) C4H8 313 326.3 305 0.026 0.000644825
DME 313 326.3 305 3.880 0.096227772
CH3OH 313 326.3 305 0.149 0.003695345
H2O 313 326.3 305 1.006 0.024949778
MTBE 313 326.3 305 1.000 0.024800972
=40.321 =1.0000
Table 3.3 The Composition in Bottom Stream
Bttm Component T (K)
Operating
T (K)
Op Pressure,
kPa
Bttm
Flowrate Xi
kmol/hr
i-C4H10 380 376.3 400 1.000 0.015018398
MTBE 380 376.3 400 62.44 0.937748742
S14
(bttm) TBA 380 376.3 400 1.274 0.019133438
CH3OH 380 376.3 400 0.011 0.000165202
H2O 380 376.3 400 1.860 0.027934219
=66.59 =1.0000
* The T(K) is the stream temperature, while the Operating T(K) temperature is the
temperature which should be achieved by controlling the pressures.
208
3.3.1 DETERMINATION OF THE NUMBER OF PLATES USING McCABE-
THIELE METHOD
The components in the feed to the MTBE distillation column are i-C4H10, n-C4H10, C4H8,
DME, CH3OH, H2O, MTBE and TBA, and the feed is assumed as multicomponents
feed. By using the Hengstebecks and McCabe-Thiele method, the number of stages
required and the position of the feed in the MTBE distillation column can be
determined.
The determination of the plate by using McCabe-Thiele method was simply
because as explained in J.M Coulson, J.F Richardson, Chemical Engineering Volume
2, Third Edition, the Pergamon Textbook, page 429, which stated that This method is
one of the most important concepts in chemical engineering and is an invaluable tool
for the solution of distillation column. The assumptions of constant molar overflow is
not limiting since in very few systems do the molal heats of vaporizations differ by more
than 10 percent. The method does have limitations, however, and should not be
employed when the relative volatility is less than 1.3 or greater than 5, when the reflux
ratio is less than 1.1 times the minimum, or when more than twenty-five theoretical
trays are required. In these circumstances, the Ponchon-Savarit method should be
employed.
The vapor pressure can be determined by using the Antoines equation as follows:
Log10 P* = A -
C T
B
+
(3.1)
With related at equilibrium, constant K,
Ki = P* x P (3.2)

And related with concentration,
209
Ki =
xi
yi
(3.3)
Where yi = concentration in vapor phase
xi = concentration in liquid phase
Calculation for the relative volatility, ,
= KLK / KHK (3.4)
Where KLK = Light key component
KHK = Heavy key component
In this case, MTBE is as the heavy key and i-C4H10 is as the light key components. By
using goal seek in the excel programme, the value of the bubble point at bottom
column = 103.3
o
C and dew point at the top column is = 53.3
o
C, from the values of Ki
related to the pressure, the values of relative volatilities could be determined, listed are
values of the relative volatilities for components at the top and bottom of the distillation
column.
Table 3.4 Average Relative Volatility,
Component Top, Bttm, Avg,
i-C4H10 (LK) 7.699631 5.084017 6.39182391
n-C4H10 5.654994 - 2.827496955
C4H8 6.948741 - 3.474370398
DME 14.10614 - 7.05306993
MTBE (HK) 1.00000 1.0000 1.00000
TBA - 0.149333 0.074666444
CH3OH 0.67395 0.99561 0.834780143
H2O 0.152422 0.288322 0.220371796
Calculations for the non-key flows,
Table 3.5 The Non-key Flow of the Top Stream
210
TOP
i
di
li = di / ( i-1)
Vi = li + di
n-C4H10 2.827497 0.4 0.218878614 0.618878614
C4H8 3.47437 0.026 0.010507724 0.036507724
DME 7.05307 3.88 0.640997055 4.520997055
CH3OH 0.83478 0.149 -0.901828648 -0.75282865
H2O 0.220372 1.006 -1.290358653 -0.28435865
= -1.321803909 = 4.139
Table 3.6 The Non-Key Flow of the Bottom Stream
BOTTOM i bi Vi= ibi / ( LK-
i )
li = vi + bi
TBA 0.074666 1.27 0.01506000 1.2900
CH3OH 0.83478 0.01 0.001652422 0.0100
H2O 0.220372 1.86 0.066417357 1.9300
= 0.083127984 = 3.23
Flows of combine key,
Le = L - li (3.5)
= (2.5 X 40.321) (- 1.3218)
= 102.1243
Ve = V - Vi (3.6)
= (2.5+1) x 40.321 4.139
= 136.985
Calculation of the slope for top operating line,
Ve
Le
=
984 . 136
1243 . 102
(3.7)
= 0.7455
Ve = V - Vi (3.8)
= (2.5+1) x 40.321 0.08313
= 141.04
Le = L - li (3.9)
= (2.5+1) x 40.321 + 66.59 3.23
= 204.48
211
Calculation of the slope for bottom operating line,

'
'
Ve
Le
=
48 . 204
04 . 141
(3.10)
= 1.45
Xb =
) (
.
HK LK flow
LK flow
+
at bottom, (3.11)
=
) 47 . 62 1 (
1
+
= 0.016
Xd =
) (
.
HK LK flow
LK flow
+
at top, (3.12)
Xd =
) 1 86 . 33 (
86 . 33
+
= 0.9713
Xf =
) (
.
HK LK flow
LK flow
+
at feed, (3.13)
Xf =
) 44 . 63 86 . 34 (
86 . 34
+
= 0.3546
For vapor liquid equilibrium curve, we use the equation of
Y =
( ) [ ] x
x
1 1
.
+
from LK component (3.14)

=
( ) [ ] x
x
391 . 5 1
391 . 6
+
Table 3.7 MTBE Equilibrium Curve
x y
212
x 391 . 5 1
x 391 . 6
y
+

0 0
0.1 0.41527398
0.2 0.61508201
0.3 0.73257407
0.4 0.80992987
0.5 0.86471539
0.6 0.9055511
0.7 0.93716326
0.8 0.96235974
0.9 0.9829137
1.0 1.0000
So from the data as above, the McCabe-Thiele diagram was constructed to determine
the number of plates. The top operating line and the bottom operating line were
determined first before the number of plates required could be calculated.
And from the graph plotted, the number of stages needed for the MTBE
distillation column is 11 with the feed point location is at stage number six from bottom.
213
Bottom
Operating Line
Equilibrium
Curve
Line for the
Number of
Stages
McCabe-Thiele Diagram
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
X
Y
Xb = 0.016 Xf = 0.35 Xd = 0.97
At bottom At feed At top
214
Top
Operating
Line
Figure 3.2 McCabe-Thiele Diagram
From the graph plotted, the number of plate can be determined by calculating the stage
plotting at graph and the number of stages needed is 11 stages. The feeding stage
also can be determined from the graph, feed at stage 6 from bottom.
Calculation for minimum reflux ratio, Rmin,
To get the value of minimum reflux ratio, use the Underwood equation was used,
(J. Douglas, 1988),
Rmin =
,
_
1
1
'
,
_
,
_
X
X
X
X
H K F
H K D
H K F
L K D
.
.
.
.
(3.15)
=
1
]
1
1 391 . 6
1

'
,
_
44 . 63
0 . 1
391 . 6
44 . 63
86 . 33
= 0.0803
Optimum reflux ratio is 0.0803 x 1.5 = 0.1204
Where,
XD.LK = Light key component at top flow
XD.HK = Heavy key component at top flow
XF.LK = Light key component at feed flow
XF.HK = Heavy key component at feed flow
In the calculation, the optimum reflux ratio as 2.5 was used (based on Coulson
& Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, and J.M Coulson, J.F Richardson,
Chemical Engineering, Volume Two, Third Edition) as 0.1204 is too low for the
calculation, based on statement from R. K. Sinnot, Coulson & Richardson, Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6, Butterworth Heinemann, 2001, page 495 At low reflux
ratios the calculated number of stages will be very dependent on the accuracy of the
vapor-liquid equilibrium data available. If the data are suspect a higher than normal
ratio should be selected to give more confidence in the design.
215
3.3.2 DETERMINATION OF THE NUMBER OF PLATES USING FENSKES
EQUATION
The Fenskes equation (1932) can be used to estimate the minimum stages required at
total reflux. The derivation of the equation is for binary system and applies equally to
multicomponents system. But in the design only the calculation of plates using
McCabe-Thiele method as the design plate number was taken into consideration.
Nmin =
LK
b
LK
HK
d
HK
LK
x
x
x
x
log
log
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
1
]
1
(3.16)
=
392 . 6 log
000 . 1
44 . 62
000 . 1
86 . 33
log
1
]
1
,
_
,
_
= 4.13
Nmin 5 stages
Normally after using the Fenskes Equation, the value of Nmin is given by the equation
below to get the number of stages, NT,
N T = 2 (Nmin)
= 2 (5)
= 10 stages
To get the real number of stages, the efficiency of the process must be considered,
and the efficiency is calculated based on the equation by OConnells (J. Douglas,
1988),
Eo =
( )
25 . 0
5 . 0
(3.17)
=
( )
25 . 0
392 . 6 x 224 . 0
5 . 0
= 0.457
216
N =
o
T
E
N
=
457 . 0
11
= 24.07
24 plates
3.3.3 THE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
The properties consider in this design are liquid flow rate, LW, vapor flow rate, VW, liquid
surface tension, , liquid density, l and vapor density, v. This physical properties
evaluated at the system temperature by using HYSIS generated data or by manual
calculations the from mass and energy balance data. The useful properties data are
from HYSIS, mass and energy balance data is given as below:
Liquid flow rate, LW = 38747.97 kg/hr (10.7633 kg/s)
Vapor flow rate, VW = 15251.95 kg/hr (4.2367 kg/s)
Liquid surface tension, = 0.0351 N/m
Liquid density, l = 746.74 kg/m
3
Vapor density, v = 3.8402 kg/m
3
Data evaluated are at system temperatures and pressures.
3.3.4 DETERMINATION OF COLUMN DIAMETER
The principal factor that determines the columns diameter is the vapour flow-rate. The
vapour velocity must be below that which would cause excessive liquid entrainment or
a high-pressure drop. The equation below which is based on the well-known Souders
and Brown equation, Lowenstein (1961), Coulson & Richardson, Chemical
Engineering, Volume 6, page 556, can be used to estimate the maximum allowable
superficial vapour velocity, and hence the column area and diameter,
217
( )
( )
1
]
1

v
v L
047 . 0
l
t
27 . 0
l
2
t
171 . 0
2 / 1
v u
(3.18)
= ( )
( )
( )
1
]
1
,
_
+
8402 . 3
8402 . 3 74 . 746
2 / 1
047 . 0 9 . 0 27 . 0 9 . 0
2
171 . 0
= 0.7997 m/s
Where,
u
v
= maximum allowable vapour velocity, based on the gross (total)
column cross-sectional area, m/s,

lt
= plate spacing, m (range 0.5 1.5).
Based on the equation below, the column diameter could be determined,
Dc =
u
v
v
w
v
4

(3.19)
Dc =
) 7997 . 0 )( 8402 . 3 (
) 6244 . 0 ( 4
= 0.51 m
Dc = 0.51 x 1.5
= 0.765 m
For safety reason, the approximate diameter was increased 50% more than the
calculated value, as it deals with vapour, which is in high pressure.
218
3.3.5 DETERMINATION OF PLATE SPACING
The overall height of the column will depend on the plate spacing. Plate spacings from
0.15 m (6 in.) to 1m (36 in.) are normally used. The spacing chosen will depend on the
column diameter and the operating conditions. Close spacing is used with small-
diameter columns, and where head room is restricted, as it will be when a column is
installed in a building. In the MTBE distillation column, the plate spacing was assumed
0.9 m as it is in the range of 0.5 m to 1 m recommended by Coulson and Richardson,
Chemical Engineering, Volume 6.
3.3.6 LIQUID FLOW ARRANGEMENTS
Before deciding liquid flow arrangement, maximum volumetric liquid rate were
determined by using equation below,
VL =
L
Lw
(3.20)
VL =
74 . 746
97 . 38747
VL = 51.89 m
3
/hr
= 0.0144 m
3
/s
Based on the values of volumetric flow rate and column diameter, Dc. Figure
11.28 from Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 568.
Therefore, types of liquid flow could be considered as single pass.
3.3.7 PLATE LAYOUT
The value of downcomer area, active area, hole area, hole size, and weir height were
determined based on above value calculated, trial plate layout column area determined
by using the equation below,
219
Column area, Ac =
) 9 . 0 ( Uv
Um
(3.21)
=
) 9 . 0 ( 7997 . 0
181 . 4
= 5.81 m
2
Where Um = Velocity at below plate,
Down comer area were found by assume 20% of column area and using equation
below,
Down comer Area Ad = 0.2 Ac
= 0.2(5.81 m
2
)
= 1.162 m
2
Net area and active area were determined by using equations below,
Net Area, An = Ac - Ad
= 5.181 -1.162
= 4.02 m
2
Active area, Aa = Ac - 2Ad
= 5.181 - 2(1.162)
= 2.857 m
2
Hole Area, AH are determine with trial value of 10% active area by equation below,
Hole Area, Ah = 0.10(Aa)
= 0.10(2.857)
= 0.2857 m
2
Weir Length, lw was calculated by referring Figure 11.31 from Coulson Richardson,
Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 572 which was determined based on the
value of the ratio of Ad/Ac to get the ratio of lw/ Dc .
The weir height determined and other dimensions are as below:
220
Weir Height, hw = 50 mm (standard)
Hole diameter, dh = 5 mm (standard)
Plate Thickness = 5 mm (standard)
Weir Length, Iw = 612 mm (80% x 765)
3.3.8 ENTRAINMENT EVALUATION
The entrainment checking can be done by determine actual flooding percentage, Uv by
using equation below,
Uv =
c
m
A
U
(3.22)
=
181 . 5
181 . 4
= 0.807 m/s
Liquid flow rate were determine by using below equation by using liquid vapor flow
factor.
FLV =
5 . 0
,
_
l
v
Vw
Lw
(3.23)
=
95 . 15251
97 . 38747

5 . 0
74 . 746
8402 . 3
1
]
1
= 0.182
Where FLV is liquid vapor factor.
Based on value of FLV and assumption made for initial tray spacing (0.9m) by
referring to Figure 11.27 from Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume
6, page 567, the data were used to determine the constant, K1 for the estimation of
flooding velocity. Before that, correction factor are used as equation below:
K1 = k1
2 . 0
02 . 0

,
_

(3.24)
221
= 0.1
2 . 0
02 . 0
0351 . 0
,
_
= 0.112
And flooding velocity, Uf determine by equation below (correlation given by Fair,
Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 567,
Uf = K1

,
_

v
v l

(3.25)
= 0.112

,
_

v
v l

0.5
= 0.112
5 . 0
8402 . 3
8402 . 3 74 . 746
,
_

= 1.56 m/s
Actual % of flooding =
100
f
v
U
U
(3.26)
= 100
560 . 1
807 . 0
= 51.8%
Fractional entrainment is calculated based on this percentage and FLV by
referring to Figure 11.29 from Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume
6, page 570, if unsatisfied, recalculation were done based on chosen diameter and
plate spacing acceptable to determine the lowest value. However, fractional
entrainment = 0.02, is below the initial guest of 0.1 and entrainment is acceptable.
3.3.9 WEEPING RATE EVALUATION
222
Weir liquid crest were determined by using values of maximum liquid flow rate
and minimum flow rate based on the process condition and also assumption of
turndown percentage based on the liquid characteristic. Each weir liquid crest value
was determined by using equations as follow, the Francis weir formula (see also
Volume 1, Chapter 5),
Max how =
3 / 2
) (
max
750

,
_
lw l
Lw
(3.27)
= 750
3 / 2
) 88 . 0 )( 74 . 746 (
5860 . 1
,
_
= 13.49 mm liquid
Min how =
3 / 2
) (
min
750

,
_
lw l
Lw
(3.28)
=
3 / 2
) 88 . 0 )( 74 . 746 (
7633 . 10
750

,
_
= 48.37 mm liquid
Where,
Iw = Weir length, 0.88 (standard)
how = weir crest
Lw = liquid flow rate
At minimum liquid flow rate, the value was determined by adding weir height Hw and
weir crest, how the constant, K2 where it is found based on the value by referring to
Figure 11.30 from Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page
571.
Minimum vapor velocity Uh, were determined by using the equation as below,
Uh =
5 . 0
2
) 4 . 25 ( 90 . 0
v
d K
h

(3.29)
=
5 . 0
) 8402 . 3 (
) 005 . 0 4 . 25 ( 90 . 0 60 . 28
= 2.931 m/s
(3.3.10, 3.3.11 and 3.3.12: Please refer to the Appendix)

223
3.3.13 NUMBER OF HOLES
Area of hole,
AH =
4
d
2
h
(3.30)
=
4
) 05 . 0 (
2

= 1.9634 x 10
-3
m
2
Number of Holes =
H
h
A
A
(3.31)
=
3
10 9634 . 1
2857 . 0
= 145.49
146 units (at every sieve plate).
3.3.14 COLUMN SIZE
The column height will be calculated based on the equation given below. The equation
determines the height of the column without taking the skirt or any support into
consideration. Its determination is based on condition in the column.
Column Height = (No stage 1) (tray spacing)
+(Tray spacing x 2)
+(No stage-1) (Thickness of Plate)
= (11 -1)(0.9)+(0.9)(2) + (11-1)(0.005)
= 10.85 m
12.00 m (including 10% safety factor)
The overall height from the calculation is 10.85 m, but in a real construction it
will be added slightly more (about 10%) because of vapor and liquid area at top and
bottom column. The space for vapor and liquid are required if uncertain condition occur
224
in the column, such as over flooding, over vapor pressure or upset in reaction situation.
The calculated result is tabulated in the Table 5.8 as below.

