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Endocrine system
Adjusts metabolic operations Directs long-term changes
Neuroglia (Glia)
about half the volume of cells in the CNS smaller than neurons 5 to 50 times more numerous do NOT generate electrical impulses divide by mitosis Four types in the CNS
Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia Ependymal cells
Central Neuroglia
Astrocyte
protoplasmic astrocyte fibrous astrocyte
Peripheral Neuroglia
Schwann Cell in peripheral nerve and ganglion Capsular (Satellite) Cell in ganglion
Oligodendrocyte
perineuronal satellite cell interfascicular cell
Astrocytes
Largest of glial cells Most numerous Star shaped with many processes projecting from the cell body Help form and maintain blood-brain barrier Provide structural support for neurons Maintain the appropriate chemical environment for generation of nerve impulses/action potentials Regulate nutrient concentrations for neuron survival Regulate ion concentrations - generation of action potentials by neurons Take up excess neurotransmitters Assist in neuronal migration during brain development Perform repairs to stabilize tissue
Oligodendrocytes
Most common glial cell type Each forms myelin sheath around the axons of neurons in CNS Analogous to Schwann cells of PNS Form a supportive fewer processes than astrocytes network around CNS round or oval cell body neurons
Microglia
few processes derived from mesodermal cells that also give rise to monocytes and macrophages
Small cells found near blood vessels Phagocytic role - clear away dead cells protect CNS from disease through phagocytosis of microbes migrate to areas of injury where they clear away debris of injured cells - may also kill healthy cells
Ependymal Cells
epithelial cells arranged in a single layer range in shape from cuboidal to columnar
Form epithelial membrane lining cerebral cavities (ventricles) & central canal - that contain CSF Produce & circulate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) found in these chambers CSF = colourless liquid that protects the brain and SC against chemical & physical injuries, carries oxygen, glucose and other necessary chemicals from the blood to neurons and neuroglia
each cell surrounds multiple unmyelinated PNS axons with a single layer of its plasma membrane Each cell produces part of the myelin sheath surrounding an axon in the PNS contributes regeneration of PNS axons
Neurons
what is the main defining characteristic of neurons? have the property of electrical excitability - ability to produce action potentials or impulses in response to stimuli
Representative Neuron
-neurofilaments or neurofibrils give cell shape and support bundles of intermediate filaments -microtubules move material inside cell -lipofuscin pigment clumps (harmless aging) - yellowish brown
Neurons
2. Cell processes = dendrites (little trees) - the receiving or input portion of the neuron -short, tapering and highly branched -surfaces specialized for contact with other neurons -cytoplasm contains Nissl bodies & mitochondria
Sensory Neurons
Afferent division of PNS Deliver sensory information from sensory receptors to CNS
free nerve endings: bare dendrites associated with pain, itching, tickling, heat and some touch sensations Exteroceptors: located near or at body surface, provide information about external environment Proprioceptors: located in inner ear, joints, tendons and muscles, provide information about body position, muscle length and tension, position of joints Interoceptors: located in blood vessels, visceral organs and NS -provide information about internal environment -most impulses are not perceived those that are, are interpreted as pain or pressure
Sensory Neurons
Sensory receptors cont
mechanoreceptors: detect pressure, provide sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, blood vessel stretch, hearing and equilibrium thermoreceptors: detect changes in temperature nociceptors: respond to stimuli resulting from damage (pain) photoreceptors: light osmoreceptors: detect changes in OP in body fluids chemoreceptors: detect chemicals in mouth (taste), nose (smell) and body fluids -analgesia: relief from pain -drugs: aspirin, ibuprofen block formation of prostaglandins that stimulate the nociceptors -novocaine block nerve impulses along pain nerves -morphine, opium & derivatives (codeine) pain is felt but not perceived in brain (blocks morphine and opiate receptors in pain centers)
Motor Neurons
Efferent pathways Stimulate peripheral structures
Somatic motor neurons
Innervate skeletal muscle
Motor Units
Each skeletal fiber has only ONE NMJ MU = Somatic neuron + all the skeletal muscle fibers it innervates Number and size indicate precision of muscle control Muscle twitch
Single momentary contraction Response to a single stimulus
All-or-none theory
Either contracts completely or not at all Motor units in a whole muscle fire asynchronously some fibers are active others are relaxed delays muscle fatigue so contraction can be sustained Muscle fibers of different motor units are intermingled so that net distribution of force applied to the tendon remains constant even when individual muscle groups cycle between contraction and relaxation.
