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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: NEURAL TISSUE

Two organ systems coordinate and direct activities of body


Nervous system
Swift, brief responses to stimuli

Endocrine system
Adjusts metabolic operations Directs long-term changes

Nervous system includes all neural tissue in body


Central Nervous System
Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System


All neural tissue outside CNS

Histology of Neural Tissue

Cells in Nervous Tissue


Neurons Neuroglia

Neuroglia (Glia)
about half the volume of cells in the CNS smaller than neurons 5 to 50 times more numerous do NOT generate electrical impulses divide by mitosis Four types in the CNS
Astrocytes Oligodendrocytes Microglia Ependymal cells

Neuroglia (Neuroglial Cells)

Central Neuroglia
Astrocyte
protoplasmic astrocyte fibrous astrocyte

Peripheral Neuroglia
Schwann Cell in peripheral nerve and ganglion Capsular (Satellite) Cell in ganglion

Oligodendrocyte
perineuronal satellite cell interfascicular cell

Microglia Ependymal Cell

Astrocytes
Largest of glial cells Most numerous Star shaped with many processes projecting from the cell body Help form and maintain blood-brain barrier Provide structural support for neurons Maintain the appropriate chemical environment for generation of nerve impulses/action potentials Regulate nutrient concentrations for neuron survival Regulate ion concentrations - generation of action potentials by neurons Take up excess neurotransmitters Assist in neuronal migration during brain development Perform repairs to stabilize tissue

Oligodendrocytes
Most common glial cell type Each forms myelin sheath around the axons of neurons in CNS Analogous to Schwann cells of PNS Form a supportive fewer processes than astrocytes network around CNS round or oval cell body neurons

Microglia
few processes derived from mesodermal cells that also give rise to monocytes and macrophages

Small cells found near blood vessels Phagocytic role - clear away dead cells protect CNS from disease through phagocytosis of microbes migrate to areas of injury where they clear away debris of injured cells - may also kill healthy cells

Ependymal Cells
epithelial cells arranged in a single layer range in shape from cuboidal to columnar
Form epithelial membrane lining cerebral cavities (ventricles) & central canal - that contain CSF Produce & circulate the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) found in these chambers CSF = colourless liquid that protects the brain and SC against chemical & physical injuries, carries oxygen, glucose and other necessary chemicals from the blood to neurons and neuroglia

PNS: Satellite Cells

Flat cells surrounding PNS axons Support neurons in the PNS

PNS: Schwann Cells

each cell surrounds multiple unmyelinated PNS axons with a single layer of its plasma membrane Each cell produces part of the myelin sheath surrounding an axon in the PNS contributes regeneration of PNS axons

Neurons
what is the main defining characteristic of neurons? have the property of electrical excitability - ability to produce action potentials or impulses in response to stimuli

Representative Neuron

1. cell body or soma


-single nucleus with prominent nucleolus -Nissl bodies -rough ER & free ribosomes for protein synthesis -proteins then replace neuronal cellular components for growth and repair of damaged axons in the PNS

-neurofilaments or neurofibrils give cell shape and support bundles of intermediate filaments -microtubules move material inside cell -lipofuscin pigment clumps (harmless aging) - yellowish brown

Neurons
2. Cell processes = dendrites (little trees) - the receiving or input portion of the neuron -short, tapering and highly branched -surfaces specialized for contact with other neurons -cytoplasm contains Nissl bodies & mitochondria

3. Cell processes = axons


Conduct impulses away from cell bodypropagates nerve impulses to another neuron Long, thin cylindrical process of cell contains mitochondria, microtubules & neurofibrils - NO ER/NO protein synth. joins the soma at a cone-shaped elevation = axon hillock first part of the axon = initial segment most impulses arise at the junction of the axon hillock and initial segment = trigger zone cytoplasm = axoplasm plasma membrane = axolemma Side branches = collaterals arise from the axon axon and collaterals end in fine processes called axon terminals Swollen tips called synaptic end bulbs contain vesicles filled with neurotransmitters

Functional Classification of Neurons


Sensory (afferent) neurons
transport sensory information from skin, muscles, joints, sense organs & viscera to CNS