Table 3.8 Provisional Plate Design Specification
Item Value
Column Diameter, Dc
0.765 m
No of Plates
11 units
Plate Spacing
0.9 m
Plate Thickness
5 mm
*
Total Column Height, Ht
12.00 m
Plate Pressure Drop, ht
192.81 mm liquid*
Plate Material
SS 304
Down Comer Area, Ad
0.8348 m
2
Down Comer Material
SS 304
Column Area, Ac
5.181 m
2
Net Area, An
4.020 m
2
Active Area, Aa
2.857 m
2
Hole Area, Ah
0.2857 m
2
Number of Holes
146 units
Weir Length
0.612 m
Weir Height (standard)
0.05 m
Resident Time 13.37 seconds*
* For the determination of these values, they are shown in the Appendix section.
3.4 MECHANICAL DESIGN
In the mechanical design, the temperature and pressure are important properties in
evaluating the thickness and the stress of material. Therefore, the safety factor also is
225
also added as precaution and determined by certain consideration such as corrosion
factor, location and process characteristic.
The safety factor is usually 10% above the operating pressure and as for this
MTBE distillation column, the operating pressure is 450 kPa. The chosen safety factor
is based on the process characteristics of the system. The design temperature is
related to the operating temperature. Based on the calculated result, the temperature
at the top of the column is 53.3
o
C and the temperature at the bottom of the column is
107
o
C.
2
x 110%
= 0.495 N/mm
2
Design Temperature, T = 117.70 C (10% more than design temp.)
3.4.1 MATERIAL OF CONSTRUCTION
The material used in the construction of the distillation column is stainless steel
(18Cr/8Ni, 304) as the material is suitable in high temperature and less corrosive. For
this material, the design stress at 150 C is obtained from Table 13.2, page 809
Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6.
2
Diameter vessel, Di = 860 mm
2
3.4.2 VESSEL THICKNESS
The minimum thickness of column required and other designs are calculated based on
equation below (Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6, page 812):
226
e =
Pi Jf 2
Di Pi
(3.32)
=
) 495 . 0 ( ) 145 )( 1 ( 2
) 765 )( 495 . 0 (
= 1.31 mm
Based on Table 13.4, Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6,
page 811, this minimum thickness should be added 5 mm to withstand its own weight
and any incidental loads.
e = 1.31 mm + 5 mm
= 6.31 mm
Assumed 7.00 mm
Where, Pi = Design pressure
Di = Column diameter
f = Design Stress
J = Joint factor (assumed = 1)
From Table 13.4, Coulson and Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume 6,
page 811, for diameter 1 m to 2 m the minimum thickness should not be less than 7
mm (including 2 mm of corrosion allowance). For vessel diameter around 0.5 m to 1 m,
a much thicker wall will be needed at the column base to withstand the wind and dead
weight loads.
A much thicker wall is needed at the column base to withstand the wind and
dead weight loads. As a first trial, divide the column into five sections, with the
thickness increasing by 2 mm per section. Try 7, 9, 11, 13 and 15 mm. The average
wall thickness is 11 mm.
3.4.3 HEADS AND CLOSURE
227
Torispherical head had been chosen because of operating pressure below 10 bars and
suitable for liquid vapor phase process in inconsistent high pressure. The calculations
as below is considered,
Crown radius, Rc = Di = 0.765 m
Minimum Thickness =
) 2 . 0 C ( P Jf 2
C R P
s i
s c i
+
= 0.2137mm
(The method of calculations is shown in the Appendix section)
3.4.4 TOTAL COLUMN WEIGHT
Total Weight, Tw
Total weight is the summation of the weight of dead weight, the weight of plates and
the weight of insulation. The calculations for the dead weight, the weight of plates and
the weight of the insulation are shown in the Appendix.
Total weight, Wt = Wv + Wp + WI
= (28.46 + 68.53 + 10.63) kN
= 107.62 kN
3.4.5 WIND LOADS
The wind load is calculated based on location and the weather of surrounding.
Therefore, the value of wind speed is assumed as below and wind load is calculated
shown in the appendix. The wind load for the MTBE column is 62.91kN (methods of
calculation in shown in the appendix.
3.4.6 STIFFNESS RING (Please refer to the Appendix)
Table 3.9 Summarized Results of Mechanical Design
228
Operating pressure, Po 0.45 N/mm
2
Design Pressure, Pi 0.495 N/mm
2
Safety factor 0.15
Design Temperature, TD 88.78
o
C
Operating Temperature, To 80.71
o
C
Heads and Closure
Types Torispherical head.
Crown Radius, Rc = Di 0.765 m
Knuckle Radius, Rk = 6% Rc 0.046 m
Joint Factor, J 1.00
Cs 1.77
Minimum thickness head, e 0.2317 mm
Column Weight
Dead weight of vessel, Wv 28.46 kN
Weight of a plate, Wp 6.23 kN
Weight of 11 plates,Wp 68.53 kN
Weight of insulation, WI 10.63 kN
Total weight 107.62 kN
Win speed, Uw 160 km/hr
Wind pressure. Fw 1068.8 N/m
2
Bending Moment (Mx) 62.91 kN
Stiffness Ring
Critical buckling pressure for ring, Pc 15 x 10
6
N/m
2
229
3.5 VESSEL SUPPORT DESIGN (SKIRT DESIGN)
Type of Support : Straight cylindrical skirt
s : 90
Material of Construction : Carbon steel
Design Stress, fs : 135 N/mm
2
at ambient temp. 20C
Skirt Height, Hv : 2.5 m (standard)
Youngs Modulus : 200, 000 N/mm
2
Approximate Weight : 8.418 kN
Total Weight : 36.88 kN
230
(The method of calculations for other parameters in the vessel support design in shown
in the Appendix section)
Table 3.10 Design Specification of the Support Skirt
Support Data
Type of Support Straight cylindrical skirt
Material of Construction Carbon steel
Design Stress, at T 20C (ambient) 135 N/mm
2
Skirt Height 2.50 m
Youngs Modulus 200000 N/mm
2
L 746.74 kg/m
3
Approximate Weight, Wapprox 8.418 kN
Total Weight 107.62 kN
Wind Load, Fw 1068.8 N/m
2
Skirt Thickness, ts 15 mm
REFERENCES
J. M. Coulson, J. F. Richardson, Chemical Engineering, Volume Two, Third
Edition, The Pergamon Press, 1977.
R. K Sinnot, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering, Chemical
Engineering Design, Volume Six, Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
Robert H. Perry, Don W. green, Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook,
Seventh Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1998.
James, M. Douglas, Conceptual Design of Chemical Processes, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, 1988.
Martyn S. Ray and David, W. Johnston, Chemical Engineering, Design Project:
A Case Study Approach, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1989.
Carl R. Branan, Rules of Thumb for Chemical Engineers, Gulf Publishing
Company, 1994.
231
Billet, R., Distillation Engineering, Heydon Publishing, 1979.
King, C. J., Separation Processes, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
Kister, H. Z., Distillation Design, McGraw-Hill, 1992.
Lockett, M. J., Distillation Tray Fundamentals, Cambridge University Press,
1986.
Normans, W. S., Absorption, Distillation and Cooling Towers, Longmans, 1961.
Oliver, E. D., Diffusional Separation Procesess, John-Wiley, 1966.
Robinson, C.S., and Gilliland, E.R., Elements of Fractional Distillation, McGraw-
Hill, 1950.
Smith, R., Chemical Process Design, McGraw-Hill, 1995.
Van Winkle, M., Distillation, McGraw-Hill, 1967.
Micheal J. Barber, Handbook of Hose, Pipes, Couplings and Fittings, First
Edition, The Trade & Technical Press Limited, 1985.
Louis Gary Lamit, Piping Systems: Drafting and Design, Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1981.
David H. F. Liu, Bela. G. Liptak, Wastewater Treatment, Lewis Publishers, 2000.
SECTION 4
DESIGN OF LIQUID-LIQUID EXTRACTION COLUMN
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Liquid-liquid extraction has become an important separation technique in modern
process technology. This is has resulted in the rapid development of a great variety of
232
extractor types, in the evaluation of which the chemical engineer must primarily depend
on manufacturers literature.
To the design, only three components that are considered, - methanol, water
and isobutene- this is because of for most system containing more than four
components, the display of equilibrium data and the computation of stages is very
difficult. In such cases, the requirements are best obtained in the laboratory without
detail study of the equalibria. (Treybal, Mass Transfer Operations, 1987).
Beside that for multicomponent separations also, special computer programs
for these multistage operations embodying heat and material balances and
sophisticated phase equilibrium relations are best left to professionals. Most such work
is done by service organizations that specialize in chemical engineering process
calculations or by specialize in chemical engineering organizations. (Stanley M. Walas,
Chemical Process Equipment, 1988).
Sieve tray (perforated plate) Column were choose for the extraction of these
components. These multistage, countercurrent columns are very effective, both with
respect to liquid-handling capacity and with respect to extraction efficiency, particularly
for system of low interfacial tension, which do not require mechanical agitation for good
dispersion.
4.2 CHEMICAL DESIGN OF LIQUID LIQUID EXTRACTION COLUMN
4.2.1 Choice of Solvents
There is usually a wide choice of liquids to be used as solvent for extraction operations.
It is unlikely that any particular liquid will exhibit all the properties considered desirable
for extraction, and some compromise is usually necessary. The following factors need
to be considered when selecting a suitable solvent for a given extraction affinity for
solute, partition ratio, density, miscibility, safety and cost. Based on the factors that
need to be considered water was choosing as a solvent in this system.
4.2.2 Estimation or Gather the Physical Properties
233
Most of the design parameter used were refer to mass balance, energy balance data
and generated by chemical Engineering Simulation Software, HYSIS.
The properties data as state below:
Flowrate at the dispersed phase, QD = 1254.92 ft
3
/hr
Flowrate at the continuous phase, QC = 1.785 ft
3
/hr
Density at the dispersed phase, D = 24.10 lb/ ft
3
Density at the continuous phase C = 41.45 lb/ft
3
.
The data was evaluated at system temperature and pressure.
4.2.3 Determination of Number of Stages
To determine the theoretical stages required, by assuming the minimum solvent to feed
ratio required to remove all the minimum component, so that is the extraction factor, =
1(Schweitzer, Separation Handbook). Equation 4.1 was used. The value for Xf =
0.0195 kg CH3OH/ kg water, Ys = 1.57 x 10
-6
kg CH3OH/ kg water was compute from
the mass balance at this system.
Number of theoretical stage, Nf = Xf Ys/m - 1 (4.1)
Xr Ys/m

Nf = 0.0195 (1.57 x 10
-6
/ 0.001) - 1
(1.57 x 10
-6
/ 0.001)
= 10.42 stages
= 10 stages
Where, Xf = weight solute /weight feed solvent in the feed phase
Ys = weight solute / weight extraction solvent in extract
Xr = weight solute /weight feed solvent in the raffinate phase
m = slope at the equilibrium line dY/dX
234
The number of mass transfer unit, Nor is identical to the number of the theoretical
stages when extraction factor, = 1.
Nor = Xf Ys/m - 1 (4.2)
Xr Ys/m
Nor = 10 units
By assuming column efficiency, E is 80%, the number of real stages, N was
determining by using equation 4.3.
N = (Nf -1)/ E (4.3)
= (10 1)/ 0.8
= 11 stages
4.2.4 Sizing of Sieve Tray
The sieve tray sizing was base on the manufacturers literature. Usually the tray
spacing is from (6 to 24) in, and perforation diameter, do usually from (0.32 to 0.64) cm
or (1/8 to 1/4) in diameter. By take 2 ft tray spacing, Zt, 0.25 in holes on 0.75 in
triangular spacing. The downcomer area is found with equation 4.4.
h = 4.5 Vd
2
C / 2gc (4.4)
h = 2 = 4.5 Vd
2
C / 2gc
2 = 4.5(41.45) Vd
2
2(4.18 x 10
8
) 17.35
Vd = 12471 ft/hr
Ad = QD/ Vd (4.5)
= 1254.92 / 12471
= 0.1006 ft
2
235
Dd = 4.2948 in (Downcomer diameter)
Where, Vd = Velocity of the dowmcomer
C = Density at the continuous phase
gc = gravitational constant
To determine the total holes area in a tray used equation 4.6 and set the velocity
through the holes, Uh are kept below 0.8 ft/sec or 2880ft/ hr to avoid formation of very
small droplet.
Total hole area, AHT = QD/ Uh (4.6)
= (1254.92 / 2880)
= 0.4357 ft
2
To find the tray area, by using ratio of the tray area to hole area as state below:
Tray area, AT = 0.866 (ds)
2
Hole area, AH (/4) (do)
2
= 2.21( ds/ do)
2
= 2.21 (0.75/0.25)
2
= 19.89
Tray Area, AT = 19.89(0.4357)
= 8.666 ft
2
Tray Diameter, DT = 3.32 ft
Where, do = perforation diameter
ds = triangular spacing
4.2.5 Number of Holes
Hole area, AH = (/4) (do)
2
(4.7)
236
= (/4) (0.25)
2
=0.0245 in
2
Number of hole, NH = AHT/AH (4.8)
= 0.4357ft
2
/ 0.0245 in
2
= 2560 units
4.2.6 Column Parameter
Number of tray, NT required and the tower high, HT is determining by using equation
4.9 and 4.10 respectively. The efficiency of the tray is base on assumption of the
column efficiency.
Number of trays, NT = Nf / ET (4.9)
= 10 / 0.8
= 13 trays
Column Height, CT = Zt x NT (4.10)
= 2 (13)
= 26 ft + 3 ft (including 1.5 ft at each end)
= 29 ft
Column diameter same with the tray diameter, so

Column diameter, DC = 3.32 ft.
Column area, AC = 8.67 ft
2
Net area and active are were determined by using equation 4.11 and 4.12 respectively.
Net area, AN = AC - Ad (4.11)
= 8.67 0.1739
= 28.4961ft
2
Active area, Aa = AC - 2Ad (4.12)
= 8.67 (2 x 0.1739)
= 8.322 ft
2
Where, Ad = downcomer area
237
The height equivalent to theoretical stages, (HETS) and height of transfer unit, Hor are
calculated by using equation 4.13 and 4.14 respectively.
HETS = CH / Nf (4.13)
= 29 / 10
= 2.9
Hor = CH / Nor (4.14)
= 2.9
4.2.7 Weeping Evaluation
By analogy with distillation. Weir length, lw is calculated by referring to Figure 11.31
from Coulson and Richardson Vol.6 page 572, which determined the value is base on
the ratio of Ad/AC to get the ratio of lw/DC. The weir height determine from standard form
as follows:
Weir height = 50 mm
Hole diameter = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
Weir crest were determined by using value of maximum flowrate and minimum
flowrate based on process condition. Each weir crest value determine by using
equation 4.15 and equation 4.16 respectively.
Max how = 750 Lw max / D( lw)
2/3
(4.15)
= 750 3.8106/ (380.048 x 1.2705)
2/3
= 29.73 mm liquid
Min how = 750 Lw min / D( lw)
2/3
(4.16)
= 750 0.4512/ (380.048 x 1.2705)
2/3
238
= 7.17 mm liquid
At minimum rate hw + how = 50 + 7.17 =57.17 mm
Where, lw = weir length
how = weir crest
Lw = liquid flowrate
Orifice coefficient, Co was referring from figure 11.34 Coulson and Richardson Vol. 6
pg 576 and by assuming.
1. Plate thickness : hole diameter = 1
2. Ah/Ap = 5
Plate pressure drop, h
h = 51 (Uh / Co)
2
(C/D) (4.17)
= 51 (0.2438/0.805)
2
(640/380.048)
= 7.88 mm liquid
Residual head, hr
hr = (12.5 x 10
3
) / D (4.18)
= 12.5 x 10
3
/ 380.048
= 32.89 mm liquid
Total plate pressure drop, ht
ht = h + (hw + how) + hr (4.19)
= 7.88 + 57.17 + 32.89
= 97.94 mm liquid
Plate pressure drop, Pt
Pt = 9.81 x 10
-3
ht D (4.20)
= 9.81 x 10
-3
(97.94) (380.048)
= 365.147 Pa (N/m
2
)
Table 4.1: Provisional Plate Design Specification
Column Diameter 1011 mm
239
Number of Trays 13 trays
Tray Spacing 0.6 m
Plate Thickness 5 mm
Total Column Height 9 m
Plate Pressure Drop 7.88 mm liquid
Plate Material SS304
Downcomer Area 9.3 x 10
-3
m
2
Column Area 0.805 m
2
Net Area 2.647 m
2
Active Area 0.773 m
2
Hole Area 1.58 x 10
-5
m
2
Number of Holes 2560 units
Weir Length 1.2705 m
Weir Height (standard) 50 mm
Number of manhole 2
Manhole Diameter (BS 470:1984) 700 mm
4.3 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF LIQUID LIQUID EXTRACTION COLUMN
In mechanical design, the temperature and the pressure are important properties in
evaluate the thickness and the stress of material. Therefore, the safety factor also need
as precaution and determined by certain consideration such as corrosion factor,
location and process characteristic.
Based on Hysis data, the operating pressure is 2.75 kPa and the safety factor is
10% above operating pressure. The design temperature related to the operating
temperature. The temperature of column operated in 40
0
C at top of column and 27
0
C at
the bottom of the column. The design pressure and design temperature of the system
as follows:
2
x 1.1
= 0.3025 N/mm
2
Design Temperature, T = 50
0
C
4.3.1 Material Construction
The material used is stainless steel (18Cr/8Ni, 304). Design stress at 50
0
C is gain from
table 13.2, pg 809 Coulson & Richardson Vol.6.
240
2
Diameter Vessel, Di = 1011 mm
Tensile Strength, = 510 N/mm
2
4.3.2 Vessel Thickness
The thickness of column is calculated based on the equation below:
e = PiDi (4.21)
2f Pi
= 0.3025(1011)
2(165) 0.3025
= 0.9276 mm
Add corrosion allowance 4mm, so the thickness:
e = 4.9276 mm
= 5 mm
From Coulson & Richardson, value for vessel diameter (m), 1 m, the minimum
wall thickness required should not be less than 5mm including corrosion allowance. A
much thicker wall will be needed at the column base to withstand the wind and dead
weight loads. As a first trial, divide the column into five sections (courses) with
thickness increasing by 2mm per section. Try 10,12,14,16, and 18mm. The average is
14 mm.
4.3.3 Design of Domed Ends
Standard torispherical head are the most commonly used end closure for vessel up to
operating pressure of 15 bar. Torispherical head had been choose because of
operating pressure below 10 bar.
Crown Radius, RC = Di = 1.011m
Knuckle Radius, Rk = 6%RC = 0.061 m
241
A head of this size would be formed by pressing: no joint, so J = one. Stress
concentration factor for torispherical heads, Cs:
Cs = (3 + (RC / Rk)) (4.22)
= (3 + (1.011/0.061))
= 3.053
Therefore the minimum thickness:
e = PiRCCs (4.23)
2fJ + Pi (Cs 0.2)
= 0.3025(1011) (3.053)
(2 x 165) + (0.3025(3.053 -0.2))
= 2.821 mm
4.3.4 Column Weight
4.3.4.1 Dead Weight of Vessel, Wv
Wv = 240 Cv Dm(Hv + 0.8Dm) t (4.24)
Where;Cv = a factor take 1.15, vessel with plates
= (Di + t)
Hv = height or length between tangent line
To get a rough estimate of the weight of this vessel by using the average thickness 14
mm.
Dm = 1.011 + 0.014
= 1.025 m
Hence,
Wv = 240(1.15) (1.025) (9 +0.8(1.025)) 14
= 38933.69N
242
= 389 kN
4.3.4.2 Weight of plate, Wp
From Nelson (1963) pg 833 in Coulson & Richardson Vol. 6 rough guide to weight of
fittings, take contacting plates, steel including typical liquid loading, 1.2 kN/m
2
plate
areas. The total of weight of plate determine by multiply the value with number of tray
design.
Tray area, AT = 0.805 m
2
Weight of plate = 1.2 x AT (4.25)
= 1.2(0.805)
= 0.966 kN
Weight of 13 trays, Wp = 0.966(13)
= 12.558 kN
4.3.4.3 Weight of Insulation, Wi
The insulating material is mineral wool;
Density of mineral wool = 130 kg/m
3
Thickness of insulation, ti = 75 mm
Volume of insulation, Vi = DiHv x ti (4.26)
= (1.0110) (9) (75 x 10
-3
)
= 2.144m
3
Weight of Insulation, Wi = Vig (4.27)
= 2.144(130) (9.81)
= 2734.11 N
Double this value to allow fittings, so weight of insulation, Wi = 5.468 kN
4.3.4.4 Total weight, W
243
W = Wv + Wp + Wi (4.28)
= 389 + 12.56 + 5.47
= 407.03 kN
4.3.4.5 Wind Loading
Take dynamic wind pressure, Pw as 1280 N/m
2
.
Mean diameter, including insulation, Deff:
= 1.011 + 2(0.014 + 0.075)
= 2.791 m
Loading (per linear meter) Fw;
Fw = PwDeff (4.29)
= 1280 (2.791)
= 3572.48 N/m
Bending moment at bottom tangent line. MX
MX = FwX
2
(4.30)
2
= 3572.48 (9)
2
2
= 144685 Nm
Where; X = Distance measured from the free end
The calculated value as the result tabulated in table 4.2. The value requires
determining in strength and suitability of column while in construction and operation. It
also required the safety consideration operation. The operating procedure of the
column should base on this value.
4.3.5 Analysis of Stress
At bottom tangent line,
244
4.3.5.1 Longitudinal and Circumferential Pressure Stress;
h = PiDi (4.31)
2t
= 0.3025 (1011)
2 (14)
= 10.92 N/mm
2
L = PiDi (4.32)
4t
= 0.3025 (1011)
4 (14)
= 5.46 N/mm
2
4.3.5.2 Dead Weight Stress
L = W (4.33)
(Di + t) t
= 407030
(1011 + 14) 14
= 9.03 N/mm
2
4.3.5.3 Bending Stress
b = MX / IV ((Di/2) + t) (4.34)
Where;MX = Total bending moment
IV = Second bending moment
= / 60 (Do
4
Di
4
)
Which;
Do = 1011 + 2(14)
= 1039 mm
IV = / 60 (1039
4
1011
4
)
= 6.32 x 10
9
mm
4
Therefore,
245
b = 144685000 ((1011 / 2) + 14)
6.32 x 10
9
= 11.89N/mm
2
The result longitudinal stress, Z is:
Z = L + W b
Z (upwind) = L - W + b
= 5.46 11.15 + 11.89
= 6.2 N/mm
2
Z(downwind) = L - W - b
= 5.46 11.15 11.89
= -17.58 N/mm
2
4.3.5.4 Elastic Stability (Buckling)
Critical buckling stress, C:
C = 2 x 10
4
(t / Do) (4.35)
= 2 x 10
4
(14 / 1039)
= 269.48 N/mm
2
The maximum compressive stress will occurs when the vessel is not under pressure:
W + b = 11.15 + 11.89
= 23.04N/mm
2
This value is below critical buckling stress, so design is satisfactory.
Stresses analysis is tabulate in the table 4.3.
4.3.6 Vessel Supports Design
4.3.6.1 Skirt Supports
At ambient temperature.
246
Type of support : Straight cylindrical skirt (S = 90
0
)
Material construction : Plain carbon steel
Design stress : 135 N/mm
2
Youngs Modulus : 200000 N/mm
2
Skirt height, Hs : 3 m
The maximum dead weight load on the skirt will occur when the vessel is full of the
mixture.
Approximate weight, Wapprox = ( / 4) Di
2
HVLg (4.36)
= ( / 4) (1.011
2
) (9) (380.048) (9.81)
= 26936.56 N
= 26.9 kN
Total weight = W + Wapprox
= 407.03 + 26.9
= 433.93kN
Bending moment at base of skirt, MS:
MS = Fw (HV + HS)
2
(4.37)
2
= 3.572 (12
2
/ 2)
= 257.184 kNm
As a first trial, take the skirt thickness as the same as that of the bottom section of the
vessel, ts = 14 mm.
Bending stresses in skirt, bs = 4Ms / ( (Ds + ts) tsDs) (4.38)
Where; Ms = Maximum bending moment at the base of the skirt.
ts = Skirt thickness
Ds = Inside diameter of the skirt at the base
So,
247
bs = 4 (257184 x 10
3
) / (1011+14) (14) (1011)
= 22.5710 N/mm
2
Dead weight stress in the skirt, Ws:
Ws(test) = W / ( (Ds + ts) ts) (4.39)
= 26900 / (1011+14) (14)
= 0.60 N/mm
2
Ws(operating) = 407030 / (1011+14) (14)
= 9.03 N/mm
2
Thus, the resulting stress in the skirt, s:
Max s (compressive) = Ws(test) + bs (4.40)
= 0.60 + 22.57
= 23.17 N/mm
2
Max s (tensile) = bs - Ws(operating) (4.41)
= 22.57 9.03
= 13.54 N/mm
2