Based on number of processes found on cell body multipolar = several dendrites & one axon
most common cell type in the brain and SC
2. Golgy type II :
Neurons have short axon undergoes extensive terminal aeborization and small soma
Saltatory Conduction
Saltatory conduction -depolarization only at nodes of Ranvier - areas along the axon that are unmyelinated and where there is a high density of voltage-gated ion channels -current carried by ions flows through extracellular fluid from node to node
Synaptic Communication
Synapse
Synapse
Site of intercellular communication between 2 neurons or between a neuron and an effector (e.g. muscle) Originates in the soma Travels along axons Permit communication between neurons and other cells Initiating neuron = presynaptic neuron Receiving neuron = postsynaptic neuron Most are axodendritic axon -> dendrite Some are axoaxonic axon > axon
Tipes of synapses
Axodendritic:
Between an axon and a dendrite
Axosomatic:
Between an axon and a soma
Axoaxonic:
Between two axon
Dendrodendritic:
between two dendrites
Synaptic morphology
Presynaptic membrane:
Contains metochondria, a few elements of SER, and an abundance of synaptic vesicles.
SYNAPSE
Synapses
Chemical Membranes of pre and postsynaptic neurons do not touch Synaptic cleft exists between the 2 neurons 20 to 50 nm the electrical impulse cannot travel across the cleft indirect method is required chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) Most common type of synapse The neurotransmitter induces a postsynaptic potential in the PS neuron type of AP Communication in one direction only Is the conversion of an electrical signal (presynaptic) into a chemical signal back into an electrical signal (postsynaptic)
1. nerve impulse arrives at presynaptic end bulbs 2. fusion of synaptic vesicles to PM and release of NTs 3. binding of NT to receptors on postsynaptic neuron 4. opening of channels in PM of postsynaptic neuron (e.g. sodium) 5. postsynaptic potential develops depolarization 6. triggering of AP in postsynaptic neuron
Synapses
Electrical Direct physical contact between cells required Conducted through gap junctions that permit free movement of ions from one cell to another Two advantages over chemical synapses 1. faster communication 2. synchronization between neurons or muscle fibers E.g. heart beat, brain stem, retina, and cerebral cortex
Synapse
axon terminal swell to form synaptic end bulbs or form swollen bumps called varicosities release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles
multiple types of NTs can be found in one neuron type
Neurotransmitters
Are signaling molecules that are released at the presynaptic membranes and activate receptors on postsynaptic membranes.
Neurotransmitters
More than 100 identified Some bind receptors and cause channels to open Others bind receptors and result in a second messenger system Results in either excitation or inhibition of the target Represented by three groups: Small molecules transmitters Neoropeptides Gases
Neorotransmitters
Small molecules 1. Acetylcholine (ACh)
-All neuromuscular junctions use ACh -ACh also released at chemical synapses in the PNS and by some CNS neurons -Can be excitatory at some synapses and inhibitory at others -Inactivated by an enzyme acetylcholinesterase -Blockage of the ACh receptors by antibodies = myasthenia gravis - autoimmune disease that destroys these receptors and progressively destroys the NMJ
-Anticholinesterase drugs (inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase) prevent the breakdown of ACh and raise the level that can activate the still present receptors
Neurotransmitters
2. Amino acids: glutamate & aspartate & GABA
Powerful excitatory effects Stimulate most excitatory neurons in the CNS (about the neurons in the brain) Binding of glutamate to receptors opens calcium channels = EPSP GABA (gamma amino-butyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter for 1/3 of all brain synapses
Neurotransmitters
3. Biogenic amines: modified amino acids catecholamines: norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine, dopamine (tyrosine) serotonin - concentrated in neurons found in the brain region = raphe nucleus
derived from tryptophan sensory perception, temperature regulation, mood control, appetite, sleep induction feeling of well being
NE - role in arousal, awakening, deep sleep, regulating mood epinephrine (adrenaline) - flight or fight response dopamine - emotional responses and pleasure, decreases skeletal muscle tone
Other types: a. ATP - released with NE from some neurons b. Nitric oxide - formed on demand in the neuron then release (brief lifespan) -role in memory and learning -produces vasodilation - Viagra enhances the effect of NO
Neuropeptides
widespread in both CNS and PNS excitatory and inhibitory act as hormones elsewhere in the body -Substance P -- enhances our perception of pain -opoid peptides: endorphins - release during stress, exercise enkephalins - analgesics (200x stronger than morphine) -pain-relieving effect by blocking the release of
substance P
**acupuncture may produce loss of pain sensation because of release of opioid-like substances such as endorphins or dynorphins
Neurotransmitters
Gases
May act as neuromodulators. The ones that do are nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO).