Motor (efferent) neurons


send motor nerve impulses to muscles & glands

Interneurons (association) neurons


connect sensory to motor neurons 90% of neurons in the body

Sensory Neurons
Afferent division of PNS Deliver sensory information from sensory receptors to CNS
free nerve endings: bare dendrites associated with pain, itching, tickling, heat and some touch sensations Exteroceptors: located near or at body surface, provide information about external environment Proprioceptors: located in inner ear, joints, tendons and muscles, provide information about body position, muscle length and tension, position of joints Interoceptors: located in blood vessels, visceral organs and NS -provide information about internal environment -most impulses are not perceived those that are, are interpreted as pain or pressure

Sensory Neurons
Sensory receptors cont
mechanoreceptors: detect pressure, provide sensations of touch, pressure, vibration, proprioception, blood vessel stretch, hearing and equilibrium thermoreceptors: detect changes in temperature nociceptors: respond to stimuli resulting from damage (pain) photoreceptors: light osmoreceptors: detect changes in OP in body fluids chemoreceptors: detect chemicals in mouth (taste), nose (smell) and body fluids -analgesia: relief from pain -drugs: aspirin, ibuprofen block formation of prostaglandins that stimulate the nociceptors -novocaine block nerve impulses along pain nerves -morphine, opium & derivatives (codeine) pain is felt but not perceived in brain (blocks morphine and opiate receptors in pain centers)

Motor Neurons
Efferent pathways Stimulate peripheral structures
Somatic motor neurons
Innervate skeletal muscle

Visceral motor neurons


Innervate all other peripheral effectors Preganglionic and postganglionic neurons
ganglion (Post

Motor Units
Each skeletal fiber has only ONE NMJ MU = Somatic neuron + all the skeletal muscle fibers it innervates Number and size indicate precision of muscle control Muscle twitch
Single momentary contraction Response to a single stimulus

All-or-none theory
Either contracts completely or not at all Motor units in a whole muscle fire asynchronously some fibers are active others are relaxed delays muscle fatigue so contraction can be sustained Muscle fibers of different motor units are intermingled so that net distribution of force applied to the tendon remains constant even when individual muscle groups cycle between contraction and relaxation.

Structural Classification of Neurons

Based on number of processes found on cell body multipolar = several dendrites & one axon
most common cell type in the brain and SC

bipolar neurons = one main dendrite & one axon


found in retina, inner ear & olfactory

unipolar neurons = one process only, sensory only (touch, stretch)


develops from a bipolar neuron in the embryo - axon and dendrite fuse and then branch into 2 branches near the soma - both have the structure of axons (propagate APs) - the axon that projects toward the periphery = dendrites

Structural Classification of Neurons


Named for histologist that first described them or their appearance
Purkinje = cerebellum Renshaw = spinal cord

others are named for shapes e.g. pyramidal cells

Classification of neurons by cell size


1. golgi type I :
Neurons have a long axon and large soma

2. Golgy type II :
Neurons have short axon undergoes extensive terminal aeborization and small soma

The Nerve Impulse

Continuous versus Saltatory Conduction


Continuous conduction (unmyelinated fibers)
An action potential spreads (propagates) over the surface of the axolemma as Na+ flows into the cell during depolarization, the voltage of adjacent areas is effected and their voltage-gated Na+ channels open step-by-step depolarization of each portion of the length of the axolemma

Saltatory Conduction
Saltatory conduction -depolarization only at nodes of Ranvier - areas along the axon that are unmyelinated and where there is a high density of voltage-gated ion channels -current carried by ions flows through extracellular fluid from node to node

Rate of Impulse Conduction


Properties of axon Presence or absence of myelin sheath Diameter of axon

Synaptic Communication

Synapse
Synapse
Site of intercellular communication between 2 neurons or between a neuron and an effector (e.g. muscle) Originates in the soma Travels along axons Permit communication between neurons and other cells Initiating neuron = presynaptic neuron Receiving neuron = postsynaptic neuron Most are axodendritic axon -> dendrite Some are axoaxonic axon > axon

Tipes of synapses
Axodendritic:
Between an axon and a dendrite

Axosomatic:
Between an axon and a soma

Axoaxonic:
Between two axon

Dendrodendritic:
between two dendrites

Synaptic morphology
Presynaptic membrane:
Contains metochondria, a few elements of SER, and an abundance of synaptic vesicles.