Take the joint factor, J as 0.85.
Criteria for design
s (tensile) >fs J sin
13.54 > 0.85 (135 sin 90
0
)
13.54 > 114.75
248
s (compressive) > 0.125 E (ts/DS) sin
23.17 > 0.125 (200000) (14/1011) sin 900
23.17 > 346.19
Both criteria are satisfied; add 2mm for corrosion gives a design thickness of 16 mm.
4.3.6.2 Base Ring and Anchor Bolt
Approximate pitch circle diameter, say 2.2 m.
Circumferences of bolt circle = 2200
of bolt required, at minimum recommended bolt spacing:
= 2200 / 600
= 11.5
Closet multiple of 4 = 12 bolts
Take bolt design stress = 125 N/mm
2
Bending moment at skirt, MS = 301.834 kNm
Total weight vessel, W = 502.53 kN
Area of bolt, Ab = 1 4MS - W (4.42)
Nbfb Db
Where:Nb = Number of bolts
fb = Maximum allowable bolt stress
MS = Bending moment at the base
W = Weight of the vessel
249
Db = Bolt Circle diameter
Therefore,
Ab = 1 4 (257184) - 407030
12 (125) 2.2
= 40.35 mm
2
Bolt root diameter = (40.38 x 4) /
= 7.17 mm
Total compressive load on the base ring per unit length.
Fb = 4MS + W (4.43)
DS
2
DS
= 4 (257184) + 407030
(1.011
2
) (1.011)
= 448.5 x 10
3
N/m
By taking the bearing pressure as 5 N/mm2. The minimum width of the base ring, Lb:
Lb = Fb + 1 (4.44)
Fc 10
3
= 448.5 x 10
3

5000
= 89.7 mm
Actual width can be calculated from this minimum width.
Use M24 bolts (BS 4190:1967) root area = 353 mm
2
(Figure 13.30 Coulson &
Richardson Vol. 6)
250
Actual width required = Lr + ts + 50mm
= 150 + 14 + 50
= 214 mm
Actual bearing pressure on concrete foundation:
fc = Fb
actual width
= 448500
214000
= 2.10 N/mm
2
Actual minimum base thickness:
tb = Lr (3 fc / fr) (4.45)
= 150 ((3 x 2.1) / 140)
= 25.98 mm
Where: fr = Allowable design stress in the ring material, typically 140 N/mm
2
The design specifications of support are summarized in the table 4.4.
4.3.7 Piping Sizing
The optimum diameter for carbon steel pipe:
d, optimum = 293 G
0.53
-0.37
(4.46)
Where:G = Flowrate (kg/s)
= Density (kg/m
3
)
Pipe thickness, t = P d, optimum (4.47)
251
20 + P
Where:P = Internal pressure, bar
= Design stress at working temperature, N/mm
2
The piping sizing for this system are shown in table 4.5
Table 4.2 : Summary of the Mechanical Design
Design Pressure
Operating Pressure 2.75 kPa
Operating Temperature 40
0
C
Design Pressure 0.3025 N/mm
2
Design Temperature 50
0
C
Safety Factor 0.10
Design of Domed Ends
Types Torispherical head
Crown Radius 1.011 m
Knuckle Radius 0.061 m
Joint Factor 1
Stress Concentration Factor 3.053
Minimum Thickness 2.821 mm
Column Weight
Dead Weight of Vessel 389 kN
Weight of Plate (per plate) 0.966 kN
Weight of Insulation 2734.11 N
Total Weight 407.03 kN
Wind Pressure 1280 N/m
2
Loading 3572.48 N/m
Bending Moment 144.685 kNm
252
Table 4.3: Stress Analysis for Liquid-Liquid Extraction Column
Longitudinal Pressure Stress 10.92 N/mm
2
Circumferential Pressure Stress 5.46 N/mm
2
Dead Weight Stress 9.03 N/mm
2
Bending Stress 11.89 N/mm
2
Z (upwind) 6.2 N/mm
2
Z(downwind) -17.58 N/mm
2
Critical Buckling Stress 269.48 N/mm
2
Table 4.4: Design Specification of the Support Skirt
Types of Support Straight cylindrical skirt
90
0
C
Material Construction Plain Carbon steel
Design Stress 135 N/mm
2
Skirt Height 3 m
Young Modulus 200000 N/mm
2
L 380.048 kN
Approximate Weight 26.9 kN
Total weight 433.93 kN
Bending Moment at Skirt 257.184 kNm
Skirt Thickness 14 m
Bending Stress in Skirt 22.57 N/mm
2
ws (test) 0.60 N/mm
2
ws (operating) 9.03 N/mm
2
Maximum s (compressive) 23.17 N/mm
2
Maximum s (tensile) 13.54 N/mm
2
253
Table 4.5: Piping Sizing for Liquid-liquid Extraction Column
Feed Pipe Sizing
Flowrate, G 13873.67 kg/hr
Density, 567.0445 kg/hr
Internal Pressure, P 2.75 bar
Design Stress, 165 N/mm
2
Diameter Optimum, d optimum 55 mm
Corrosion Allowance 4 mm
Pipe Thickness, t 4.05 mm
Solvent Pipe Sizing
Density, 998 kg/hr
Extract Pipe Sizing
Raffinate Pipe Sizing
4.4 PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION OF THE LIQUID-LIQUID
EXTRACTION COLUMN
Control systems are very important in any of the chemical industries. It is essential for
a process to meet the design specification and products purity that imposed by the
designer or by external constrains such as government regulations and standards.
254
Process parameters control is to compensate for the process changes with the
existence of external disturbances. Normally, an overall control strategy is design to
meet the following objectives:
1. Ensure stable plant operation conductive to power optimization
2. Maintain product quality according to specification
3. Operate the process and machinery in such a way as to estimate or minimize
the possibility of activating last resort safety measures such as relief valve and
surge system, thus ensuring safe plant operation.
Compensate for perturbations cause by external factors such as ambient and
cooling water temperature variations. Provide an intelligent man-machine interface
capable of presenting process and control system information and interactive format.
Typically, there are two types of control systems- feedback control and feed
forward control. In this case, the feedforward control is applied; in feedforward control
its take corrective action before they upset the process. In this system also, solvent use
is lighter than the material being extract, the two input indicated are of course
interchanged. Both inputs are on flow control. The light phase is removing from the
tower on LC (level control) or at the top of level maintain with an internal weir. The
bottom stream is removed on interfacial level control (ILC). The relative elevations of
feed and solvent input nozzles depend on the nature of the extraction process. The
temperature of an extraction process ordinarily is controlled by regulating the
temperature of the feed stream.
REFERENCES
Buford D.Smith, 1963. Design of Equilibrium Stage Processes, United State of
America. McGraw-Hill.
Robert C.Reid,Prausnitz & Poling,1987.The properties of Gases and Liquid, United
State of America. McGraw-Hill.
255
Erneat J.Henley & J.D Seader, 1968.Equilibrium-Stages Separation Operations in
Chemical Engineering. Canada. John Wiley & Sons
Philip A.Schweitzer,1988. Handbook of Separations Techniques for Chemical
Engineers,2
nd
Edition. United State of America. McGraw-Hill.
J.D Seader & Erneat J.Henley, 1998.Separation Process Principles, United State of
America. John Wiley & Sons
R.K.Sinnott, 1999.Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson & Richardson Chemical
Engineering .3rd Edition. Volume 6 .Britain. Butterworth Heinemann
Robert H. Perry, Don W. Green, 1998 Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, Seventh
Edition, McGraw-Hill.
J.R Backhurst & J.H Harker.1987.Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson &
Richardson Chemical Engineering .3rd Edition. Volume 2 .United Kingdom.
Pergamon Press.
Stanley M. Walas. 1988. Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design. United
State of America. Butterworths Series in Chemical Engineering.
Robert E.Treybal.1988. Mass-Transfer Operations,3
rd
Edition. Singapore, McGraw-Hill
International Series.
K.H Reissinger & Jurgen Schroter. 1980. Selections Criteria for Liquid-liquid
Extractors. Chemical Engineering Magazine, November: 274-256.
P.J Bailes,C.Hanson & M.A Hughes.1976. .Liquid-liquid Extraction: The process, the
equipment. Chemical Engineering Magazine, January 217-231.
Ariffin Marzuki & Nurul Izzi, 2004. PETRONAS Research Centre, Bangi. Interview,19
January.

SECTION 5
256
DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
INTRODUCTION
Shell and tube heat exchangers are the most versatile type of heat exchangers. They
are used in process industries, in conventional and nuclear power stations as
condensers, in steam generators in pressurized water reactor power plants, in feed
water heaters and in some air conditioning and refrigeration systems. They are also
proposed for many alternative energy applications including ocean, thermal and
geothermal. Shell and tube heat exchangers provide relatively large ratios of heat
transfer area to volume and weight and they can be easily cleaned.
Shell and tube heat exchangers offer great flexibility to meet almost any service
requirement. The reliable design methods and shop facilities are available for their
successful design and construction. Shell and tube heat exchangers can be designed
for high pressures relative to the environment and high pressure differences between
the fluid streams.
Shell and tube heat exchangers are built of round tubes mounted in a cylindrical
shell with the tubes parallel to the shell. One fluid flows inside the tubes, while the other
fluid flows across and along the axis of the exchanger. The major components of this
exchanger are tubes (tube bundle), shell, front-end head, baffles and tube sheets.
Shell types-various front and rear head types and shell types have been standardized
by Tubular Exchanger manufacturers Association (TEMA).
The E-shell is the most common due to its cheapness and simplicity. In this
shell, the shell fluid enters at one end of the shell and leaves at the other end that is
there is one pass on the shell side. The tubes may have a single or multiple passes
and are supported by transverse baffles. This shell is the most common for single-
phase shell fluid applications. With a single-tube pass, a nominal counter flow can be
obtained. The design of a shell and tube heat exchanger is an iterative process
because heat transfer coefficients and pressure drop depend on many geometric
factors, including shell and tube diameters, tube length, tube layout, baffle type and
257
spacing and the numbers of tube and shell passes, all of which are initially unknown
and are determined as part of the design process.
In production of MTBE, heat exchanger is very important equipment. Heat
exchanger is used to increase or to decrease the mixture to the desired temperature. In
order to make the process of production of MTBE taking place in the system, it is
important to make the system at the correct environment. The heat exchanger that we
used here is the shell and tube exchanger. Shell and tube heat exchanger is the most
common type of heat exchanger used in the industry. This is because it has many
advantages. The advantages are: -
1. It provided a large transfer area in a small space.
2. Good mechanical layout: a good shape for pressure operation.
3. Used well-established fabrication techniques.
4. It can be constructed from a wide range of materials.
5. It can be clean easily.
6. Well-established design procedures.
7. Single phases, condensation or boiling can be accommodated in either
the tubes or the shell, in vertical or horizontal positions.
8. Pressure range and pressure drop are virtually unlimited and can be
adjusted independently for the two fluids.
9. Thermal stresses can be accommodated inexpensively.
10. A great variety of materials of construction can be used and may be
different for the shell and tubes.
DESIGNING THE HEATER
In the production of MTBE, a heater is the most important heat exchanger in the
system. Therefore this chapter is going to describes details for this heater and the
design of this piece of equipment.
258
Heater is used in the process to heated the raw material of MTBE consist of
isobutane and a bit of normal butane. Isobutane and normal butane from the storage is
in liquid form. The heating process is because to produce the isobutane and normal
butane in the gases form before this material is feed to the Snamprogetti Fluidized Bed
Reactor. Here the mixtures of this component initially are in the liquefied gas form at
temperature of -15
o
C. It will be heated in the Heater (E-100) and Heater (E101) until it
converted into gas form at temperature of 250
o
C using steam. For this heat exchanger
we use the counter current process. The temperature difference between liquid and
gas phase is quit big, so we need two heat exchanger in series. The shell and tube
heat exchanger is the floating head type.
E100 E101
STREAM 3
STEAM OUT STEAM OUT
STREAM 4
STEAM IN STEAM IN
STREAM 2
T = -15
O
C
T = 250
O
C
T = 120
O
C
T = 350
O
C
T = 250
O
C
T = 117
O
C
T = 250
O
C
Figure 5.1 : Heat Exchanger In Series For The Heating Process
5.1 CHEMICAL DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
The chemical engineering design for the heat exchanger is also known as thermal. The
design requires the calculation of the heat transfer area required. From this value,
design features of the unit such as the tube and shell size, tube counts and layout is
determined. In addition, then pressure loss of the fluids across the unit is also
calculated by determined the pumping capacity required. The calculation of the design
259
is base on the first heat exchanger (E100). The chemical design is based on Bells and
Kern method. Bells method accounts for the major bypass and leakage streams. Kern
method was based on experimental work on commercial exchangers with standard
tolerances and will give a reasonably satisfactory prediction of heat-transfer coefficient
for standard design.
5.1.1 Physical Properties Of The Stream
Table 5.1: Properties of Raw material (Isobutane and N-butane) and
Steam for (E100)
Component Raw material (Isobutane
and normal butane)
Steam
Temperature inlet,
o
C t1 = -15 T1 = 250
Temperature outlet,
o
C t2 = 117 T2 = 120
Specific heat, j/kg
o
C 2155 2010
Thermal conductivity, W/mK 0.07 0.0306575
Density, kg/m3 485 0.49375
Viscosity, kg/ms 1.30005 x 10
-4
1.55263 x 10
-5
Feed flowrate, kg/s 10.9314 1.7649
5.1.2 The Calculation Of Tm
To determine the mean temperature, Tm
(5.1) T F = T
lm t m

Where
Tm = true temperature difference
260
Ft = temperature correction factor
Before Tm can be obtained, logarithmic mean temperature Tlm must be calculated
Using the equation:
(5.2)
) t - (T
) t - (T
ln
) t - (T - ) t - (T
= T
1 2
2 1
1 2 2 1
lm
Where
Tlm = log mean temperature difference
T1 = inlet shell-side fluid temperature
T2 = outlet shell-side fluid temperature
t1 = inlet tube-side temperature
t2 = outlet tube-side temperature
C 134.00 = T
(-15)) - (120
117) - (250
ln
) 15 + ( - ) 117 - (
= T
0
lm
lm
120 250
the temperature correction factor can be obtain by using figure 12.19 (Coulson &
Richardsons Chemical Engineering)
261
0.50 = S
(-15)) - (250
(-15)) - (117
= S
(5.4)
t - T
t - t
= S
0.98 = R
(-15)) - (117
120) - (250
= R
(5.3)
t - t
T - T
= R
1 1
1 2
1 2
2 1
Using figure 12.19, (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering)
Ft = 0.82
Substitute the above value into equation (1.1) below :
C 109.88 = T
) C . )( . ( = T
T F = T
0
m
0
m
lm t m

00 134 82 0
From table 12.1 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering), we take overall
Coefficient, U = 300 W/m
2

0
C
Duty for this heat exchanger is obtain from the energy balance. The duty is,
Q = 3109542.883 W
262
Then we need to calculate the surface area using equation below.
2
m
m 94.33 = A
) . )( (
3 3109542.88
= A
(5.5)
T U
Q
= A
88 109 300
5.1.3 Number Of Tubes Calculation

From table 12.3 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering), we take standard
pipe of:
Inside diameter, di = 16 mm
Outside diameter, do = 20 mm
Length of pipe is assumed as 16 ft.
Length, L = 4.88 m
Area of the pipe can be calculated using equation below

area = L D (5.6)
area = (4.88)(3.142)(0.02)
area = 0.3067 m
2
Using the area needed from the duty and area for each tube, the number of
Tube, Nt that we get is,
307.56 = N
0.3067
94.33
= N
(5.7)
a
A
= N
t
t
t
Therefore the number of tube, Nt = 308 tubes
263
5.1.4 Bundle And Shell Diameter Calculation
The tubes in heat exchanger are usually arranged in an equilateral triangular, square
or rotated pattern. The triangular and rotated square patterns give higher heat transfer
rates. Here we use the triangular pattern.
The triangular pitch of 1.25 is chosen as the tube arrangement.
Bundle diameter
(5.8) ) K / N ( d = D
/
1 t o b
1
1 n
From table 12.4 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering), for 1.25 triangular
pitch, number of passes = 2, then we can obtain
K1 = 0.249
n1 = 2.207
0.50m = D
) . 0 / ( 0.02 = D
) K / N ( d = D
b
. /
b
/
1 t o b
207 2 1
1
249 308
1
n
Assume using pull-through floating head type.
From figure 12.10 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering), for bundle
diameter 0.33, bundle clearance is 93 mm.
Shell diameter, Ds
Ds = 0.50 + 0.093
= 0.60m

5.1.5 Tube Side Coefficient, hi
264
Mean temperature of the tube
C 51 = t

2
117 + 15 -
= t
(5.9)
2
t + t
= t
o
mean
mean
2 1
mean
cross sectional area = d1
2
/ 4 (5.10)
= (3.142)(0.016
2
) / 4
= 0.0002 m
2
Tube / pass = 308 / 2 (5.11)
= 154 tube / pass
Total flow rate area = (cross sectional area)(tube / pass) (5.12)
= (0.0002)(154)
= 0.0308 m
2
Steam mass velocity, Gt = (steam flow rate)/(total flow rate area) (5.13)
= (1.7649)/(0.0308)
= 57.30 kg / sm
2
Steam linear velocity, u1 = (Gt)/(steam density) (5.14)
= (57.30)/(0.49375)
= 116.05 kg / ms
Ratio of L / di = 4.88 / 0.016 (5.15)
= 305
Reynolds number, Re
265
59047.87 = Re
10 x .
(0.016) ) . ( 0.49375) (
= Re
(5.16)
d
= Re
5 -
i
55263 1
05 116

Heat transfer factor figure 12.31 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering),
Jh = 4.1 x 10
-3
Prandtl number,
1.0180 = Pr

0.0306575
) 10 x . )( 10 x (2.010
= Pr
(5.17)
k
C
= Pr
5 - 3
f
p
55263 1
Tube side coefficient, hi can be calculated using equation below.