Removal of Neurotransmitter
Diffusion
move down concentration gradient
Enzymatic degradation
acetylcholinesterase
Peripheral Nerve
Epineurium
Is the outermost layer Is composed of dense irregular, collagenous connective tissue containing thick elastic fibers that completely ensheathe the nerve. Collagen fibers within the sheath are aligned and oriented to prevent damage by overstretching of the nerve bundle.
Perineurium
The middle layer of connective tissue investments, covers each bundle of nerve fibers (fascicle) within the nerve. Composition: Dense connective tissue but is thinner than epineurium.
Endoneurium
The innermost layer connective tissue investment of a nerve, surrounds individual nerve fibers (axons). Is a loose connective tissue composed of a thin layer of reticular fibers (produced by Schwann cells), scattered fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells. The endoneurium is in contact with the basal lamina of the Schwann cells.
Cell bodies of the first neuron lie in the CNS and their axons are usually myelinated. These preganglionic fibers (axons) seek an autonomic ganglion located outside the CNS, where they synapse on multipolar cell bodies of postganglionic neurons. Postganglionic fibers usually unmyelinated although they always are enveloped by Schwnn cells, exit the ganglion to terminate on the effector organ.
Ganglia
Are aggregations of cell bodies of neurons located outside the CNS, there are two types of ganglia: Sensory autonomic
Sensory ganglia
Sensory ganglia house cells bodies of sensory neurons. Cell of the sensory ganglia are pseudounipolar which enveloped by cuboidal capsule cells. These capsule cells are surrounded by connective tissue capsule composed of satellite cells and collagen.
Autonomic ganglia
Autonomic ganglia house cells bodies of postganglionic autonomic nerves. Nerve cells bodies of autonomic ganglia are motor in function.
Continued
White matter is composed mostly of myelineted fibers a long with some unmyelineted fibers and neoroglial cells. Gray matter is consist of aggregation of neuronal cells bodies, dendrites, and unmyelineted portion of axons as well as neuroglial cells. Gray matter in the brain is located at the periphery (cortex) of the cerebrum and cerebellum. Whereas the white matter lies deep to the cortex and surrounds the basal ganglia.
continued
Spinal cord:
White matter is located in the periphery, whereas grey matter lies deep in the spinal cord, where it forms an H shape in cross section. Central canal lined by ependymal cells.
Meninges
Are three connective tissue covering the brain and spinal cord. Meninges consist of: Dura mater : the outermost layer Arachnoid : the intermediate layer Pia mater : the innermost layer
Dura mater
The dura mater is the dense outermost layer of the meninges. Cerebral dura:
Is a dense, collagenous CT composed of two layers that are closely apposed in the adult. 1. Periosteal dura mater, the outer layer, is composed of osteoprogenitor cells, fibroblast and collagen fibers. Periousteal dura mater serves as the periosteum of the inner surface of the skull, and as such it is well vascularized.
continued
2. Meningeal dura : Inner layer of the dura is composed of fibroplast and collagen fibers. This layer contains small blood vessels Internally meningeal dura covered by a layer of cells called border cell layer, is composed of fibroblast. spinal dura mater
Does not adhere to the walls of the vertebral canal. The epidural space : the space between the dura and the bony walls of the vertebral canal, is filled with epidural fat and a venous plexus.
Arachnoid
Is the intermediate layer of the meninges. Is avascular although blood vessels course through it. It consist of fibroblast, collagen, and some elastic fibers. Subdural space located between dura and arachnoid, is a potential space because it appears only after injury resulting subdural hemorrhage
continued
In certain regions the arachnoid extend through the dura to form arachnoid villi, which protrude into the dural venous sinuses. The function of the arachnoid villi is transporting CSF from the subarachnoid spaces into the venous system.
Pia mater
Is the innermost highly vascular layer of the meninges, is in close contact with the brain, following closely all of its contours. The pia mater does not contact with the neural tissue because a thin layer of neuroglial processes is always interposed between them.
continued
Composition : a thin layer of flatened, modified fibroblast. Blood vessels, abundant in this layer, are surrounded by pia cells interspersed with macrophage, mast cells, and lymphocytes. The pia mater is completely separated from the underlying neural tissue by neuroglial cells. Blood vessels penetrate the neural tissue and are covered by pia mater until they from the continuous capillaries characteristic of the CNS. Pedicels of the astrocytes, cover capillaries within the neural tissue.