Synaptic cleft Postsynaptic membrane:


Contains neorotransmitter receptors

SYNAPSE

Impuls transmission at synapse can occur:


Electrically Chemically

Synapses
Chemical Membranes of pre and postsynaptic neurons do not touch Synaptic cleft exists between the 2 neurons 20 to 50 nm the electrical impulse cannot travel across the cleft indirect method is required chemical messengers (neurotransmitters) Most common type of synapse The neurotransmitter induces a postsynaptic potential in the PS neuron type of AP Communication in one direction only Is the conversion of an electrical signal (presynaptic) into a chemical signal back into an electrical signal (postsynaptic)
1. nerve impulse arrives at presynaptic end bulbs 2. fusion of synaptic vesicles to PM and release of NTs 3. binding of NT to receptors on postsynaptic neuron 4. opening of channels in PM of postsynaptic neuron (e.g. sodium) 5. postsynaptic potential develops depolarization 6. triggering of AP in postsynaptic neuron

Synapses
Electrical Direct physical contact between cells required Conducted through gap junctions that permit free movement of ions from one cell to another Two advantages over chemical synapses 1. faster communication 2. synchronization between neurons or muscle fibers E.g. heart beat, brain stem, retina, and cerebral cortex

Synapse
axon terminal swell to form synaptic end bulbs or form swollen bumps called varicosities release of neurotransmitters from synaptic vesicles
multiple types of NTs can be found in one neuron type

Neurotransmitters
Are signaling molecules that are released at the presynaptic membranes and activate receptors on postsynaptic membranes.

Neurotransmitters
More than 100 identified Some bind receptors and cause channels to open Others bind receptors and result in a second messenger system Results in either excitation or inhibition of the target Represented by three groups: Small molecules transmitters Neoropeptides Gases

Neorotransmitters
Small molecules 1. Acetylcholine (ACh)
-All neuromuscular junctions use ACh -ACh also released at chemical synapses in the PNS and by some CNS neurons -Can be excitatory at some synapses and inhibitory at others -Inactivated by an enzyme acetylcholinesterase -Blockage of the ACh receptors by antibodies = myasthenia gravis - autoimmune disease that destroys these receptors and progressively destroys the NMJ
-Anticholinesterase drugs (inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase) prevent the breakdown of ACh and raise the level that can activate the still present receptors

Neurotransmitters
2. Amino acids: glutamate & aspartate & GABA
Powerful excitatory effects Stimulate most excitatory neurons in the CNS (about the neurons in the brain) Binding of glutamate to receptors opens calcium channels = EPSP GABA (gamma amino-butyric acid) is an inhibitory neurotransmitter for 1/3 of all brain synapses

Valium is a GABA agonist - enhancing its inhibitory effect

Neurotransmitters
3. Biogenic amines: modified amino acids catecholamines: norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine, dopamine (tyrosine) serotonin - concentrated in neurons found in the brain region = raphe nucleus
derived from tryptophan sensory perception, temperature regulation, mood control, appetite, sleep induction feeling of well being

NE - role in arousal, awakening, deep sleep, regulating mood epinephrine (adrenaline) - flight or fight response dopamine - emotional responses and pleasure, decreases skeletal muscle tone
Other types: a. ATP - released with NE from some neurons b. Nitric oxide - formed on demand in the neuron then release (brief lifespan) -role in memory and learning -produces vasodilation - Viagra enhances the effect of NO

Neuropeptides
widespread in both CNS and PNS excitatory and inhibitory act as hormones elsewhere in the body -Substance P -- enhances our perception of pain -opoid peptides: endorphins - release during stress, exercise enkephalins - analgesics (200x stronger than morphine) -pain-relieving effect by blocking the release of
substance P

dynorphins - regulates pain and emotions


-Hypothalamic-releasing hormones (thyrotropin-releasing hormone and somatostatin) -Hormones stored in and teleased from the neurohypophysis (ADH and oxytocin)

**acupuncture may produce loss of pain sensation because of release of opioid-like substances such as endorphins or dynorphins

Neurotransmitters
Gases
May act as neuromodulators. The ones that do are nitric oxide (NO) and carbon monoxide (CO).