C m / W 466.62 = h
0.016
7)(1.0180) 5)(59047.8 )(0.030657 10 x (4.1
= h
(5.18)
d
Pr Re k j
= h
o
i
0.33 3 -
i
i
.
f h
i
33 0
266
5.1.6 Shell Side Coefficient, hs
Take baffle spacing as 1/3 from the shell diameter, so Baffle spacing:
lB = Ds / 3 (5.19)
= 0.60 / 3
= 0.20 m
Tube pitch, pt = 1.25 do (5.20)
= (1.25)(0.02)
= 0.025 m
Flow area, As
2
s
s
t
B s o t
s
m 0.0240 = A
0.025
)(0.20) 0.02)(0.60 - (0.025
= A
(5.21)
P
) )(I )(D d - (P
= A
Mass velocity, Gs
s m / kg 455.48 = G
0.0240
10.9314
= G
(5.22)
A
W
= G
2
s
s
s
s
s
Shell side velocity
267
s / m 0.9391 = u

485
455.48
= u
(5.23)
G
= u
s
s
s
s
Shell side equivalent diameter for triangular pitch arrangement
m 0.0142 = d
) ) 0.917(0.02 - . 0 (
0.02
1.10
= d
(5.24) ) 0.917d - p (
d
1.10
= d
e
e
o
2
t
o
e
2 2
2
025
Calculate the Reynolds number
49750.52 = Re
5 0.00013000
.0142) (455.48)(0
= Re
(5.25)
d G
= Re
Isobutane
e s
Prandtl number
4.0023 = Pr
0.07
00130005) (2155)(0.0
= Pr
(5.26)
k
C
= Pr
f
Isobutane pIsobutane
268
Choose baffle cut of 25%, from figure 12.30 (Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering), we can obtained
Jf = 2.70 x 10
-2
Assumed that the viscosity correction is negligible
C m / W 10513.35 = h
0.0142
) )(4.0023 )(49750.52 10 x 0 (0.07)(2.7
= h
(5.27)
d
Pr Re j k
= h
o 2
s
1/3 2 -
s
e
/
f f
s
3 1
5.1.7 Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient, Uo
Material of construction = carbon Steel
Thermal conductivity of the tube wall
Kw = 38 W/m
o
C
Assumed dirt coefficient as
hid = 8500 W/m
2

o
C
hod = 8500 W/m
2

o
C
( )
C m / W 322.85 = U
/ W C m 0.0039738 =
U
1

(5.28) ) /d (d
h
1
+ /d d
h
1
+
2k
) /d ln(d d
+
h
1
+
h
1
=
U
1

o 2
o
o 2
o
i o
i
i o
id w
i o o
od s o
5.1.8 Tube Side Pressure Drop
269
Reynolds number , Re = 59047.87
jf = 3.10 x 10
-3
Neglect the viscosity correction term
[ ]
[ ]
kPa 66.92 = P
m / N 66921.86 = P
) . )( . (
2.5 + 16) )(4.88/0.0 10 x 8(3.10 2 = P
(5.29)

2.5 + ) / )( L/d ( j N = P
t
2
t
3 -
t
i i m -
W i f p t
2
05 116 49375 0
2
8
2
2
5.1.9 Shell Side Pressure Drop
Reynolds number
Re = 49750.52
Jf = 2.70 x 10
-2
Shell side pressure drop can be calculated using equation below
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
kPa 47.63 = P
(5.30) / / L/I d / D 8j = P
-0.14
w s B e d f
2
Table 5.2: Summary Of Chemical Design For Heat Exchanger In Series
270
Heat Exchanger E100
Temperature range, (
o
C) Shell side 250 150
Tube side -15 117
Feed flow rate, (kg/hr) 39353
Steam flow rate, (kg/hr) 6353.64
Log mean temperature
difference, , Tm

(
o
C)
134.00
True temperature
difference, Tm (
o
C)
109.88
Overall coefficient, U (W/m
2
o
C)
300
Duty, Q (w) 3109542.883
Surface are, A (m
2
) 94.33
Length of tube or shell, L 4.88m or 16 ft
Tube diameter di (mm) 16
Tube diameter do (mm) 20
Area of pipe, a (m
2
) 0.3067
Number of tube, Nt 308
Bundle diameter, Db(m) 0.50
Shell diameter, Ds(m) 0.60
Baffles spacing, IB(m) 0.2000
Tube side coefficient, hi
(W/m
2 o
C)
466.62
Shell side coefficient,
hs(W/m
2 o
C)
10513.35
Overall heat transfer
coefficent, Uo (W/m
2 o
C)
322.85
Tube side pressure drop,
P (kPa)
66.92
Shell side pressure drop,
P (kPa)
47.63
5.2 MECHANICAL DESIGN OF HEAT EXCHANGER
The mechanical engineering design of heat exchanger determines the physical
elements that make up the unit as well as their respective dimensions. This design
follows the procedures specified by the Tubular Heat Exchanger association (TEMA)
Mechanical Standards. It is applicable to shell and tube exchangers with internal
diameter not exceeding 60 in. (1524mm), a maximum design pressure of 3000psi (204
bar) or a maximum product of nominal diameter (in) and design pressure (psi) of
271
60000. In addition, the design also complies with the American Society of mechanical
Engineers (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, Section VIII, Division 1.
5.2.1 Design Pressure
For the design of tube and shell parts, a safety factor of 10% is included to determine
the design pressures.
10% above the pressure for safety
Pi = 1.1 x 10
= 11 bar
= 1.1 N / mm
2
5.2.2 Design Temperature
For the shell side and tube side the operating temperature is at 250
o
C, so:
Shell-side design temperature = 1.1x 250
o
C
= 275
o
C
Adding 2
o
C for uncertainties in temperature prediction
TD = 275 + 2
= 277
o
C
5.2.3 Material Of Construction
For the heat exchanger, the material used for construction is carbon steel. This
selection of material is depending on the economic factor and also level of
corrosiveness of the fluid used. Since the properties of the fluid both in the tube and
also in the shell are not corrosive fluid, therefore the carbon steel is used because it is
more economics compared to stainless steel.
5.2.4 Exchanger Type
For the heater design, pull through floating head exchanger is chosen as the
exchanger type. Internal floating head is versatile than other type and also suitable for
272
high temperature different between shell and tubes. The tube for internal floating head
also can be rod from end to ends and the bundle are easier to clean.
5.2.5 Minimum Thickness Of Cylindrical Section Of The Shell
The minimum thickness of the cylindrical section of the shell to stand the pressure can
be obtained from the calculation below.
(5.30)
P - 2j
D P
= e
i f
i i
Where,
Pi = design pressure
Di = shell diameter
F = design stress (from table 13.2, Coulson & Richardsons Chemical Engineering)
adding the corrosion allowance = 2 mm
e = 3.91 + 2
e = 5.91 mm
Take the round number of the thickness
e = 6.00 mm
5.2.6 Longitudinal Stress

mm / 55.00 =

2(6)
(1.1)(600)
=
(5.31)
2t
D P
=
2
h
h
i i
h
273
mm 3.91 = e
(1.1) - 2(1)(85)
(1.1)(600)
= e
5.2.7 Circumferential Stress
2
h
h
i i
h
mm / N 27.50 =
4(6) / (1.1)(600) =
(5.32)
4t
D P
=
5.2.8 Minimum Thickness Of Tube Wall

Minimum thickness of the tube wall can be calculated using the equation (5.30):
i
i i
P - 2jf
D P
= e
mm 3.91 = e
(1.1) - 2(1)(85)
(1.1)(600)
= e
adding the corrosion allowance = 2 mm
e = 3.91 + 2
e = 5.91 mm
5.2.9 Minimum Thickness Of Head And Closure
The minimum thickness of the torispherical head can be calculated by ,
(5.33)
) 0.2 - C ( P + 2jf
C R P
= e
s i
s c i
Rc = crown radius
Rk = knuckle radius
Cs = stress concentration factor for torispherical head
274
[ ] (5.34) R / R + 3 1/4 = C
k c s
Rc = Ds = 600 mm
Rk = 0.06(500) = 36 mm
Cs = 1.77
mm 6.80 = e
0.2) - 1.1(1.77 + 2(1)(85)
(1.77) (1.1)(600)
= e
Adding corrosion allowance
e = 6.80 + 2
= 8.80 mm
5.2.10 Minimum Thickness Of The Channel Cover
(5.35) /f) )(P )(D (C = e
1/2
i e p
where
Cp = a design constant, depend on the edge constraint (0.45)
De = nominal plate diameter
f = design stress
e = (0.45)(600)(1.1/85)
1/2
= 30.72 mm
Adding corrosion allowance = 2 mm
E = 30.72 + 2
= 32.72 33 mm
5.2.11 Design Load
Dead weight of vessel
275
(5.36) 10 x )t 0.8D + g(H D C = W
-3
m v m m v v
where
Wv = total weight of the shell
Cv = 1.08 for vessels with only few internal fitting
Wv = (1.08) (7700)(0.602)(9.81)(4.88+0.8(0.602))(2 x 10
-3
)
= 1654.45 N
Weight of tubes
N 51362.08 = W
00)(9.81) )(4.88)(77 0.016 - (0.02 = W
(5.37) g L ) d - d ( N = W
t
2 2
t
m
2
1
2
o t t
308
Weight of insulation
Material used = mineral wool insulation
Insulation thickness = 50 mm = 0.05 m
Density = 130 kg / m
3
Approximate volume of insulation
[ ]
[ ]
N 3366.79 = W
)(9.81) (2.64)(130 = W
(5.39) g V = W
m 2.64 = V
(0.50) - 0.05) + (0.60 (4.88) = V
(5.38) r - ) r + r ( H = V
t
t
t
3
2 2
3
1 v
2
Total weight of heat exchanger
WT = Wv + Wt + Wi (5.40)
276
WT = 1654.45 + 51362.08 + 3366.79
= 56383.32 N
= 56.38 kN
5.2.12 Pipe Size Selection For The Nozzle
pipe size for isobutane inlet
material of construction = carbon steel
density inlet isobutane, = 600 kg / m
3
flow rate isobutane at inlet, Gisobutane = 10.9314 kg / s
Diameter pipe for isobutane inlet, Disobutane
Disobutane (in) = 293G
0.53
-0.37
(5.41)
Disobutane (in) = 293(10.9314)
0.53
(600)
-0.37
Disobutane (in) = 97.60 mm
Pipe size for isobutane at outlet,
density outlet isobutane, = 370 kg / m
3
flow rate isobutane at outlet, Gisobutane = 10.9314 kg / s
Diameter pipe for isobutane outlet, Disobutane
Disobutane (out) = 293G
0.53
-0.37

Disobutane (out) = 293(10.9314)
0.53
(370)
-0.37
Disobutane (out) = 116.72 mm
Diameter pipe for steam at inlet stream
277
density inlet steam, = 0.5654 kg / m
3
flow rate steam at inlet, Gsteam = 1.7649 kg / s
Diameter of pipe
Dsteam (in) = 293G
0.53
-0.37

Dsteam (in) = 293(1.7649)
0.53
(0.5654)
-0.37
Dsteam (in) = 488.94 mm
Diameter pipe for steam at outlet stream
density outlet steam, = 0.4221 kg / m
3
flow rate steam at outlet, Gsteam = 1.7649 kg / s
Diameter of pipe
Dsteam (out) = 293G
0.53
-0.37

Dsteam (out) = 293(1.7649)
0.53
(0.4221)
-0.37
Dsteam (out) = 544.79 mm
278
Figure 5.2 : Steel pipe nozzle
Table 5.3 : by taking D = 100 mm, the selected tube nozzle is :
Nominal pipe
size, inch
Outside
diameter, inch
Schedule no. Wall thickness,
inch
Inside
diameter, inch
4 4.5 (114.30) 4OST 0.237
(6.02 mm)
4.026
(102.26 mm)
Table 5.4 : by taking D = 500 mm, the selected tube nozzle is :
Nominal pipe
size, inch
Outside
diameter, inch
Schedule no. Wall thickness,
inch
Inside
diameter, inch
20 20 (508) 4OST 0.375
(9.53 mm)
19.250
(488.95 mm)
(From Perry R.H and Green, Don (1984), Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7
th
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book)
5.2.13 Standard Flanges
279
Flanges used in this design are chosen from the standard flanges. Here standard
flanges are adapted from the British standard (BS 4504), nominal pressure 10 bar.
Figure 5.3 Standard Flange
Standard flange for inlet isobutane
Diameter isobutane inlet pipe= 97.60 mm
Used standard o.d pipe = 114.3 mm
Table 5.5 : Standard Flange for Inlet isobutane
nom. pipe Flange Raised face Bolting Drilling Neck
size o.d D b hi d4 f No. d2 k d3 h2 r
d1

100 114.3 210 16 45 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 10 8

Standard flange for outlet isobutane
Diameter isobutane outlet pipe = 116.72 mm
Used standard o.d pipe = 114.3 mm
280
Table 5.6 : Standard Flange for Outlet isobutane
d1

100 114.3 210 16 45 148 3 M16 4 18 170 130 10 8

Standard flange for inlet steam
Diameter steam inlet pipe = 488.94 mm
Used standard o.d pipe = 508 mm
Table 5.7 : Standard Flange for Inlet Steam
d1

500 508 645 24 68 570 4 M20 20 22 600 538 15 12

Standard flange for outlet steam
Diameter steam outlet pipe = 544.79 mm
Used standard o.d pipe = 508 mm
Table 5.8 : Standard Flange for Outlet Steam
d1

500 508 645 24 68 570 4 M20 20 22 600 538 15 12

5.2.14 Design of Saddles
Table 5.9: Using Ds = 600mm, the standard steel saddles for vessels up
to 1.2m :
281
Vessel
diamete
r (m)
Maximum
weight
(kN)
Dimension (m) mm
V Y C E J G t2 t1 Bolt diameter
0.9 56.38 0.63 0.15 0.81 0.34 0.275 0.095 10 6 20
5.2.15 Baffles
Type : transverse baffle
Baffle diameter for plate shell is given as, Ds = the nominal diameter of the shell for
plate shell. So baffle diameter = 0.600 m = 23.63 = 600 mm
Diameter of tube holes in baffles, Dh
Dh = outer diameter of the tube
= (0.16 + 1/32) x 20.2
= 3.86 mm
Number of baffle segmental, Nb
Nb = length tube / inside diameter shell
= 4880 / 600
= 8.13 8 baffles
Vent and drain -A drain and vent connection shall be provided on the shell side
Table 5.10: Summary Of Mechanical Design For Heat Exchanger In Series
Heat Exchanger E100
282
Design pressure, bar 11
design temperature,
o
C 277
Material Of Construction Tube side: Carbon steel
Shell side : Carbon steel
Minimum Thickness Of
Cylindrical Section Of The
Shell, mm
6.0
Longitudinal Stress,
N/mm
2
55.0
Circumferential Stress
N/mm
2
27.5
Tube Wall, mm
5.91
Head And Closure,
8.80
The Channel Cover,mm
33.0
Design Load, kN 56.38
Diameter pipe for
isobutene inlet and outlet,
mm
100
Diameter pipe for steam
inlet and outlet, mm
500
Vessel diameter, m 0.9
Types of baffles transverse
Number of baffle
segmental, Nb
8
REFERENCES
D. Brian Spalding, J.Taborek, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Volume 1
- Heat Exchanger Theory, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, Washington, New
York, London, 1983.
283
D. Brian Spalding, J.Taborek, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Volume 2
- Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation,
Washington, New York, London, 1983.
J. M. Chenoweth, D. Chisholm, R. C. Cowie, D. Harris, A. Illingworth, J. F.
Lancaster, M. Morris, I. Murray, C. North, C. Ruiz, E. A. D. Sauders, K. V. Shipes, J.
Dennis Usher, R. L. Webb, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Volume 4 -
Mechanical Design of Heat Exchangers, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation 1983,
Washington, New York, London, 1983.
D. K. Edwards, P. E. Liley, R. N. Maddox, Robert Matavosian, S. F. Pugh, M.
Schunk, K. Schwier, Z. P. Shulman, Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, Volume 5
- Physical Properties, Hemisphere Publishing Corporation 1983, Washington, New
York, London, 1983.
E. A. D. Saunders, B. Sc. C. Eng., M. I. Mech. E. Heat Exchangers,
Selection, Design and Construction, Longman Scientific and Technical, 1998.
Yokell, Stanley, A working Guide to Shell and Tube Heat Exchangers,
McGraw-Hill Publishing Company, 1990.
Sadik Kakac, Hongtan Cin, Heat Exchangers, Selection, Rating, and
Thermal Design, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Boston London New York, Washington,
D.C, 1998.
Gupta, J. P., Working With Heat Exchangers: question and answers,
Hemisphere Publishing Corporation, A member of the Taylor and Francis Group, 1990.
Warren D. Seider, J.D. Seider, Daniel R. Lewin, Process Design Principles,
Synthesis, Analysis and Evaluation, 1997.
Stanley M. Wales, Chemical Process Equipment, Selection and Design ,
Butterworths Series in Chemical Engineering, 1990.
Frank P. Incropera, David P. Dewitt, Fundamentals of Heat and mass
Transfer, 5
th
Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 2002.
Holman, J.P, Heat Transfer, 7
th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1992.
Kern. D.Q, Process Heat Transfer, International Editions, McGraw-Hill, Inc,
1965.
Perry R.H and Green, Don, Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, 7
th
Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, Singapore, 1984.
Bhattacharya, B.B, Introduction to Chemical Equipment Design,
Mechanical Aspects, Indian Institute of Technology, 1976.
284
Holman, J.P. Heat Transfer, 7
th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, Inc, 1992.
Kern. D. Q Process Heat Transfer, International Editions, McGraw-Hill, Inc,
1965.
th
Sinnott, R. K., Coulson & Richardson, Chemical Engineering Volume 6,
Chemical Engineering Design, Butterworth Heinemann, 1999.
Carl R. Branon, Rules Of Thumb For Chemical Engineers, Gulf Publishing
Company, 1994.
th
Peters, max Stone, Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers,
2
nd
Edition, McGraw-Hill Chemical Engineering Series, 1968.
CHAPTER 2
285
PROCESS CONTROL AND INSTRUMENTATION
2.1 INTRODUCTION
All processes are subject to disturbances that tend to change operating conditions,
compositions and physical properties of the streams. In order to minimize those ill
effects that could result from such disturbances, chemical plants are implemented with
substantial amounts of instrumentation and automatic control equipment. In critical
cases and in especially large plants, moreover, the instrumentation is computer
monitors for convenient, safety and optimization.
A chemical plant is an arrangement of processing unit. The plant overall
objective is to convert the raw materials into desired product using available sources of
energy in the most economical way. All operating unit should be monitored. Methods of
limiting hazard levels by control features include sensoring control on limits and various
aspects of sequential and continuous monitoring.
In control situations, the demand for speed of response may not be realizable
with an overly elaborate mathematical system. Moreover, in practice, not all
disturbances are measurable and the process characteristics are not known exactly.
Accordingly, feedforward control is supplemented in most instances with feedback. In a
well-designed system, typically, 90% of the corrective action is provided by feed
forward and 10% by feedback with the result that the integrated error is reduces by a
factor 10%. The main types of instrument used for chemical process plants are flow
controller, temperature controller, pressure controller and level controller.
2.2 OBJECTIVES OF CONTROLL
The most important objectives of the designer when specifying control and
instrumentation schemes are:
1. Safe Plant Operation
286
To keep the process variables within known safety operating limits and
within allowable limits.
To detect dangerous situations as they develop and to provide alarms
and automatic shut down system.
To provide interlocks and alarms to prevent unsafe operating
procedures.
2. Production Specification
To achieve the design product output
To produce the desired quality of final product
To keep the product composition within the specified quality
standards.
3. Economics
To operate at the lowest production cost, commensurate with the other
objectives.
The operation of the plant must conform to the market condition, which
is availability of raw materials and demand of the final product.
4. Environmental Regulations
Variable controlled must not exceed the allowable limits set by various
federal and state laws.
5. Operational Constraint
Various type of equipments used in chemical plant have constrains
inherent to their operation. Such constraints should be satisfied
throughout the operation of plant.
Control systems are needed to satisfy all these operational constrains.
In a typical chemical processing plant these objectives are achieve by combination
of automatic control, manual monitoring and laboratory analysis.
2.3 CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN SHEET
2.3.1 Heat Exchanger (E-100)
287