Blood-brain barrier
Endothelial cells of CNS capillaries prevent the free passage of selective blood-borne substances into the neural tissue. This barrier is established by the endothelial cells lining the continuous capillaries that course through the CNS. These endothelial cells form zonula occludentes with one another, retarding the flow of material between cells.
continued
These endothelial cells have relatively few pinocytotic vesicles and vesicular traffic is almost completely restricted to receptor mediated transport.
Choroid plexus
Is composed of folds of pia mater within the ventricles of the brain, produces CSF. Are formed by folds of pia mater countain abundant of fenestrated capillaries and invested by the simple cuboidal (ependymal) lining extend into the third, fourth, and lateral ventricles of the brain. Are produced CSF.
Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid bathes, nourishes, and protects the brain and spinal cord. Is produces by the choroid plexus.
Cerebral cortex
Is responsible for learning, memory, sensory integration, information analysis, and initiation of motor responses. Is divided into six layers as follows:
1. Molecular layer : contains horizontal cells and neuroglia 2. External granular layer : contains mostly granule(stellate) cells and neuroglial cells
continued
3. External pyramidal layer : contains pyramidal cells and neuroglial cells. 4. Internal granual layer contains small granule cells (stelate cells), pyramidal cells, and neuroglia. 5. Internal pyramidal layer contains larges pyramidal cells and neuroglia 6. Multiform layer consist of various shapes (Martinotti cells), and neuroglia.
Cerebellar cortex
Is responsible for balance, equilibrium, muscle tone, and muscle coordination. Is divided into three layers:
1. Molecular layer, lies directly below the pia mater. 2. Purkinje cell layer, contains the large, flaskshaped Purkinje cells, which are present only in the cerebellum. 3. Granular layer, consist of small cells and glomeruli (cerebellar islands).
Neural Regeneration
Nerve regeneration
Nerve cells, unlike neuroglial cells, cannot proliferate but can regenerate their axons, located in the PNS. When a traumatic event destroy neurons, they are not replaced because neurons cannot proliferate ; therefore the damage to the CNS is permanent.
continued
However, if a peripheral nerve fiber is injured or transected, the neurons attempts to repair the damage, regenerate the process, and restore function by initiating a series of structural and metabolic events, collectively called the axon reaction.
Axon reaction
The reactions to the trauma are characteristically localized in three regions of the neurons:
1. Local changes: at the site of damage. 2. Anterograde changes: distal to the site of damage 3. Retrograde changes: proximal to the site of damage.
Local reaction
Local reaction to injury involves repair and removal of debris by neuroglial cells. The severed ends of the axon retract away from each other, and the cut membrane of each stump fuses to cover the open end, preventing loss of axoplasm. Macrophages and fibroblast infiltrate the damaged area, secrete cytokines and growth factors, and upregulate the expression of receptors. Macrophages invade the basal lamina and assisted by Schwann cells, phagocytose the debris.
Anterograde reaction
In the anterograde reaction process, that portion of the axon distal to an injury undergoes degeneration and is phagocytosed The axon undergoes anterograde changes as follows:
1. The axon terminal becomes hypertrophied and degeneretes within a week. Schwwan cells prolivered and phagocitose the remnants of the axon terminal, and the newly formed Schwann cells occupy the synaptic space.
Continued
2. The distal portion of the axon undergoes wallerian degeneration, distal to the lesion, the axon and the myelin disintegrate, Schwann cells dedifferentiate and myelin synthesis is discontinued. Macrophages and Schwann cells phagocytose the disintegrated remnants 3. Schwann cells proliferate, forming a column of Schwann cells ( Schwann tubes ) enclosed by the original basal lamina of the endoneurium.
continued
2. Several sprouts of axon emerge from the proximal axon stump, enter the endoneurium, and are guided by the Schwann cells to their target cell. For regeneration to occur, the Schwann cells, macrophages, and fibroblasts as well as the basal lamina must be present. These cells manufacture growth factors and cytokines and up-regulate the expression for the seceptors of these signaling molecules.
continued
3. the sprout is guided by the Schwann cells that redifferentiate and either begin to manufacture myelin around the growing axon or, in nonmyelinated axons, form a Schwann cell sheath. The sprout that reaches the target cell first form a synapse, whereas the other sprout degenerate.