Removal of Neurotransmitter
Diffusion
move down concentration gradient

Enzymatic degradation
acetylcholinesterase

Uptake by neurons or glia cells


neurotransmitter transporters
NE, epinephrine, dopamine, serotonin

Peripheral Nerve

Composition of Peripheral Nerve


Nerve Fiber
Myelinated Nerve Fiber Axon, Myelin sheath, Schwann cell sheath, Unmyelinated Nerve Fiber Axon, Schwann cell

Connective Tissue Sheath


Endoneurium Perineurium blood vessels Epineurium

Connective tissue investment


Connective tissue investments of peripheral nerves include the: Epineurium Perineurium Endoneurium

Epineurium
Is the outermost layer Is composed of dense irregular, collagenous connective tissue containing thick elastic fibers that completely ensheathe the nerve. Collagen fibers within the sheath are aligned and oriented to prevent damage by overstretching of the nerve bundle.

Perineurium
The middle layer of connective tissue investments, covers each bundle of nerve fibers (fascicle) within the nerve. Composition: Dense connective tissue but is thinner than epineurium.

Endoneurium
The innermost layer connective tissue investment of a nerve, surrounds individual nerve fibers (axons). Is a loose connective tissue composed of a thin layer of reticular fibers (produced by Schwann cells), scattered fibroblasts, macrophages, and mast cells. The endoneurium is in contact with the basal lamina of the Schwann cells.

Somatic motor and autonomic nervous systems


Functionally, the motor component is divided into the somatic and autonomic nervous systems The somatic nerves systems provides motor impulses to the skeletal muscles The autonomic nerves systems provides motor impulses to the smooth muscles of the viscera, cardiac muscle and secretory cells of the exocrine and endocrine glands.

Motor component of the somatic nervous system


Motor innervation to skeletal muscle is provided by somatic nerves from spinal and selected cranial nerves. The cell bodies of these nerve fibers originate in the CNS

Autonomic nervous system = ANS (involuntary , visceral)


Is generally defined as a motor system. Controls the viscera of the body by supplying the general visceral efferent (visceral motor) component to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, and glands. The autonomic nervous system possesses two neurons between the CNS and the effector organ.

Cell bodies of the first neuron lie in the CNS and their axons are usually myelinated. These preganglionic fibers (axons) seek an autonomic ganglion located outside the CNS, where they synapse on multipolar cell bodies of postganglionic neurons. Postganglionic fibers usually unmyelinated although they always are enveloped by Schwnn cells, exit the ganglion to terminate on the effector organ.

The ANS is subdivided into two functionally deferent divisions:


The sympathetic nervous system The parasympathetic nervous system

Ganglia
Are aggregations of cell bodies of neurons located outside the CNS, there are two types of ganglia: Sensory autonomic

Sensory ganglia
Sensory ganglia house cells bodies of sensory neurons. Cell of the sensory ganglia are pseudounipolar which enveloped by cuboidal capsule cells. These capsule cells are surrounded by connective tissue capsule composed of satellite cells and collagen.

Autonomic ganglia
Autonomic ganglia house cells bodies of postganglionic autonomic nerves. Nerve cells bodies of autonomic ganglia are motor in function.

Central nervous system


The CNS, composed of the brain and the spinal cord, consist of white matter and gray matter without intervening connective tissue elements ; therefore, the CNS has the consistency of a semifirm gel.

Continued

White matter is composed mostly of myelineted fibers a long with some unmyelineted fibers and neoroglial cells. Gray matter is consist of aggregation of neuronal cells bodies, dendrites, and unmyelineted portion of axons as well as neuroglial cells. Gray matter in the brain is located at the periphery (cortex) of the cerebrum and cerebellum. Whereas the white matter lies deep to the cortex and surrounds the basal ganglia.

continued

Spinal cord:
White matter is located in the periphery, whereas grey matter lies deep in the spinal cord, where it forms an H shape in cross section. Central canal lined by ependymal cells.