Figure 2.1: Control Scheme for the Heat Exchanger
Table 2.1: Parameter at Heat Exchanger
2.3.2 Catalytic Cracking Fluidized Bed Reactor (op-100)
Intention: To Heat Up the reactant Before Entering Reactor
Objective : To heat up the reactants to 250
o
C
Objective Measurable Disturbances Action Set Point
Variable
1. To control Temperature at Change in Control temperature E-100
temperature of outlet stream flow rate of the heating by V3 at Temperature
outlet stream S4 feed steam inlet S3 250
o
C

288
Figure 2.2: Control Scheme for Catalytic Cracking Fluidized Bed Reactor
Table 2.2: Parameter at Catalytic Cracking Fluidized Bed Reactor
Intention: To Separate Vapor and Liquid from Stream Leaving Heat Exchanger
Objective Measurable
Variable
Disturbances Action
Set Point
1. To control flow Flow of gas Change in flow Control flowrate of the Stream S4
inside phase in phase to of gas in phase Input stream S4 by
reactor reactor of reactor controlling V3
2. To control solid Solid in and Change of solid Control solid in and 95679.8kg
flow to relate out in the flow rate moving solid out in the
speed and flow rate reactor and to reactor and reactor and
regenerator regenerator regenerator
3. To control flow rate of Change of feed Control pressure by 2.89 bar
pressure between feed into reactor flow rate opening or closing
reactor and and regenerator valve by adjusting V5
regenerator
4. To control Temperature in Change of Control temperature 180
o
C
temperature reactor and temperature by opening or closing
in reactor regenerator In reactor and valve at the air feed
regenerator V4 and product V6
2.3.3 Control at Compressor (C-101)
289
S7
Figure 2.3: Control Scheme for the Compressor
Table 2.3: Parameter at Compressor
Intention: To maintain the pressure inside the compressor
Objective : To keep pressure maintain at bar
Variable
To maintain Pressure Power or duty Control pressure C-101
pressure inside inside of the by adjusting V8 at pressure
compressor compressor compressor steam inlet S7 bar

2.3.4 Control at Condenser
290
S8
Figure 2.4: Control Scheme for the Condenser
Table 2.4: Parameter at Condenser
Intention: To maintain the pressure inside the compressor
Objective : To keep pressure maintain at bar
Variable
1. To control Temperature at Change in Control temperature E-100
temperature of outlet stream flow rate of the heating by V9 at Temperature
outlet stream S9 feed steam inlet S8 50
o
C
2.3.5 Separator (V-100)
291
Figure 2.5: Control Scheme for the Separator
Table 2.5: Parameter at Separator
Intention: To Separate Vapor and Liquid from Stream Leaving Heat Exchanger
Variable
1. To control level Level of liquid Change in level Control level by Stream
inside phase in phase of liquid in phase V10 at inlet stream S9 of
separator separator separator S9 liquid height
1. To control Maintain Change in Control pressure by Pressure
pressure pressure pressure opening and closing 0.5 bar
phase separator in phase of liquid in phase valve by V28 at
separator separator stream S10
1. To control Flow rate at Change in the Control Flow at the Flow into
Flow rate the bottom of flowrate of bottom by V27 at The feed
inside phase the separator the separator stream S11 At stream
separator S11
292
2.3.6 Fixed Bed Reactor (R-101)
Figure 2.6: Control Scheme for the Fixed Bed Reactor
Table 2.6: Parameter at Fixed Bed Reactor
Intention: To React Isobutene with Methanol to Produce MTBE
Variable
To regulate
reactor
temperature
Cooling
water make
up rate
Reactant feed
temperature and
composition
Control temperature
by V13
Set the
temperature
at 53.3
o
C
To maintain
constant
pressure at the
feed stream
Pressure in
the fed of
stream S15
Pressure feed to
the reactor
Control the pressure
in the reactor by
control of V29
Pressure at
1 bar
2.3.7 Distillation Column (T-101)
293
V13
V29
Figure 2.7: Control Scheme for the MTBE Distillation Column
Table 2.7: Parameter at MTBE Distillation Column
Intention: To Separate MTBE from Mixture Leaving Reactor
Variable
1. To control level Level of liquid Change of level Control level by Stream S19
inside column in column of column Adjusting V17 at
valve at raffinate outlet 15251.9kg/hr
Stream S19
2. To control Temperature Change of Control temperature by 61.2
o
C
temperature inside column temperature Control V16
inside column in column
3. To control Level in drum Change of level Control level by V15 Stream
level in drum in drum to maintain the S17 at
Product output 38747.97kg/hr
2.3.8 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Column (T-100)
294
Figure 2.8: Control Scheme for the Liquid-liquid Extraction Column
Table 2.8: Parameter at Liquid-liquid Extraction Column
Intention: To Extract Methanol and Water from Hydrocarbon
Variable
To control flow flow of liquid Change of level Control flow by adjust Stream
at stream S20 in column of column Valve V19 at bottom S20 at
outlet stream 40.32kg/hr
To control flow at
stream S21
Flow of liquid in
column
Change of flow of
liquid extraction
Control at V20 to keep
the flow inlet maintain
Flow inlet at
stream S21
To control level at the
raffinate
Product of S24
Level of liquid
going out of the
column
Change of level in
the column
Maintain the level by
control V21 at stream
S24
Level output at
raffinate section
S24
To control the density
intermediate between
methanol and water
Density level
change between
water and
methanol
Change of the
interfacial of level
between two
phase
The bottom stream
removed by control
V22
Interfacial level
at bottom
product at
stream S26
2.3.9 Distillation Column (T-102)
295
Figure 2.9: Control Scheme for the Distillation Column
Table 2.9: Parameter at Distillation Column
Intention: To Separate Methanol and water
Variable
1. To control level Level of liquid Change of level Control level by Stream
inside column in column of column opening and closing S28 : at
valve V25 at bottom 63.4453kg/hr
outlet stream
2. To control Temperature Change of Control temperature by 62.17
o
C
temperature inside column temperature opening or closing
inside column in column Valve 24 at top outlet
stream
3. To control Level in drum Change of level Control level by V23 Stream
level in drum in drum opening or closing S27
valve at reflux stream
296
2.3.10 Mixer (MIX-100)
Figure 2.10: Control Scheme for the Mixer
Table 2.10: Parameter at Mixer
Intention: To Mix Methanol from Recycle and Make Up Methanol
Variable
1. To control the Flowrate of Change of Control flowrate M - 101
flowrate the reactant flowrate to the bypass valve Stream S14
reactor V12 at 2.88 m
3
/hr
297
PRODUCTION OF 300,000 METRIC TON MTBE PER YEAR
2.3.11 Expander (EX-100)
Figure 2.11: Control Scheme for the Expander
Table 2.11: Parameter for Expander
Intention: To Expand the Pressure Leaving the Reactor
Variable
1. To expand the Pressure Change of Control pressure by Pressure
pressure inside the pressure adjusting valve V14 0.45
expander
38
Figure 2.13 : PFD Diagram Before Control
39
Legend
- Process Flow PC - Pressure Control ILC - Interfacial Level Control
- Control Flow FC - Flow Control LC - Level control
- Temperature Control TI - Temperature Indicator DPC - Differential Pressure Control
Figure 2.13 : Process Control P and ID Diagram
TC
40
41
REFERENCES
Luyben, W. l., (1990), Process Modelling simulation and Control for Chemical
Engineers, 2
nd
Edition, McGraw-Hill Chemical Engineering Series
Ogunnaike, B. A. and Ray, W. H. (1994), Process Dynamics, Modeling and
Control, New York, Pxford.
R.K.Sinnott, 1999.Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson & Richardson Chemical
Engineering .3rd Edition. Volume 6 .Britain. Butterworth Heinemann
J.R Backhurst & J.H Harker.1987.Chemical Engineering Design, Coulson &
Richardson Chemical Engineering .3rd Edition. Volume 2 .United Kingdom.
Pergamon Press.
Stanley M. Walas. 1988. Chemical Process Equipment Selection and Design.
United State of America. Butterworths Series in Chemical Engineering.
Chemical Engineering Progress, February 2001, American Institute of Chemical
Engineering.
42
CHAPTER 3
SAFETY CONSIDERATION
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Any organization has a legal and moral obligation to safe guard the health and
welfare of its employees and the public. Safety is also good business: the good
management practices needed to ensure safe operation would also ensure efficient
operation.
All manufacturing processes there are additional, special, hazard associated
with the chemical used and the process condition. The designer must be aware of
these hazards and ensure through the application of sound engineering practices
that the risks are reduced to acceptable levels.
Safety and loss prevention in process design can be considered under the
following broad headings :( Coulson and Richardsons Volume 6)
1. Identification and assessment of the hazards
2. Control of the hazards; for example by containment of flammable and toxic
materials
3. Control the process. Prevention of hazardous deviation in the process
variables, (pressure, temperature, flow) by provision of automatic control
system interlocks, alarms, trips, together with good operating practices and
management.
4. Limitation of the loss. The damage and injury caused if an incident occurs,
pressure relief, plant layout, provision of fire-fighting equipment.
In Malaysia, The Occupational Safety and Health Act, 1994 is a tool which
provided a new legal and administrative as a driving force to promote, encourage
and stimulate the high quality standards of health and safety at work place. Both
parties such as employers and employees must give their support and cooperate to
43
comply the law and not misuse safety in order to increasing the promotion of safety
awareness and effective safety organization and performance in companies.
3.2 HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY
HAZOP stands for hazard and operability studies. This is asset of formal hazard
identification and elimination procedures designed to identify hazard to people,
process plants and the environment. The techniques aim to stimulate in a
systematic way the imagination of designers and people who operate plants or
equipment so they can identify potential hazard. In effect, HAZOP studies make the
assumption that hazard or operating problem can arise when there is a deviation
from the design or operating intention. Corrective actions can then be made before
a real accident occurs.
The primary goal in performing a HAZOP study is to identify, not analyse or
quantify, the hazard process. The end product of a study is a list of concerns and
recommendation for prevention of the problem, not an analysis of the occurrence,
frequency, overall effects, and the definite solution. If HAZOP is started too late in a
project, it can lose effectiveness because:
1. There may be a tendency not to challenge an already existing design.
2. Changes may come too late, possibly requiring redesign of the process.
3. There may be loss of operability and design decision data used to generate
the design.
HAZOP is a formal procedure that offers a great potential to improve the
safety, reliability and operability of process plants by recognizing and eliminating
potential problems at the design stage. It is not limited to the design stage,
however. It can be applied anywhere that a design intention. (Perrys Handbook,
1998)
When using the operability study technique to vet a process design, the
action to be taken to deal with a potential hazard will often be modification to the
control system and instrumentation, the inclusion of additional alarms, trips or
interlock. If major hazard are identified, major design changes may be necessary,
alternatives processes, material and equipment. In order to have a safe process
successfully producing to specification to the required product, a sound control
system is necessary but not sufficient. (Coulson & Richardsons, 1999).
44
The objectives of HAZOP study are:
1. To identify areas of the design that may posses a significant hazard
potential
2. To identify and study features of the design that influences the probability of
a hazardous incident occurring.
3. To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
4. To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant hazard
potential.
5. To identify design information not currently available to the team.
6. To provide a mechanism for feedback to the client of the study teams
detailed comments. (Sydney Lipton and Jeremiah Lynch, 1994)
The advantages of HAZOP study to the design application:
Early identification of problems areas when conceptual design stage.
Identifies need for emergency procedures to mitigate.
Provide essential information for safety case, such as on the hazards
identified and effectiveness of safety systems.
Through examination of hazard and operability problems when applied at
detailed stage.
Meets legislative requirements.
Identifies need for commissioning, operating and maintenance procedures
for safe and reliable operations.
45
Table 3.1: A HAZOP study contains the following important features:
Features : Meaning :
Intention Defines how the part or process is expected to
operate.
Guide words Simple word used to qualify the intention in order to
guide and stimulate creative thinking.
Deviations Departures from the intention discovered by
systematic application of guide words.
Causes Reasons that deviations might occur.
Consequences Results of deviations if they occur.
Action Prevention, mitigation and control
- Prevent causes.
- Mitigate the consequences.
- Control action such as provide alarms to indicate
things getting out of control: define control actions
to get back into control.
The MTBE Plant HAZOP Study is included at Appendix: Safety.
3.3 PLANT START UP AND SHUT DOWN PROCEDURE
Safe procedures must be well known for the start up and shut down of plant and
deviations from normal operating conditions. Whenever process conditions are
changed, opportunities are presented for hazardous situations to arise. Building up
the process consistency may reduce the investigating breakdown and malfunction,
availability, the design cycle, operability, flexibility including blending and recycling
experience and known how personnel.
The start-up and shutdown of the plant must proceed safely and easily, yet
be flexible enough to be carried out in several ways. The operating limits of the
plant must not exceed and dangerous mixtures must not be formed because of
abnormal states of concentration, temperature, phase, reactant, catalyst and
products.
During start-up, the catalyst in the reactor should be activated and
sufficiently warm for reaction to begin when the flow of reactant is started.
Contaminants often enter the system at this stage. Materials are added by
operations such as purging, drying and flushing. Water and other materials may
46
condense in unplanned location causing process levels to get out of control and
other problems. The ignition of fuel to heat the high temperature fluid during start-up
must be designed to accomplish this safely Some typical errors that could occur
during start-up of the plant include :
1. Wrong routing, involving failure to ensure that correct valves are closed.
This is especially crucial in the adsorption section where three different
processes are occurring at any one time.
2. Drain valves are left open resulting in loss of material and possibly
endangering the lives of workers.
3. Valves left closed resulting in over pressure in the vessel.
4. Failure to complete purging cycle before admission of fuel air mixture.
5. Backflow of material from high pressure to low pressure system.
6. Setting of wrong valves for operating parameters such as jacket
temperature in the reactor and reflux in the distillation column.
3.3.1 Normal Start up and Shut down the Plant
The study of the plant start up and shut down must include investigation of the
operating limits, transient operating conditions, process dynamics, contamination
and added material, emissions, hot standby and emergency shut down with plant
protection control systems and alarms.
3.3.1.1 Operating Limits
The operating limits of the plant are imposing by mechanical, electrical, civil and
process design. Where necessary, it has to be introduce additional equipment,
sampling points, instrumentation and lines, and identify their use on the engineering
line diagram,
3.3.1.2 Transient Operating and Process Dynamic
The transient operating conditions must be studied to safe time and operating cast.
The process dynamics that to be investigated includes excessive heat transfer
47
when more or less floe in either energy exchanging streams through activations and
warming of catalyst when the flow of reactant starts to entrance of contamination
and others
3.3.1.3 Added Materials
Materials are added by operations may not be tolerated in part of the system or
clean material may be needed for the start up of the plant. Residues or unwanted
products such as out of specification may be discharged or hold in tank for further
treatment.
3.3.1.4 Hot Standby
Time is save during restart up if plant are kept partially working such as when other
unit operation are ceased to function temporarily, the converter can be left in hot
standby conditions.
3.3.1.5 Emergency Shut Down
Special plant protection known as process trip system or emergency shut down
system is design to affect the emergency shut down through the push button by
operator or from automatic activation of a relay when necessary. The trip systems
should be reliable and operate when required to avoid a nuisance shut down of
plant.
3.3.2 Start up and Shut down Procedure for the Main Equipment
3.3.2.1 Reactor
1. It is recommended that the internal reactor vessel measurements (ID, Bed
Depth not the overall vessel height, etc.) be verified, so that product
loading is consistent with the "Estimated Performance Sheet" (EPS).
2. Prior to any loading, it is necessary to make an internal and external
inspection of the reactor vessel. In other words, there should not be any
pipes or hollow devices in the vessel, which could allow the gas to travel
without contacting the product.
48
3. There are two vessel types of bed supports that can be used; (1) has a
support grid permanently installed about 2 inches below the throat of the
lower manway; or (2) uses a level bed of washed gravel, ceramic balls, or
pawl rings. The bed support must be leveled.
4. Close and secure the bottom manway.
5. Through the top manway, load the remaining feed to level as stated in the
EPS. During the latter stages of loading level off the cone of the filled
product bed and continue loading until finished.
6. Close and secure the top manway.
Upon operational start-up, record the required measurements temperature,
pressure, and flow rate - from each bed (if applicable). This data should be kept on
some routine basis (daily, weekly bi-weekly, etc.) so that any problems that might
develop can be identified and corrected.
3.3.2.2 Distillation Column
Start-Up Procedure
1. Turn the switch box indicator to Distillation Control setting.
2. Switch the column power source lever to the "on" position. Turn the Reboiler
Heater Control knob clockwise. This prevents over heating of the reboiler.
3. Turn on the cold water supply ( CWS )valve until the computer stops telling
the user to increase the volume of the CWS valve.
4. Adjust the Reflux Control to the desired setting.
5. Assure all computer settings are as desired.
6. Allow the tray temperatures to reach a steady-state value.
7. Turn on the feed and reboiler pumps as applicable. The pump settings can
be adjusted on the computer.
Caution: DO NOT ALLOW THE WATER LEVEL TO FALL BELOW THE
CALROD HEATERS.
49
This will result in damage to the heaters. If the heaters are exposed turn off the
column, this allows the vapor in the column to condense and return to the
reboiler. If the liquid level is still below the heaters, more liquid must be added to
the reboiler.
Shut-Down Procedure
1. Turn the Reboiler Heater Control knob to zero.
2. Turn off the pumps (feed and reboiler).
3. Turn off the CWS valve when the temperature of the distillate is below the
boiling point of the light component of the mixture.
4. Press the stop button.
5. Shut off the computer, by selecting the "Shut-down" option from the Special
menu.
3.3.2.3 Liquid-Liquid Extraction Column
Start Up Procedure
1. Check to see that all the drainage valves are closed.
2. Check to be sure the top water vent valve is open.
3. When the liquid level in the column reaches the top right nozzle(water in
nozzle), turn the water flowrate down to the desired setpoint. Turn on and
set the feed flowrate to the desired setpoint by adjusting the pump speed,
and close the top water vent.
4. Allow the interface to form between the top mesh and the top left nozzle.
5. Small adjustments should be made in order to keep the interface constant.
Shut down procedure
1. Turn off all inlet flowrates on the right control panel.
2. Shut off the stirrer on the right control panel.
50
3. Open the top water in vent valve.
4. Open the bottom centre black valve to drain the column.
3.3.2.4 Heat Exchanger
Start up Procedure
When putting a heat exchanger in operation, open the vent connections and
slowly start to circulate the cold medium only. Be sure that the entire cold side
of the exchanger is completely flooded before closing its vents. The hot medium
should then be gradually introduced until all passages are filled with fluid. Then
close the hot side vents and slowly bring the unit up to its operating
temperature.
Shut down Procedure
When heat exchanger is required to be shutdown, the hot fluid should be turned
off first. If it is necessary to stop the circulation of the cold fluid, the hot medium
should also be stopped by by-passing the heat exchanger.
3.4 EMERGENCY RESPONSE PLAN (ERP)
It is expected that every person who working in this plant will act responsibly in any
Department of Emergency. ERP procedures were state in Appendix: Safety. In most cases,
the observer of an emergency is faced with decision to leave the scene to summon help or
stay and provide help. The basic rule is as follows.
Unless we are sure that we are not putting ourselves in any danger and we know we can
make a difference, summon help.
3.4.1 Emergency Response Procedures
General Procedures
51
When alarm system is activated whether by break glass or by smoke detector, the
alarm that is siren sound will be triggered throughout plant. The following general
procedures should be followed if there is no immediate emergency in your area.
Do not panic and stay alert:
Stay calm and be alert and ready to response to any emergency according
to the
Plant Emergency Organization Programmed. The shift manager should go
to the security guard to identify the location of the alarm.
Access the situation around your area :
Look around and ensure that your immediate area is not in danger or affected by
the emergency. Stop all contractors from working immediately.
Wait for instruction from Supervisor/Shift Manager :
Do no evacuate from ones post unless one is immediate danger or when instructed
by ones supervisor or the shift manager.
Avoid using the telephone :
Do not use the telephone unless it is absolutely necessary, as the telephone lines
must be reserved for calling emergency services. All incidents resulting in
injuries, property damage and/ or productions loss shall be investigated and
reported for within 24 hours. Corrective action to prevent the recurrence of
the incident shall be initiated 48 hours.
3.4.2 Evacuation Procedures:
Exit building via the stairways :
It takes time to the person familiarize with evacuation routes in advance.
The maps showing the location of all emergency exits and extinguishers are
posted on all floors.
Assist the injured when possible :
Do not move the seriously injured unless there is danger of further injury. If it
is necessary to leave someone in the building, try to leave him in a relatively
secure place (example, the stairwell is one of the safer places to be in fire).
After someone has been evacuated the building, find the proper officials and
report the location and condition of persons who need assistance.
Designed persons are responsible for clearing the production floors and
offices :
52
Efforts to clear the production floor and offices should be limited to 5
minutes. As the areas are cleared, all doors should be closed.
Once outside the building :
Keep at least 50 feet away from the building to avoid danger from falling
glass, example Evacuate to the Emergency Assembly Area .
Do not re enter the building until safety officer or fire personnel have been
determined that it is safe.
3.4.3 Fires:
If the fire alarm sounds or a fire broke out in the plant, turn off any electrical
equipment that been operating and evacuate the building immediately.
Close all doors to help prevent fires from spreading. Exit via stairwells.
Call 994 to give location and extent of fire and notify the management to
report the fire :
State if there are any special circumstances, such as the presence of
dangerous chemicals.
Dont attempt to fight a fire unless we have been trained in fire extinguisher
use and the fire is very small :
When fighting a fire, always position ourselves between the exit and the fire
to ensure an escape route. IF THE FIRE CANNOT BE CONTAINED, GET
OUT QUICKLY!
3.4.4 Explosion, Line Rupture or Serious Leak
Do the following if possible.
1. Turn the Emergency Stop switch to Off position
2. Isolate the effected area of the limit. Block in high-pressure source
as required accomplishing this.
3. Complete the shut down
3.4.5 Other Emergencies :
Injuries :
53
For life threatening emergencies, CALL 991 for medical aid and for
transportation to hospital and at same time notify the management as listed
on the Notification Lists. For less serious injuries or illness, first aid can be
obtained at the nearest clinic. Report all injuries to the management.
Equipment failures :
Any equipment failures, which may harm or injured the workers, should be
reported to the Production Supervisors or the management for further action
to be taken.
3.5 PLANT LAYOUT
The process units and ancillary buildings should be laid out to give the most
economical flow of material and personnel around the site. Hazardous process
must be located at a safe distance from other buildings. Consideration must be also
being given to the future expansion of the site. The ancillary buildings and services
required on site, in addition to the main processing units (building) will include:
(Coulson and Richardsons 1999)
1. Storage for raw materials and products; tank farms and warehouses
2. Maintenance workshop
3. Stores, for maintenance and operating supplies
4. Laboratories for process control
5. Fire stations and other emergency services
6. Utilities: steam boilers, compressed air, power generation, refrigeration,
transformer stations.
7. Effluent disposal plant
8. Offices for general administration
9. Canteens and other amenity buildings, such as medical centres
10. Car parks
Normally, the process units will be sited first and arranged to give a smooth
flow of materials through various processing steps, from raw material to final
product storage. It is normally spaced at least 30 apart and for hazardous
processes, the greater spacing may be needed. Then, the principal ancillary
buildings to be located and arranged in order to minimize the time spent by the
personnel in travelling between the buildings. The administration offices and
54
laboratory should be located well away from potentially hazardous processes since
a many people be in here. The control rooms normally are located adjacent to the
process units but if it with the potentially hazardous processes has to be sited at
safer distance.
Besides that, the layout of the plant roads, pipe alleys and drains also must
be considered to locate the main process units. Easy access roads will be needed
to each building for construction and for operation and maintenance. The utilities
buildings should be sited to give most economical run of pipes to and from the
process units. Finally, the main storage areas should be placed between loading
and unloading facilities and the process units they serve. Storage tanks containing
hazardous materials should be sited at least 70 m (200 ft) from the site boundary.
There are 7 principal factors to be considered :
1. Economic considerations: construction and operating costs.
2. The process requirements.
3. Convenience of operation.
4. Convenience of maintenance.
5. Safety.
6. Future expansion.
7. Modular construction.
The MTBE site layout have shown in Figure 3.1.
55
Figure 3.1 Methyl tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) Plan Layout
U
56
Figure 3.2: Methyl tert-Butyl Ether (MTBE) Plant Evacuation Routes U