Regeneration
Limited ability in PNS Severed peripheral nerve successfully regenerates a fraction of the axons
Function is permanently impaired Schwann cells participate
Wallerian degeneration
Loss of axon distal to damage
Regeneration in CNS
More complicated than PNS regeneration Far more limited More axons involved Astrocytes produce scar tissue preventing axonal regrowth Astrocytes release chemicals blocking regrowth
continued
These sensory receptor are classified into three type depending on the source of the stimulus, and are components of the general or special somatic and visceral afferent pathway :
Exteroceptors Proprioceptors interoceptors
Exteroceptors
Location : near the body surface Specialized to perceive stimuli from the external environment These receptors sensitive to :
Temperature Touch Pressure and Pain
continued
Proprioceptors
Are specialized receptor located in joint capsules, tendon and intrafusal fibers within muscle. These general somatic afferent receptors transmit sensory input to the CNS, which translated into information that relates to an awareness of the body in space and movement
continued
Vestibular (balance) mechanism, located within the inner ear, are specialized for receiving stimuli related to motion vectors within the head.
Interoceptors
Are specialized receptors that perceive sensory information from within organs of the body.
continued
Mechanoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimuli that may deform the receptor or the tissue surrounding the receptor. Stimuli that trigger the mechanoreceptors are touch, stretch, vibration and pressure
Nonencapsulated mechanoreceptors
Are simple unmyelinated receptors present in the skin, connective tissues and surrounding hair follicle
Peritricial nerve ending, located in the epidermis of the skin, especially in the face and cornea of the eye Merckels disks, specialized for perceiving discriminatory touch, located in non hairy skin and regions of the body more sensitive to touch.
Encapsulated mechanoreceptors
Encapsulated Mechanoreceptors exhibit characteristic structure and are present in specific location 1. Meissner corpuscles : Specialist for tactile Location : dermal papillae of the non hair portin of the hand, eyelids, lip, tongue, nipples, skin of the foot and forearm. Each corpuscle is formed by three or four nerve terminals and their associated Schwann cells, all which are encapsulated by connective tissue.
continued
2. Pacinian corpuscles
Location : in the dermis and hypodermis in the digits of the hand, breast, connective tissue of the joint, periosteum and the mesentery Spezialied to perceive pressure, touch and fibration Morphology : ovoid & large receptor Single unmyelinated fiber as a core and its Schwann cell Surrounded by approximately 60 layers of modified fibroblast Each layer separated by a small fluid-filled space
Ruffinis corpuscles
Location : in the dermis of skin, nail beds, periodontal ligament and joint capsules Composition :
branched nonmyelinated terminals interspersed with collagen fibers Surrounded by four to five layers of modified fibroblast
Location : papilla dermis, joints, conjunctiva, peritoneum, genital regions, subendothelial c.t. of the oral and nasal cavities Function : unknown, they were thought to be receptors sensitive to cold
Thermoreceptor
Which respons to temperature differences of about 2 C, are three types: warmth receptors, cold receptors and temperaturesensitive nociceptors. Specific receptors have not been identified for warmth Cold receptors are derived from naked nerve ending in the epidermis
Nociceptors
Are receptors sensitive to pain caused by mechanical stress, extreme of temperature, and cytokines as bradykinin, serotonin and histamin. Are naked ending of myelinated nerve fibers that branch freely in the dermis before entering the dermis Divided into three groups :
Those that respond to mechanical stress or damage Those that respond to extremes in heat or cold Those that respond to chemical compound such as bradykinin, serotonin and histamin
Morphological Classification
free nerve endings expanded tip endings encapsulated endings ----- CT envestment
Afferent Endings
Free Nerve Endings
- Nerve endings without special structural organization - pain and temperature receptor
Afferent Endings
Encapsulated Endings
- Meissners Corpuscle - Pacinian Corpuscle (Corpuscle of Vater-Pacini) Vater- Genital Corpuscle - Ruffinis Ending - End Bulb of Krause - Golgi tendon organ: Proprioceptor
Receptor Endings
Free nerve
ending
Expanded
tip ending
Encapsulated
ending
Meissners Corpuscle
Pacinian Corpuscle
Efferent Endings
Neuromuscular Junction
(Myoneural Junction, Motor End Plate)
M NMJ N
Neuromuscular Spindle
Both receptor and effector Structure
1. Capsule 2. Intrafusal Muscle Fibers - Nuclear Bag Fiber - Nuclear Chain Fiber 3. Receptor and Effector Nerve Endings - Afferent Ending - Efferent Ending
Afferent Endings
Encapsulated Endings
- Meissners Corpuscle - Pacinian Corpuscle (Corpuscle of Vater-Pacini) Vater- Genital Corpuscle - Ruffinis Ending - End Bulb of Krause - Golgi tendon organ: Proprioceptor