Meninges
Are three connective tissue covering the brain and spinal cord. Meninges consist of: Dura mater : the outermost layer Arachnoid : the intermediate layer Pia mater : the innermost layer

Dura mater
The dura mater is the dense outermost layer of the meninges. Cerebral dura:
Is a dense, collagenous CT composed of two layers that are closely apposed in the adult. 1. Periosteal dura mater, the outer layer, is composed of osteoprogenitor cells, fibroblast and collagen fibers. Periousteal dura mater serves as the periosteum of the inner surface of the skull, and as such it is well vascularized.

continued

2. Meningeal dura : Inner layer of the dura is composed of fibroplast and collagen fibers. This layer contains small blood vessels Internally meningeal dura covered by a layer of cells called border cell layer, is composed of fibroblast. spinal dura mater
Does not adhere to the walls of the vertebral canal. The epidural space : the space between the dura and the bony walls of the vertebral canal, is filled with epidural fat and a venous plexus.

Arachnoid
Is the intermediate layer of the meninges. Is avascular although blood vessels course through it. It consist of fibroblast, collagen, and some elastic fibers. Subdural space located between dura and arachnoid, is a potential space because it appears only after injury resulting subdural hemorrhage

continued

In certain regions the arachnoid extend through the dura to form arachnoid villi, which protrude into the dural venous sinuses. The function of the arachnoid villi is transporting CSF from the subarachnoid spaces into the venous system.

Pia mater
Is the innermost highly vascular layer of the meninges, is in close contact with the brain, following closely all of its contours. The pia mater does not contact with the neural tissue because a thin layer of neuroglial processes is always interposed between them.

continued

Composition : a thin layer of flatened, modified fibroblast. Blood vessels, abundant in this layer, are surrounded by pia cells interspersed with macrophage, mast cells, and lymphocytes. The pia mater is completely separated from the underlying neural tissue by neuroglial cells. Blood vessels penetrate the neural tissue and are covered by pia mater until they from the continuous capillaries characteristic of the CNS. Pedicels of the astrocytes, cover capillaries within the neural tissue.

Blood-brain barrier
Endothelial cells of CNS capillaries prevent the free passage of selective blood-borne substances into the neural tissue. This barrier is established by the endothelial cells lining the continuous capillaries that course through the CNS. These endothelial cells form zonula occludentes with one another, retarding the flow of material between cells.

continued

These endothelial cells have relatively few pinocytotic vesicles and vesicular traffic is almost completely restricted to receptor mediated transport.

Choroid plexus
Is composed of folds of pia mater within the ventricles of the brain, produces CSF. Are formed by folds of pia mater countain abundant of fenestrated capillaries and invested by the simple cuboidal (ependymal) lining extend into the third, fourth, and lateral ventricles of the brain. Are produced CSF.

Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid bathes, nourishes, and protects the brain and spinal cord. Is produces by the choroid plexus.

Cerebral cortex
Is responsible for learning, memory, sensory integration, information analysis, and initiation of motor responses. Is divided into six layers as follows:
1. Molecular layer : contains horizontal cells and neuroglia 2. External granular layer : contains mostly granule(stellate) cells and neuroglial cells

continued

3. External pyramidal layer : contains pyramidal cells and neuroglial cells. 4. Internal granual layer contains small granule cells (stelate cells), pyramidal cells, and neuroglia. 5. Internal pyramidal layer contains larges pyramidal cells and neuroglia 6. Multiform layer consist of various shapes (Martinotti cells), and neuroglia.

Cerebellar cortex
Is responsible for balance, equilibrium, muscle tone, and muscle coordination. Is divided into three layers:
1. Molecular layer, lies directly below the pia mater. 2. Purkinje cell layer, contains the large, flaskshaped Purkinje cells, which are present only in the cerebellum. 3. Granular layer, consist of small cells and glomeruli (cerebellar islands).

Neural Regeneration

Nerve regeneration
Nerve cells, unlike neuroglial cells, cannot proliferate but can regenerate their axons, located in the PNS. When a traumatic event destroy neurons, they are not replaced because neurons cannot proliferate ; therefore the damage to the CNS is permanent.

continued

However, if a peripheral nerve fiber is injured or transected, the neurons attempts to repair the damage, regenerate the process, and restore function by initiating a series of structural and metabolic events, collectively called the axon reaction.