Legand
Evacuation Routes
57

Figure 3.3 PID before HAZOP
58
Figure 3.4 PID after HAZOP
59
REFERENCES
Clarles A.Wentz, 1998. Safety, Health and Environmental Protection. United State of
America:McGraw-Hill.
R.K.Sinnot, 1999. Chemical Engineering Design. Coulson & Richardsons Chemical
Engineering 3
rd
Edition. Volume 6. Britain; Butterworth Heinemann.
Robert H. Perry, Don W. Green, 1998 Perrys Chemical Engineers Handbook, Seventh
Edition, McGraw-Hill.
http://www.sulfatreat.com/Documents/HTML/St/startup.html
http://www.amberjet.com/IP/start_up.htm
http://www.sulfatreat.com/Documents/PDF/SulfaTreat/ST-Start_Up_Procedure.pdf
http://chem.engr.utc.edu/Webres/435F/Proc.htm
http://www.eng.buffalo.edu/Courses/ce428/Distillation/procedure.htm
http://users.rowan.edu/~savelski/uol/liqliq.html
http://pharmaflo.com/heatexch/
60
CHAPTER 4
ECONOMIC EVALUATION
INTRODUCTION
Economic evaluation is very important for a proposed plant. We have to be able to
estimate and decide between alternative designs and for project evaluation. Chemical
plants are built to make a profit an estimate of the investment required and the cost of
production are needed before the profitability of a project can be assessed. The total
investment needed for a project is the sum of the fixed and working capital. Fixed
capital is the total cost of the plant ready for start up. It is the cost paid to the
contractors. Working capital is the additional investment needed, over and above the
fixed capital, to start the plant up and operate it to the point when income is earned.
Most of the working capital is recovered at the end of the project.
61
4.1.1 The Specification Of Plant
In this chapter, the costing of equipment which has been designed will be
estimated and the feasibility of MTBE production will be evaluated by
profitability analysis to make sure the project is economically attractive.
There are some general assumptions to this chapter;
i. The plant life span is fifteen years.
ii. The currency exchange rate of US dollar to Ringgit Malaysia is fixed at 3.8 as
fixed by Malaysian Government.
iii. The price of raw materials, catalyst and product is fixed for the whole period of
operation.
Price of raw material : Isobutane - RM 0.8094 / kg
: Methanol - RM 0.988 / kg
Price of product : MTBE - RM 1.320 / kg
: TBA - RM 1.035 / kg
: DME - RM 0.655 / kg
62
4.1.2 Revenue From Sales
i. MTBE = 37878.76 kg/h =
year
tonne 300000
Price: RM 1.320/kg
=
90 . 0
320 . 1 365 24 76 . 37878

kg
RM
year
day
day
hr
hr
kg
= RM 394199710/yr
ii. TBA = 639.663 kg/h
Price: RM 1.035/kg
=
90 . 0
035 . 1 365 24 663 . 639

kg
RM
year
day
day
hr
hr
kg
= RM 5219612/yr
iii. DME = 1210.9868 kg/h
Price: RM 0.655/kg
=
90 . 0
655 . 0 365 24 9868 . 1210

kg
RM
year
day
day
hr
hr
kg
= RM 6253560/yr
iv. Isobutane = 13718.4558 kg/h
Price: RM 0.8094/kg
=
90 . 0
8094 . 0 365 24 4558 . 13718

kg
RM
year
day
day
hr
hr
kg
= RM
87541714/yr
v. n-butane = 157.412 kg/h
Price: RM 0.35/kg
=
90 . 0
35 . 0 365 24 412 . 157

kg
RM
year
day
day
hr
hr
kg

= RM 434363/yr
Total revenue = RM 493648959/yr
63
4.2 COST ESTIMATION
4.2.1 Capital cost estimation
Capital cost estimates are essentially paper and pencil studies. The cost of making
an estimate indicates the personnel hours required in order to complete the estimate.
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called
the fixed capital investment (FC), while the additional investment needed for the plant
operation (for plant start-up and operation to the point when income is earned) form the
working capital (WC).
Capital cost estimates for chemical process plants are often based on an estimate of
the purchase cost of the major equipment items required for the process, the other
costs being estimated as factors of the equipment cost. The accuracy of this type of
estimate will depend on what stage the design has reached at the time estimate is
made and on the reliability of the data available on equipment cost.
The cost of the purchased equipment is used as the basis of the factorial method of cost
estimation and must be determined as accurately as possible. It should preferably be
based on recent prices paid for similar equipment.
Calculation of total module cost and gross roots cost (based on table 4.2)
CTC = CFC + CWC + CL
Where,
CTC = total capital cost
CFC = fixed capital cost
CWC = working capital cost
CL = cost of land & other non-depreciable costs
FP = Pressure factor to account for high pressure
FM = Material factor to account for material of constructions
CP = Purchase cost for base condition
FBM = Bare module cost factor
64
CBM = Bare module equipment cost for base condition
CBM = Bare module equipment cost for actual condition
Total Module Cost, CTM = 1.18 (CBM )
= 1.18 (3223841)
= RM 3804132 x 3.8
= RM 14455703
Grass Root Cost, CGR = CTM + 0.35 ( CBM)
= 14455703 + 0.35 (12659343) x 3.8
= RM 31292629
Since, Grass Root Cost (CGR) is:
CGR = CFC + CL

Area for 1 lot of land = 200000 m
2
The price of land is RM 60 per m
2
CL = RM 12000000
CFC = CGR - CL
= RM 31292629 - RM 12000000
= RM 19292629
Working capital is the additional investment needed over and above the fixed capital to
start the plant up and operate it to the point when income is earned.
Working capital cost = 5% of fixed capital costs
CWC = 5% fixed capital cost (CFC) (Coulson & Richardson,
= RM 964631 1990)
Thus,
Total capital cost (CTC) = CFC + CL + CWC
= RM 19292629+ RM 12000000+ RM 964631
= RM 32257260
65
4.2.2 Manufacturing Cost Estimation
The cost of associated with the day to day operation of a chemical plant must be
estimated before the economic feasibility of a proposed process can be assessed.
The equation below is used to evaluate the cost of manufacture:
COM = 0.304FCI + 2.73COL + 1.23(CUT + CWT + CRM)
The cost of manufacturing (COM) can be determined when the following costs are
known or can be estimated:
1. Fixed Capital Investment (FCI): (CTM or CGR)
2. Cost of Operating Labor (COL)
3. Cost of Utilities (CUT)
4. Cost of Waste Treatment (CWT)
5. Cost of Raw Material (CRM)
4.2.2.1 Cost of Operating Labor (COL)
Table 4.1 Labor Cost
Equipment type
No of
equipment
Operators per shift per
equipment
Operator per
shift
Heat exchangers 6 0.1 0.6
Reactor 2 0.5 1.0
Vessels 1 0.0 0.0
Pumps 5 0.0 0.0
Compressor 2 0.15 0.3
Cost of manufacture (COM) = Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) +
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) +
General Expenses (GE)
66
Towers 3 0.35 1.05
Waste Treatment 1 0.5 0.5
3.45
Since, a single operators works on the average 48 weeks (3 weeks time off for
vacation and sick leave) a year, five 8-hour shifts a week.
1 operator =
week
shift
Year
week 5 48
=
Year
shift 240
Working days for MTBE plant is 7920 hour = 330 days
Operating shift per Year =
days
operating
Year
days 3 330
=
Year
shift operating 990
Working days for MTBE plant is 7920 hour
So, the number operator needed =
Year
shift
Year
shift operating
240
990

= 4.125 operators
Thus,
Operating Labor = 4.125 operators x 3.45 operator per shift
= 14.23 operator
= 15 operator
A mechanical engineers maximum wages per year (MIDA 2002) RM 60,000.00
Thus,
Labor Cost (1996) = 15 x RM 60,000.00
= RM 900,000.00
67
4.2.2.2 Cost of Utilities (CUT)
Yearly costs = flowrate x costs x period x steam factor
Since, assuming the plants operating days per year = 330 days
So,
Steam factor (SF) =
year per days of no
year per operates plant s day of no
.
' .
= 90 . 0
365
330
1. Heater (E-100)
Duty =
hr J G s J 16 11 3109542 . =

From table 8.5 (W.R Wan Daud, Princip Reka bentuk Proses Kimia, 2002, page
285) cost of heater RM 19.6 / GJ.
Thus ,
Yearly cost = (Q) (C steam) (t)
=
90 . 0 365 24
6 . 19
16 . 11
yr
day
day
hr
GJ
RM
hr
GJ
= RM 1724515
2. Heater (E-101)
Duty =
hr J G s J 24 12 3423874 . =

285) cost of cooling water RM 0.6 / GJ.
Thus ,
=
90 . 0 365 24
6 . 19
24 . 12
yr
day
day
hr
GJ
RM
hr
GJ
= RM1891403
68
3. Compressor (C-100)
Power (shaft) = 137.73kW
Effeciency of drives, dr = 92.28% (refer to table 3.7) Appendix
Electric Power, Pr =
dr
output Power
=
9228 0
73 137
.
.

= 149.25 kW
Yearly cost =
90 . 0 365 24
228 . 0
25 . 149
yr
day
day
hr
kWh
kW
= RM 268285
4. Cooler 1 (E-102)
Duty =
hr GJ s KJ 4 14 4014590 . =

Thus ,
=
90 . 0 365 24
6 . 0
4 . 14
yr
day
day
hr
GJ
RM
hr
GJ
= RM 68118
5. Cooler 2 (E-103)
Duty =
hr J G s J 12 15 4204290 . =

From table 8.5 (W.R Wan Daud, Prinsip Reka bentuk Proses Kimia, 2002, page
Thus ,
=
90 . 0 365 24
6 . 0
12 . 15
yr
day
day
hr
GJ
RM
hr
GJ
= RM71524
69
6. Cooler 3 (E-104)
Duty =
hr J G s J 8 1 503240 . =

Thus ,
=
90 . 0 365 24
6 . 0
8 . 1
yr
day
day
hr
GJ
RM
hr
GJ
= RM 8514
7. Cooler 4 (E-105)
Duty =
hr J G s J 72 0 240320 . =

From table 8.5 (W.R Wan Daud, Princip Reka Bentuk Proses Kimia, 2002,
page 285) cost of cooling water RM 0.6 / GJ.
Thus ,
=
90 . 0 365 24
6 . 0
72 . 0
yr
day
day
hr
GJ
RM
hr
GJ
= RM 3406
8. Pump 1(P100)
dr
output Power
=
9371 . 0
94 . 327
= 349.95kW
Yearly cost =
90 . 0 365 24
228 . 0
95 . 349
yr
day
day
hr
kWh
kW
= RM 629053
70
9. Pump 2(P101)
dr
output Power
=
9158 0
19 79
.
.

= 86.47kW
Yearly cost =
90 . 0 365 24
228 . 0
47 . 86
yr
day
day
hr
kWh
kW
= RM 155434
10. Pump 3(P102)
dr
output Power
=
8693 0
85 22
.
.
= 26.29kW
Yearly cost =
90 . 0 365 24
228 . 0
29 . 26
yr
day
day
hr
kWh
kW
= RM 47258
11. Pump 4(P103)
dr
output Power
=
9537 . 0
64 . 685
= 718.93kW
71
Yearly cost =
90 . 0 365 24
228 . 0
93 . 718
yr
day
day
hr
kWh
kW
= RM 1292314
12. Pump 5(P104)
dr
output Power
=
9367 0
75 322
.
.

= 344.56kW
Yearly cost =
90 . 0 365 24
228 . 0
56 . 344
yr
day
day
hr
kWh
kW
= RM 619366
Total cost of utilities (CUT) = RM 6779190
4.2.2.3Cost of Raw Material (CRM)
1. Isobutane = 39353 kg/h
Price RM 0.8094/kg
=
90 . 0
8094 . 0 365 24 39353

kg
RM
year
day
day
hr
hr
kg

= RM 251123677/yr
2. Methanol = 15462 kg/hr
Price RM 0.988/kg (Chemical week, June 2003)
=
90 . 0
988 . 0 365 24 15462

kg
RM
year
day
day
hr
hr
kg
= RM 120439579/yr
72
3. Catalyst (Alumina silica) =
kg
tonne
tonne
RM
kg
1000
1 5 . 9
95679
= RM909
Total cost of raw material = RM 251123677/yr + RM 120439579/yr
= RM 371563256/yr
Total cost of catalyst (for 3 year) = RM 909
Total cost = RM 371564165
The estimation of total manufacturing cost (with catalyst):
COM = 0.304 (31292629) + 2.73 (900000) + 1.23 (6779190 + 371564165)
COM = RM 477332286/yr
The estimation of total manufacturing cost (without catalyst):
COM = 0.304 (31292629) + 2.73 (900000) + 1.23 (6779190 + 371563256)
COM = RM 477331168/yr
73
Table 4.2: Estimation Cost Of Purchased Equipment
Equipment Capacity/Size Material Of
Construction
Operating
Pressure
FP FM FBM Cp CBM C
o
BM
C100 W=137.73kW Carbon
Steel
0.0 barg 2.2 16000 264000
C101 W = 22.85kW Carbon
Steel
0.1 barg 3.0 3536676 10610028
E 100
Heat
Exchanger
Area =94.33m
2
(floating head)
Tube-CS
Shell-CS
Tube- 9 barg
Shell- 9 barg
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.2
3.2
15000
15000
48000
E 101
Heat
exchanger
Area =95.71m
2
(floating head)
Tube-CS
Shell-CS
Tube- 9 barg
Shell- 9 barg
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.2
3.2
16000
16000
51200
E 102
Heat
Exchanger
Area =94.33m
2
(floating head)
Tube-CS
Shell-CS
Tube- 9 barg
Shell- 9 barg
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.2
3.2
15000
15000
48000
E 103
Heat
Exchanger
Area =94.33m
2
(floating head)
Tube-CS
Shell-CS
Tube- 9 barg
Shell- 9 barg
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.2
3.2
15000
15000
48000
E 104
Heat
Exchanger
Area =94.33m
2
(floating head)
Tube-CS
Shell-CS
Tube- 9 barg
Shell- 9 barg
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.2
3.2
15000
15000
48000
E 105
Heat
Exchanger
Area =94.33m
2
(floating head)
Tube-CS
Shell-CS
Tube- 9 barg
Shell- 9 barg
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
3.2
3.2
15000
15000
48000
74
Table 4.2: Estimation Cost Of Purchased Equipment
Equipment Capacity/Size Material Of
Construction
Operating
Pressure
FP FM FBM Cp CBM C
o
BM
P100 W = 327.94kW Cass Steel 3.5 barg 1.0
1.0
1.8
1.0
4.518
3.31
36881
244152
333257
1.0
1.8
1.0
4.518
3.31
8571
56740
77448
1.0
1.8
1.0
4.518
3.31
1429
9460
12912
1.0
1.8
1.0
4.518
3.31
52276
346067
472366
1.0
1.8
1.0
4.518
3.31
36593
121123
330654
R100 D = 6.512
H = 18m
Stainless Steel 1.75 barg 1.3
1.0
4.0
1.0
11.5
4.2
200000
230000
840000
R101 D = 1.814m
H = 4m
Carbon Steel 1.0 barg 1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
4.2
4.2
19000
79800
79800
T100
Sieve tray
D = 0.765 m
H = 10.85
11 trays
Stainless
Steel
3.5 barg 1.2
1.0
4.0
1.0
11
4
2.0
1.0
40000
294
160000
5821
440000
9702
T101 D = 1.01 m
H =9 m
Stainless
Steel
1.75 barg 1.2
1.0
4.0
1.0
2.0
1.2
17000
68000
178000
T102
Sieve tray
D = 0.765 m
H = 10.85
11 trays
Stainless
Steel
3.5 barg 1.2
1.0
4.0
1.0
11
4
2.0
1.0
40000
294
160000
5821
440000
9702
V100 Stainless Steel 7131
Total 12659343 3223841
75
4.3 PROFITABILITY ANALYSIS
Profitability is used as the general term for the measure of the amount of profit
that can be obtained from a given situation. Profitability therefore, is the common
denominator for all business activities.
The feasibility of MTBE production in Malaysia is evaluated by profitability analysis.
The profitability of the project will be the largest factor that makes a project
economically attractive. To this stage, almost all the design and cost information
required for the profitability analysis were obtained. Based on the information
available, the best methods assessing the profitability of alternatives are based on
projections of the cash flows during the project file.
A proposed capital investment / project and its associated expenditures can be
recovered by revenue (or savings) over time in addition to a return on the capital that is
sufficiently attractive in view of the risks involved of the potential alternatives uses.
There are 5 common methods in performing engineering economic analysis:
1) Present Worth (PW)
2) Future Worth (FW)
3) Annual Worth (AW)
4) Internal Rate Of Return (IRR)
5) Benefits / Cost Ratio (B/C)
4.3.1 Discounted Cash Flow
The economic feasibility of this plant is evaluated using the Discounted Cash Flow
Analysis (DCF), which is the most frequently used method of economic evaluation in
the chemical industry. This method measures the profitability of the project taking into
account the time value of money. From this method, the internal rate of return (IRR) of
the project can be determined which indicates the feasibility of the project. The value of
IRR is calculated using the information obtained in the sections.
76
Table 4.3: Annual Cash Flow Before Tax
Year Gross Income
(RM)
1
Annual
Expenses (RM)
2
Investment &
Salvage Value
(RM)
3
Before Tax
Cash Flow
(RM)
(4)= (1)+(2)+(3)
0 -19292629 -19292629
0 -964631 -964631
0 -12000000 -12000000
1 493648959 -477332286 16316673
2 493648959 -477331168 16317791
3 493648959 -477331168 16317791
4 493648959 -477332286 16316673
5 493648959 -477331168 16317791
6 493648959 -477331168 16317791
7 493648959 -477332286 16316673
8 493648959 -477331168 16317791
9 493648959 -477331168 16317791
10 493648959 -477332286 16316673
11 493648959 -477331168 16317791
12 493648959 -477331168 16317791
13 493648959 -477332286 16316673
14 493648959 -477331168 16317791
15 493648959 -477331168 16317791
15 1929262.9 1929262.9
Estimated salvage value = 10%CFC (Coulson & Richardson, 1990)
= 0.1 x RM 19292629
= RM 1929262.9
77
Table 4.4 : Annual Cash Flow After Tax
Taxes rate at 38% is chosen referring to reference from MIDA
Year Gross
Income
(RM)
1
Expenses
(RM)
2
Investment
& Salvage
Value (RM)
3
Depreciation
Cost Basis *
MACRS
Rates
4
Taxable
Income (RM)
(5)=(1)+(2)-
(4)
Taxes (RM)
Taxes rates
= 38%
(6)=(5)*0.38
After Tax
Cash Flow
(RM)
(7)=(1)+(2)+
(3)-(6)
Cumulative
Cash Flow
(RM)
0 -19292629 -19292629
0 -964631 -964631
0 -12000000 -12000000 -32257260
1 493648959 -477332286 2756916.69 13559756.32 5152707.4 11163965.6 -21093294.4
2 493648959 -477331168 4724764.84 11593026.16 4405349.94 11912441.06 -9180853.34
3 493648959 -477331168 3374280.81 12943510.19 4918533.871 11399257.13 2218403.789
4 493648959 -477332286 2409649.36 13907023.64 5284668.982 11032004.02 13250407.81
5 493648959 -477331168 1722831.77 14594959.23 5546084.508 10771706.49 24022114.3
6 493648959 -477331168 1720902.50 14596888.49 5546817.627 10770973.37 34793087.67
7 493648959 -477332286 1722831.77 14593841.23 5545659.668 10771013.33 45564101
8 493648959 -477331168 860451.25 15457339.75 5873789.104 10444001.9 56008102.9
9 493648959 -477331168 0 16317791 6200760.58 10117030.42 66125133.32
10 493648959 -477332286 0 16316673 6200335.74 10116337.26 76241470.58
11 493648959 -477331168 0 16317791 6200760.58 10117030.42 86358501
12 493648959 -477331168 0 16317791 6200760.58 10117030.42 96475531.42
13 493648959 -477332286 0 16316673 6200335.74 10116337.26 106591868.7
14 493648959 -477331168 0 16317791 6200760.58 10117030.42 116708899.1
15 493648959 -477331168 0 16317791 6200760.58 10117030.42 126825929.5
15 1929262.9 1929262.9 733119.902 1929262.9 128755192.4
15 12964631 12964631 141719823.4
78
4.3.2 Net Present Value
4.3.2.1 Present Worth
MARR is the rate set by an organization to designate the lowest level that makes an
investment acceptable. For a risky investment, MARR should be set higher.
However, for public purpose (government, public utility), MARR is lower. For this
proposed plant, MARR that has been selected is 15%.
By using present worth, we can determine either this proposed plant is
profitable and acceptable or not. Table 4.4 shows the value of present
worth by using 15%, therefore this proposed plant is profitable
because the value of PW is > 0.
PW when MARR = 15%
Table 4.5: Present Worth Value
Year After Tax Cash
Flow (RM)
MARR = 15% Present Worth
(PW), (RM)
0 -19292629 -19292629
0 -964631 -964631
0 -12000000 -12000000
1 11163965.6 0.86957 9707849.57
2 11912441.06 0.75614 9007473.18
3 11399257.13 0.65752 7495239.55
4 11032004.02 0.57175 6307548.3
5 10771706.49 0.49718 5355477.03
6 10770973.37 0.43233 4656614.92
7 10771013.33 0.37594 4049254.75
8 10444001.9 0.3269 3414144.22
9 10117030.42 0.28426 2875867.07
10 10116337.26 0.24718 2500556.24
11 10117030.42 0.21494 2174554.52
12 10117030.42 0.18691 1890974.16
13 10116337.26 0.16253 1644208.29
14 10117030.42 0.14133 1429839.91
15 10117030.42 0.12289 1243281.87
15 13697750.9 0.12289 1683316.61
PW 33178940.2
MARR = 15%
PW = RM 33178940.2
This project is attractive and acceptable because PW > 0
79
4.3.3 Cumulative Cash Flow Diagram For The Evaluation Of A New
Project
Table 4.6: After Tax Cumulative Cash Flow
Year After Tax Cash
Flow (RM)
Cumulative Cash
Flow
0 -32257260 -32257260
1 11163965.6 -21093294.4
2 11912441.06 -9180853.34
3 11399257.13 2218403.789
4 11032004.02 13250407.81
5 10771706.49 24022114.3
6 10770973.37 34793087.67
7 10771013.33 45564101
8 10444001.9 56008102.9
9 10117030.42 66125133.32
10 10116337.26 76241470.58
11 10117030.42 86358501
12 10117030.42 96475531.42
13 10116337.26 106591868.7
14 10117030.42 116708899.1
15 10117030.42 126825929.5
15 13697750.9 140523680.4
Cumulative Cash Flow vs Year
-50000000
-25000000
0
25000000
50000000
75000000
100000000
125000000
150000000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Year
Cumulative
Cash Flow
(RM)
Figure 4.1: Cumulative Cash Flow (RM) Versus Year
4.3.4 Rate Of Return (ROR)
4.3.4.1 Internal Rate Of Return
80
In theory, the Minimum Attractive Rate of Return (MARR) is chosen higher than the
rate expected from the bank or some safe investment that involved minimal
investment risk. The MARR for after taxes is selected at 15%. (Analysis, and
Design of Chemical Processes)
IRR is a method that produces an annual rate of profit, or return, resulting from an
investment and compared with the MARR. In determining the internal rate of return,
trial and error has been done based on the MARR that mentioned before. By trial
and error, the IRR for this plant has been found as 34.94%.
Table 4.7: Present Value (RM) when i = 30% and i = 40%
Year After Tax
Cash Flow
(RM)
i = 30% Present
Value (RM)
i = 40% Present
Value (RM)
0 -19292629 -19292629 -19292629
0 -964631 -964631 -964631
0 -12000000 -12000000 -12000000
1 11163965.6 0.76923 8587657.26 0.71129 7940817.092
2 11912441.06 0.59172 7048829.62 0.5102 6077727.429
3 11399257.13 0.45517 5188599.87 0.36443 4154231.275
4 11032004.02 0.35013 3862635.57 0.26031 2871740.966
5 10771706.49 0.26933 2901143.71 0.18593 2002783.388
6 10770973.37 0.20718 2231530.26 0.13281 1430492.974
7 10771013.33 0.15937 1716576.39 0.09486 1021738.325
8 10444001.9 0.12259 1280330.19 0.06776 707685.5685
9 10117030.42 0.0943 954035.969 0.0484 489664.2723
10 10116337.26 0.07254 733839.105 0.03457 349721.7791
11 10117030.42 0.0558 564530.297 0.02469 249789.4811
12 10117030.42 0.04292 434222.946 0.01764 178464.4166
13 10116337.26 0.03302 334041.456 0.0126 127465.8495
14 10117030.42 0.0254 256972.573 0.009 91053.27378
15 10117030.42 0.01954 197686.774 0.00643 65052.5056
15 13697750.9 0.01954 267654.053 0.00643 88076.5383
PW 4303026.05 -4410754.867
By interpolation, IRR value is 34.94% when P is at 0 value.
IRR (34.94%) > MARR (15%). This project is profitable and acceptable.
4.3.5 Sensitivity Analysis
A sensitivity analysis is a way of examining the effects of uncertainties in the
forecasts on the viability of a project.
AW = PW (A/P, 15%, 15)
81
= 33178940.2 (0.17102)
= RM 5674262.32
FW = PW (F/P, 15%, 15)
= 33178940.2 (8.13706)
= RM 269979027.1
Table 4.8: Future Worth (RM) when MARR = 15%
Year After Tax Cash
Flow (RM)
MARR = 15% Future Worth
(FW), (RM)
0 -32257260 8.13706 -262479260.1
1 11163965.6 7.07571 78992983.04
2 11912441.06 6.15279 73294748.23
3 11399257.13 5.35025 60988875.45
4 11032004.02 4.65239 51325185.17
5 10771706.49 4.04556 43577584.92
6 10770973.37 3.51788 37890991.81
7 10771013.33 3.05902 32948745.2
8 10444001.9 2.66002 27781253.92
9 10117030.42 2.31306 23401298.38
10 10116337.26 2.01136 20347596.11
11 10117030.42 1.74901 17694787.37
12 10117030.42 1.52088 15386789.23
13 10116337.26 1.3225 13378856.03
14 10117030.42 1.15 11634584.98
15 10117030.42 - 10117030.42
15 13697750.9 - 13697750.9
FW 269979801.1
4.3.6 Payback Period
The payback period analysis is a more simplistic method of calculating the
economic feasibility of a project. This method determines the period in number of
years required for the project to recover back the initial capital investment of the
plant. In using this method, the assumptions stated above such as below still
applies:
1) The plant life is taken as 15 years.
2) The annual net profit of the plant is taken as constant.
3) The class life or recovery period is 7 years.
4) The working capital is taken as 5% of the total fixed capital cost.
4.3.6.1 Simple Payback Period
Table 4.9 : Simple Payback Period
82
Year After Tax Cash Flow Cumulative Cash Flow
0 -32257260 -32257260
1 16316673 -15940587
2 16317791 377204
By interpolation,
Table 4.10 : The Interpolation Simple Payback Period
Cumulative Cash
Flow
Year
-15940587 1
0 1.97
377204 2
Therefore, MTBE plant can have payback period with:
Payback period = (1 + 0.97) years
= 1 years 12 month
2 years
4.3.6.2 Discounted Payback Period
Normally, the interest in Malaysia standardized for chemical plant. By referring to
Hong Leong Bank, the interest is 15% and use as a basis for discounted payback
period.
Table 4.11 : Discounted Payback Period
Year Annual Cash
Flow After Tax
Cumulative
Cash Flow
Cumulative
Cash Flow
After Tax
0 -32257260 -32257260
1 16316673 -15940587 -18331675.05
2 16317791 -2013884.05 -2315966.658
3 16317791 14001824.34 16102097.99
By interpolation,
Table 4.12 : The Interpolation Discounted Payback Period
Cumulative Cash
Flow
Year
-2315966.658 2
0 2.03
16102097.99 3
Therefore, MTBE plant can have payback period with:
= 2 + (0.03) years
83
= 2 year 1 month
4.4 CONCLUSION
Based on this chapter, the economic evaluation of MTBE plant are made
through study in all aspect including feasibility study, process synthesis and flow
sheeting and designed of major equipment.
From the cash flow analysis, the payback period for the MTBE plant is about 2
years. Furthermore, it should be stated that the present work is primarily illustrated
based on the method of engineering economic analysis of chemical processes.
PW is positive value so the project is attractive and acceptable same as when IRR
is bigger than MARR.
By estimate the value of PW, FW and AW by using relationship between PW and
FW the answer of FW same with estimate direct from CFAT.
REFERENCES
84
th
Peters, max Stone, Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineers, 2
nd
Edition, McGraw-Hill Chemical Engineering Series, 1968.
85
CHAPTER 5
PROCESS INTEGRATION AND PINCH TECHNOLOGY
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Process integration can lead to a substantial reduction in the energy requirements
of a process. One of the most successful and generally useful techniques is that
developed by Bodo Linnhoff and other workers: pinch technology. The term derives
from the fact that in a plot of the system temperatures versus the heat transferred, a
pinch usually occurs between the hot stream and cold stream curves. It has been
shown that the pinch represents a distinct thermodynamic break in the system and
that, for minimum energy requirements, heat should not be transferred across the
pinch, Linhoff and Townsend (1982) (Ref: Coulson & Richardsons vol. 6)
5.2 PINCH TECHNOLOGY
There are four streams to consider the problem of integrating the utilization of
energy. Two hot streams which require cooling and two cold streams that have to
be heated. Each streams starts from a source temperature Ts, and is to be heated
or cooled to a target temperature, Tt. The heat capacity of each stream is shown as
CP.
CP is given by:
CP = mCp
(5.1)
Where, m = mass flow rate, kg/s
Cp = average specific heat capacity between Ts and Tt,
(KJ/kg
o
C)
Table 5.1: Shows the process data for each stream.
86
Stream number Type Heat capacity Ts(
o
C) Tt (
o
C)
Heat
Load
Cp(KW/
o
C) (KW)
1 HOT 3.2 180 50 416
2 HOT 1.3 150 30 156
3 COLD 2 20 140 240
4 COLD 4 75 135 240
The heat load shown in the table is the total heat required to heat or cools the
stream from the source to target temperature. The stream are shown
diagrammatically below,
Stream 1 180C CP = 3.2 kW/C 50C
Stream 2 150C CP = 1.3kW/C 30C
Stream 3 20C CP = 2 kW/C 140C
Stream 4 75C CP = 4 kW/C 135C
Figure 5.1: Diagrammatically representation of process stream
5.3 THE PROBLEM TABLE METHOD
The problem table is a numerical method for determining the pinch temperature and
the minimum utility requirements. Firstly, it needs to convert the actual stream
temperature Tact into the interval temperatures Tint.
Hot streams Tint = Tact (Tmin/2)
Cold streams Tint = Tact (Tmin/2)
The minimum temperature difference taken from composite curve as, Tmin = 10
o
C
87
Hot and Col d Composite curves
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1 2 3 4
Enthalpy,10
2
kW
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

o
C
Hot Streams
Cold Streams
Figure 5.2: Hot and cold streams composite curves
Table 5.2: Interval Temperature for Tmin = 10
o
C
Stream Actual Temp.
o
C Interval Temp.
o
C
1 180 50 175 45
3 150 30 145 25
9 20 140 25 145
10 75 135 80 140
The heat balance for the streams falling within each temperature interval:
For the nth interval:
Hn = (CPc - CPh) (Tn)
(5.2)
Where, Hn = net heat required in the nth interval
CPc = sum of the heat capacities of all the cold streams in interval
CPh = sum of the heat capacities of all the hot streams in the
interval
Tn = interval temperature difference=(Tn-1-Tn)
88
175
Interval 1: 145
1 4
Interval 2: 140
2 3
Interval 3: 80
Interval 4: 45
Interval 5: 25
Figure 5.3: Intervals and streams
Table 5.3: Ranked order of interval temperature
Rank,
o
C Interval, Tn
o
C Stream in interval
175
145 30 -1
140 5 4-(2+1)
80 60 (3+4)-(1+2)
45 35 3-(1+2)
25 20 (3-2)
Cascading the heat from one interval to the next implies that the temperature
difference is such that the heat can be transferred between the hot and cold
streams. A negative value in the column indicates the temperature gradient is in the
wrong direction and that the exchange is not thermodynamically possible.

Table 5.4: Problem Table
Interval Tint,
o
C Tn
o
,C
CPc - CPh
(Kw/
o
C) Hn (KW) surplus/deficit
89
175
1 145 30 -3.2 -96 S
2 140 5 0.5 2.5 D
3 80 60 2.1 126 D
4 45 35 -2.0 -87.5 S
5 25 20 1.0 14 D
Interval temperature
Rank
o
C
175
o
C 0kW 32.5 kW
145
o
C -96kW 96 kW -96 kW 128.5 kW
140
o
C 2.5 kW 93.5 kW 2.5 kW 126 kW
80
o
C 126 kW -32.5 kW 126 kW 0 kW
45
o
C -87.5 kW 55 kW -87.5 kW 87.5 kW
25
o
C 14 kW -41 kW 14 kW 73.5 kW
Figure 5.4 Heat Cascade
From figure 5.4: pinch occurs at interval temperature 80
o
C
At the pinch, hot stream = 80 + 5
(5.3)
= 85
o
C
Cold stream = 80 5
(5.4)
= 75
o
C
5.4 THE HEAT EXCHANGER NETWORK
The grid representation of the stream is shown in Figure 5
CP
90
(KW/
o
C)
85
o
C75
o
C
180
o
C 50
o
C
3.2
150
o
C 30
o
C
1.3
140
o
C 20
o
C
2.0
135
o
C 75
o
C
4.0
Figure 5.5 Grid for 4 stream problem
For maximum energy recovery (minimum utility consumption) the best performance
is obtained if no cooling is used above the pinch. This means the hot streams
above the pinch should be brought it the pinch temperature solely by exchange with
the cold streams.
THE NETWORK DESIGN ABOVE THE PINCH
CP hot CP cold
Applying this condition at the pinch, stream 1 can be matched with stream 4, but not
with 3.
Matching streams 1 and 4 and transferring the full amount of heat required to bring
stream 1 to the pinch temperature gives;
Hex = CP (T pinch - Ts)
(5.5)
= 304 kW
This will also satisfy the heat load required to bring stream 4 to its target
temperature.
91
2
1
3
4
Stream 2 can be matched with stream 3, whilst satisfying the heat capacity
restriction. Transferring the full amount to bring stream 3 to the pinch temperature:
Hex = CP (T pinch- Ts)
= 97.5 kW
The heat required to bring stream 3 to its target temperature, from the pinch
temperature, is:
H = 2.0(140-75)
= 130 kW
So a heater will have to be included to provide the remaining heat load:
Hhot = 130-97.5 kW
(5.6)
= 32.5 kW
THE NETWORK DESIGN BELOW THE PINCH
Stream 1 is matched with stream 3 transferring the full amount to bring stream 1 to
its target temperature; transferring:
Hex = 3.2(85-50)
= 112 kW
Stream 3 requires more heat to bring it to pinch temperature; amount needed:
H = 2.0(75-20)-85kW
= 25 kW
So transferring 25 kW will raise the temperature from the source temperature to:
20+ 25/2 =32.5 kW
and gives a stream temperature difference on the outlet side of the exchanger of:
85-32.5 = 52.5 kW
So the minimum temperature difference condition, 10
o
C will not be violet by this
match.
Stream 2 will need further cooling to bring its to its target temperature, so a cooler
must be included; cooling required.
Hcold = 1.3 (85-50)-25
= 73.5 kW
92
The proposed network for maximum energy recovery is shown in Figure 5.5
Figure 5.6 Proposed heat exchanger network
5.5 MINIMUM NUMBER OF EXCHANGERS
The network shown in figure 5.5 was designed to give the maximum heat recovery,
and therefore give the minimum consumption, and cost of the hot and cold utilities.
In figure 5.5 it is clear that there is scope for reducing the number of exchangers.
Exchanger D can be deleted and the heat loads of the cooler and heater increased
to bring stream 2 and 3 to their target temperatures. Heat would across the pinch
and the consumption of the utilities would be increased
For complex networks a more general expression is needed to determine the
number of exchangers:
Zmin = N +L S (5.7)
Where L= the number of internal loops present in the network
S= the number of independence branches (subsets) that exist in the
network
N= the number of streams including the utilities
B C
A D
A
B C
D
1
2
3
4
93
In a final design, there are 3 exchangers, rather than 4 before the process
integration and pinch technology, with the minimum heating and cooling loads, 32.5
kW and 73.5 kW, respectively, match those predicted from the problem table,
compare with the loads for heating and cooling before process integration: 416 kW
and 240 kW.
94
CHAPTER 6
WASTE TREATMENT
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Pollution is something that should be taken into serious consideration in any
petrochemical plant especially the MTBE plant. Pollution, no matter what kind of the
pollution is has serious negative effects not only to human beings, but also to
animals, plants and to the environment. Therefore, it is the responsibility of each
individual to ensure that their activities are not harmful to the environment. This
includes activities and works involved in designing a plant. Waste from any
petrochemical plant should be treated according to the local and international
standards before being released to the environment.
In the MTBE plant, the wastes are only the in liquid form and gas form. The liquid
will be treated in the wastewater treatment plant. The hydrogen gas leaving the
reactor is sent to a gas cylinder which it is then sold to interested company at
market price. The treatment processes and systems employed by the MTBE plant
is the typical processes and systems based on Howard S. Peavy, Donald R. Rowe,
George Tchobanoglous; Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 1985 and
David H. F. Liu, Bela G. Liptak, Wastewater Treatment, Lewis Publishers, 1999.
6.2 WASTEWATER TREATMENT
95
Wastewater treatment is a must in any plant. The wastewater from plant
cannot be channeled into the sewage system without being treated. The
wastewater from the MTBE plant may contains a small amount of the feed and
product and a small quantity of by-products such as butene, TBA and dimethyl-
ether. According to the site location selected, the wastewater from the plant is to be
treated and should comply with Standard B which is shown Table 6.1.
In the design of the wastewater treatment plant for the production of MTBE,
the COD value used is based of the COD value of wastewater from other plants
that are in operation. The COD value of 3000 mg/l will be used for design purposes.
The design of the plant consists of preliminary, primary and secondary treatment
where each treatment unit chosen is based on the characteristics of the influent to
be treated. Before being treated, all the wastewater is channeled to the holding
tank. It is then ferried for screening and the next process is the primary settling
tank. The effluent leaving this tank is sent to the active sludge reactor. After that, it
will be sent to the secondary settling tank. Finally, the effluent undergoes
adsorption by activated carbon before leaving the wastewater treatment plant.
6.2.1 Denitrification Process (Chemical Treatment)
96
To remove methanol in the waste water, we use the denitrification process
in our plant waste treatment. In the denitrification process, nitrate is reduced to
nitrogen gas by the same facultative, heterotrophic bacteria involved in the
oxidization of carbonaceous material. For reduction to occur the dissolved oxygen
level must be at or near zero and a carbon supply must be available to the bacteria.
Because low carbon content is required for the previous nitrification step, carbon
must be added before denitrification can proceed. A small amount of primary
effluent, bypassed around secondary and nitrification reactors, can be used to
supply the carbon. However, the unnitrified compounds in this water will be
unaffected by the denitrification process and will appear in the effluent. When
essentially complete nitrogen removal is required, an external source of carbon
containing no nitrogen will be required. The most commonly used external carbon
source is methanol, CH3OH. When methanol is added, the denitrification reaction is:
NO3
-
+
6
5
CH3OH
2
1
N2 +
6
5
CO2+
6
7
H2O +OH
-
Theoretically, each milligram per liter of nitrate should require 1.9 mg/L of
methanol. Under treatment plant conditions, however about 3.0 mg/L of methanol is
required for each milligram per litre of nitrate, making this process an expensive
one.
97
Table 6.1 Parameter Limits for Wastewater and Effluent Under the Environmental
Quality Act 1974.
PARAMETER UNIT STANDARD A STANDARD B
Temperature
o
C 40 40
pH - 6.0-9.0 5.5-9.0
BOD5 at 20
o
C mg/l 20 50
COD mg/l 50 100
Suspended solid mg/l 50 100
Mercury mg/l 0.005 0.05
Cadmium mg/l 0.01 0.02
Chromium Hexavalent mg/l 0.05 0.05
Arsenic mg/l 0.05 0.10
Cyanide mg/l 0.05 0.10
Lead mg/l 0.10 0.5
Copper mg/l 0.20 1.0
Manganese mg/l 0.20 1.0
Nickel mg/l 0.20 1.0
Tin mg/l 0.20 1.0
Zinc mg/l 1.0 1.0
Boron mg/l 1.0 4.0
Iron mg/l 1.0 5.0
Phenol mg/l 0.001 1.0
Free Chlorine mg/l 1.0 2.0
Sulfide mg/l 0.5 0.5
Oil and grease mg/l None 10
* Both standards could be used and acceptable, but only one is chosen, Standard B
for the wastewater treatment for the MTBE plant.
6.3 WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT DESIGN
The design of the wastewater treatment plant consists of the holding tank, the
design of the screening device, then the design of the settling tank, the design of
the primary and secondary sedimentation tanks, and lastly the design for the
activated sludge process.
98
The next step is the sludge treatment which consists of the sludge
thickening by centrifugation, condensation by using heat treatment and lastly
dehydration by using vacuum filter.
Since the gas produced only hydrogen and no other gases, so the gas
needs no treatment. The hydrogen gas produced is stored to be sold to interested
companies like MOX Sdn. Bhd..
6.3.1 Design of Holding Tank
The purpose of the holding tank is to hold and accumulate the wastewater
before it undergoes further treatment. The design of the holding tank is as follows:
Wastewater flow rate =
day
hr 24
hr
m
5642 . 1
3
=
day
m
54 . 37
3
Volume of wastewater per day = 37.54 m
3
By taking into consideration the depth of the holding tank as 3 m, and the ratio of
the length to the width as 3:1, the dimensions of the holding tank are as follows:
Depth of holding tank = 3.0 m
Width of holding tank = 3.0 m
Length of holding tank = 9.0 m
Volume of holding tank = 81.0 m
3
This means that the holding time is about two days (81m
3
/37.54m
3
) and it is
acceptable.
6.3.2 Design of Screening Device
In the preliminary treatment of the wastewater, the treatment chosen is by
using screening. Fine screens made of woven-wire cloth are used. The screen is
used to remove small particles which might be in the wastewater. A screen with
small sized openings is chosen because the wastewater does not contain large
particles. The head loss is calculated by using the following equation:
99

( )
2
2
1
,
_
A
Q
g C
h
L
(6.1)
Where hL = head loss, m
C = waste constant for screen
= 0.6 for clean screen (Metcalf & Eddy, 1979)
g = gravity, ms
-2
Q = Flow through screen, m
3
s
-1
A = Effective opening area for submerged screen, m
2
= take as 9m
2
Thus,
2
9
10 x 345 . 4
4
81 . 9 2 6 . 0
1
h
L

,
_
m 10 9799 . 1 h
10
L

6.3.3 Design of Settling Tank
For the wastewater treatment, sulfide precipitation treatment is used to
remove heavy metals from the wastewater. The precipitant used is sodium sulfide,
which will react with the metal ions and will form non-soluble sulfide metal.
However, extra care is required in this process to avoid sulfide poisoning. Pre-
treatment which involves the increasing of the pH of the wastewater is required to
minimize the release of hydrogen sulfide gas. The design of the settling tank is as
follows:
Take holding time = 15 minutes (standard holding time)
Average flow rate =
hr
m
5642 . 1
3
Holding time = 15 minutes
= 0.25 hr
Tank volume = Average flow rate Holding time
= hr 25 . 0
hr
m
5642 . 1
3
=
3
m 391 . 0
100
By taking the depth as L=0.8m, and using a square tank,
Length of tank =
L
V
=
8 . 0
391 . 0
= 0.70 m
6.3.4 Design of Primary and Secondary Sedimentation Tank
Primary sedimentation is a unit operation designed to concentrate and
remove suspended organic solids from the wastewater. The secondary
sedimentation tank is designed as a unit operation for the activated sludge process.
The design for the sedimentation tanks are as follows:
Take holding time = 2 hr
Average flow rate =
hr
m
5642 . 1
3
Holding time = 2 hr
Tank Volume = Average flow rate Holding time
= hr 2
hr
m
5642 . 1
3
=
3
m 1284 . 3
By taking the depth as L=2m,
Length of tank =
L
V
2
=
2
1284 . 3
2
= 2.50 m
6.3.5 Design for Activated Sludge Process
The activated sludge process is a treatment process that involves the production of
a living or active microorganism which is used to stabilize the waste aerobically. A
completely mixed reactor is used in this process. This reactor is used as it is
suitable for general wastewater treatment and it has a high efficiency (85-95%) to
reduce high COD or BOD. This process involves a completely mixed reactor
followed by a secondary sedimentation tank. Part of the sludge from the secondary
101
sedimentation tank is recycled to the influent reactor. The design for the reactor is
as follows:
Average flow rate =
hr
m
5642 . 1
3
Holding time = 3 hr
Tank Volume = Average flow rate Holding time
= hr 3
hr
m
5642 . 1
3
=
3
m 693 . 4
By taking the depth as L=2m,
Length of tank =
L
V
=
2
69 . 4
= 1.53 m
6.3.6 Oxygen Demand and Aerator
COD (kg/day) = Influent COD wastewater flow rate
=
day
m
54 . 37
m
kg
3
3
3

=
day
kg
62 . 112
By assuming that 1kg COD requires 1kg of oxygen, thus 112.62 kg/day COD
requires 112.62 kg O2/day. The aerator used is a mechanical aerator with an
oxygen transfer rate of 1.8 kg O2/day.
Power needed = O2 needed per hour / O2 transfer rate
Oxygen needed per hour =
hr 24
day 1
day
kg
62 . 112
=
hr
kg
69 . 4
102
Thus, power needed =

,
_
,
_
kg
day
hr
kg
8 . 1
69 . 4
= 2.61 kW
An aerator unit provides 10kW of power. Thus, one unit is sufficient to provide
enough power for the activated sludge process.
6.4 SLUDGE TREATMENT
In this wastewater treatment plant, sludge is formed in the primary and
secondary sedimentation tank. This sludge needs to be treated and disposed. For
the MTBE plant, the following operations are used for the sludge treatment system:
i. Sludge thickening by centrifugation
ii. Condensation by using heat treatment
iii. Dehydration by using vacuum filter
Wastes from the sludge treatment system, for example the filtrate from the
vacuum filter, are sent to the influent treatment plant to undergo further treatment.
Dehydrated sludge is sent to the sludge dump site. The flow chart for the sludge
treatment is shown in Figure 6.1. Although the treatment is expensive, it is
necessary for our plant.
103
CENTRIFUGATION
THICKENI NG
SLUDGE
STORAGE
HEAT
TREATMENT
VACUUM
FILTER
S l udge P l ant
S l udge to di s pos al s i te
To i nfl uent pl ant
Dehy dr ated s l udge
Fi l tr ate to i nfl uent pl ant
Figure 6.1 The Sludge Treatment System
6.5 WASTE TREATMENT PLANT LAYOUT
Generally, the layout of a waste treatment plant depends on the process
requirements. The treatment plant covers an area of 800m
2
. The plant layout is
shown in Figure 6.3. The waste treatment plant consists of the following units:
1. 1 holding tank
2. 1 primary sedimentation tank
3. 1 secondary sedimentation tank
4. 1 activated sludge reactor
5. 1 screening device
6. 1 power house
7. 4 pumps
8. 1 sludge store
9. Units in the sludge treatment process
Table 6.2 Functions of Pumps in the Waste Treatment Plant
Pump Function
104
1 To pump sludge from the sedimentation tank to the sludge
treatment tank.
2 To pump sludge from the secondary sedimentation tank to be
recycled to the activated sludge reactor.
3 To pump sludge from the secondary sedimentation tank to the
sludge treatment process.
4 To pump wastewater from the sludge treatment system to be
recycled to the influent plant.

P R IM A R Y
S E D I M E N T A T IO N T A N K
S E T T L I N G T A N K
S E C O N D A R Y
S E D IM E N T A T IO N T A N K
A E R A T I O N T A N K
P O W E R H O U S E
1
2 3
S L U D G E T R E A T M E N T P R O C E S S
H O L D IN G T A N K
S C R E E N IN G D E V I C E
4
U
L E G E N D
P u m p
3
4
2
1
S lu d g e f ro m p r i m a r y
s e d i m e n t a t io n t a n k t o b e
t re a t e d
S l u d g e f r o m s e c o n d a r y
s e d im e n t a t io n t a n k t o b e
r e c y c l e d
S l u d g e f r o m s e c o n d a r y
s e d im e n t a t io n t a n k t o b e
t r e a t e d
W a s t e w a t e r f r o m s l u d g e
t r e a t m e n t s y s t e m t o i n f l u e n t
p l a n t
F l o w
S l u d g e F l o w
W a s t e w a t e r
F l o w
Figure 6.2 Waste Treatment Plant Layout
6.6 ABSORPTION TANK USING GRANULAR ACTIVATED CARBON
105
In the operation of absorption tank, granular activated carbon (GAC) is used
which has a diameter between 0.1-2.0 mm. The contact system for GAC consists of
cylindrical tanks, which contain a bed of the carbon material (refer the design
given). The water is passed through the bed with sufficient residence time allowed
for completion of the adsorption process. The system is operating in a fixed bed
mode. Fixed bed systems are batch operations that are taken off the line when the
adsorptive capacity of the carbon in used up.
Although fixed granular carbon beds can be cleaned in a place with
superheated steam, the most common practice is to remove the carbon for cleaning
in a furnace. The regeneration process is essentially the same as the original
activation process. The adsorbed organics are first burned at about 800
o
C in the
absence of oxygen. An oxidizing agent, usually stream, is then applied at slightly
higher temperatures to remove the residue and reactivated carbon.
6.6.1 Analysis of the Absorption Process
The adsorption process takes place in the three steps, macrotransport,
microtransport and sorption. The quantities of adsorbate that can be taken up by an
adsorbent are function of both the characteristics and concentration of adsorbate
and the temperature. Generally, the amount of material absorbed is determined as
a function of the concentration at a constant temperature and the resulting function
is called an absorption isotherm. Equation that are often used to described the
experimental isotherm data where developed by Freundlich by Langmuir and by
Brunauer, Emmet and Teller (BET isotherm).
Freundlich Isotherm Equation:
n
e f
C K
m
x
1
Where x/m = amount adsorbate absorbed per unit weight of absorbent (activated
carbon)
e
C
= equilibrium concentration of absorbed in solution after absorption
n K
f
,
= empirical constant
106
The constants in the Freundlich isotherm can be determined by plotting (x/m)
versus C and making use of above equation rewritten as:
e f
C
n
K
m
x
log
1
log log +
,
_
6.6.2 Breakthrough Absorption Capacity

In the field, the breakthrough adsorption capacity,
( )
b
m x
, of the GAC in a
full-scale column is some percentage of the theoretical absorption capacity found
from the isotherm. The
( )
b
m x
of a single column can be assumed to be
approximately 25 to 50 percent of the theoretical capacity
( )
o
m x
. Once
( )
b
m x
is
known, time to breakthrough can be calculated by solving the following equation for
b
t
( ) [ ] L mg Mgal lb
M
t C
C Q
M
X
m
x
c
b b
i
c
b
b
. 34 . 8
2

,
_

,
_
Where
b
m
x
,
_
= field breakthrough adsorption capacity, lb/lb or g/g

b
X
= mass of organic material absorbed in the GAC column at
breakthrough, lb or g

c
M
= mass of carbon in the column, lb or g
Q = flow rate, Mgal/d

i
C
= influent organic concentration, mg/L

b
C
= breakthrough organic concentration, mg/L

b
t
= time to breakthrough, day
Equation above was developed assuming that Ci is constant and that the effluent
concentration increases linearly with time from 0 to Cb value. The time breakthrough
can be calculated using the rearranging equation above. From the test data by
Freundlich adsorption isotherm plotted,
107

m
x
= 0.0015
56 . 3
e
C

0
,
_
m
x
= 0.0015(3.250)
3.56
= 0.0996 mg/mg say 0.10 mg/mg = 0.10 Ib/Ib
Determination of breakthrough time,
[ ] ) / .( / 34 . 8 2 / (
) / (
L mg Mgal Ib C C Q
M m x
t
b i
c b
b
Following condition apply:

( )
b
m x
=50 percent of
( )
o
m x
=o.5 (0.10 lb/lb) = 0.050 lb/lb
Assuming from the data testing by Freundlich adsorption isotherm,
Surface area =
2
10 ft = 0.929m
2
( ) ( )
L mg 0.75
L mg 3.2
072 . 0 72000 10 min 1440 min . 0 . 5
900 , 1 38 0 . 5 10
2 2
3 2

b
i
c
C
C
d Mgal d gal ft d ft gal Q
lb ft lb ft ft M
the time to breakthrough is
[ ] ) / .( / 34 . 8 2 / (
) / (
L mg Mgal Ib C C Q
M m x
t
b i
c b
b
day 56
b
t
Therefore, results from our study based on Freundlich adsorption isotherm the
activated carbon in our design waste treatment column vessel can long lasting for
56 day. Therefore, our estimation is changing the activated carbon in the vessel
waste treatment in every 56 day to make sure the efficiency capacity of adsorption
carbon is in the maximum capacity.
REFERENCES
108
Howard S. Peavy, Donald R. Rowe, George Tchobanoglous; Environmental
Engineering, McGraw-Hill, 1985.
David H. F. Liu, Bela G. Liptak, Wastewater Treatment, Lewis Publishers, 1999.
109

Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether MTBE Full Report

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PRODUCTION OF 300,000 METRIC TON OF MTBE PER YEAR

MEMBER OF GROUP AND SUPERVISORS

- Fitting parameter (for this design is 0.66)

- Time for complete conversion of reactant particle

- total elutriation rate of particles

- voidage in freeboard for system having only particle size i

8.2.2 E-100 (Heat Exchanger 1)

Therefore the supply of steam flow rate required is 9.152 g/s.

Therefore the supply of steam flow rate required is 12.17 g/s.

For butene, a = -2.994 , b = 3.53 x 10

For Isobutane, a = -1.39 , b = 3.85 x 10

For n-butane, a = 9.85 , b = 3.31 x 10

So , = CPm/CPm R = 167.5/(167.5-8.314) = 1.07

Therefore the supply of steam flow rate required is 6869.36 g/s.

8.2.10 M-101 (Mixer)

For TBA, a = 3.266 , b = 41.80 x 10

For DME, a = 17.015 , b = 19.907x 10

For CH3OH, a = 21.152 , b = 70.924 x 10

For H2O, a = 27.143 , b = 92.738 x 10

For butene, a = -2.994 , b = 3.53 x 10

For Isobutane, a = -1.39 , b = 3.85 x 10

For n-butane, a = 9.85 , b = 3.31 x 10

So , = CPm/CPm R = 153.37/(153.37-8.314) = 1.06

Therefore the supply of steam flow rate required is 7838.44 g/s.

Therefore the supply of steam flow rate required is 9043.40 g/s.

8.2.16 T-102 (Extraction Column)

8.2.18 Pump 5 (P-104)

8.2.19 T-102 (Distillation Column 2)

Table 1.1 : Calculation for terminal velocity in different size of dp.

by using three different

Geldart et al. (1979) revised

and Colakyan et al (1979)

For design purposes, assume a value of 0.9 m for DC.

For this cyclone, this value must be in the range of 12 to 14 m/s

= 0.77 and the gas inlet gas stream contains a

Iv = second moment of area

s = base angle of a conical skirt

) 1000 )( 046 . 184 (

from LK component (3.14)

PRODUCTION OF 300,000 METRIC TON OF MTBE PER YEAR

5.1.3 Number Of Tubes Calculation

Tube side coefficient, hi can be calculated using equation below.

5.2.8 Minimum Thickness Of Tube Wall

6.6.2 Breakthrough Absorption Capacity

= field breakthrough adsorption capacity, lb/lb or g/g

Following condition apply:

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