Axon reaction
The reactions to the trauma are characteristically localized in three regions of the neurons:
1. Local changes: at the site of damage. 2. Anterograde changes: distal to the site of damage 3. Retrograde changes: proximal to the site of damage.

Local reaction
Local reaction to injury involves repair and removal of debris by neuroglial cells. The severed ends of the axon retract away from each other, and the cut membrane of each stump fuses to cover the open end, preventing loss of axoplasm. Macrophages and fibroblast infiltrate the damaged area, secrete cytokines and growth factors, and upregulate the expression of receptors. Macrophages invade the basal lamina and assisted by Schwann cells, phagocytose the debris.

Anterograde reaction
In the anterograde reaction process, that portion of the axon distal to an injury undergoes degeneration and is phagocytosed The axon undergoes anterograde changes as follows:
1. The axon terminal becomes hypertrophied and degeneretes within a week. Schwwan cells prolivered and phagocitose the remnants of the axon terminal, and the newly formed Schwann cells occupy the synaptic space.

Continued

2. The distal portion of the axon undergoes wallerian degeneration, distal to the lesion, the axon and the myelin disintegrate, Schwann cells dedifferentiate and myelin synthesis is discontinued. Macrophages and Schwann cells phagocytose the disintegrated remnants 3. Schwann cells proliferate, forming a column of Schwann cells ( Schwann tubes ) enclosed by the original basal lamina of the endoneurium.

Retrograde reaction and regeneration


In these process, the proximal portion of the injured axon undergoes degeneration followed by sprouting of a new axon whose growth is directed by Schwann cells. The portion of the axon proximal to the damage undergoes the following changes :
1. the perikaryon of the damaged neuron becomes hypertrophied, its Nissl bodies disperse, and its nucleus is displaced ( these events called chromatolysis). The soma is actively producing free ribosomes and synthesizing proteins and various macromolecule.

continued

2. Several sprouts of axon emerge from the proximal axon stump, enter the endoneurium, and are guided by the Schwann cells to their target cell. For regeneration to occur, the Schwann cells, macrophages, and fibroblasts as well as the basal lamina must be present. These cells manufacture growth factors and cytokines and up-regulate the expression for the seceptors of these signaling molecules.

continued

3. the sprout is guided by the Schwann cells that redifferentiate and either begin to manufacture myelin around the growing axon or, in nonmyelinated axons, form a Schwann cell sheath. The sprout that reaches the target cell first form a synapse, whereas the other sprout degenerate.

Regeneration in the CNS


Injured cells within the CNS are phagocytosed by microglia, and the space liberated by the phagocytosis is occupied by proliferation of glial cells, which form a cell mass called glial scar.

Regeneration
Limited ability in PNS Severed peripheral nerve successfully regenerates a fraction of the axons
Function is permanently impaired Schwann cells participate

Wallerian degeneration
Loss of axon distal to damage

Regeneration in CNS
More complicated than PNS regeneration Far more limited More axons involved Astrocytes produce scar tissue preventing axonal regrowth Astrocytes release chemicals blocking regrowth

Nerve ending nerve terminal


Two structural type :
1. Motor ending terminal of axon )
Transmit impulses from the CNS to skeletal & smooth muscle & to glands ( secretory ending)

2. sensory ending = sensory receptor = terminal of dendrites :


Perceive various stimuli and transmit this input to the CNS

continued

These sensory receptor are classified into three type depending on the source of the stimulus, and are components of the general or special somatic and visceral afferent pathway :
Exteroceptors Proprioceptors interoceptors

Exteroceptors
Location : near the body surface Specialized to perceive stimuli from the external environment These receptors sensitive to :
Temperature Touch Pressure and Pain

Are component of the general somatic afferent

continued

Special somatic afferent :


Specialized for light ( sense of vision) and sound (sense of hearing)

Special visceral afferent modality :


Specialized for smell and taste

Proprioceptors
Are specialized receptor located in joint capsules, tendon and intrafusal fibers within muscle. These general somatic afferent receptors transmit sensory input to the CNS, which translated into information that relates to an awareness of the body in space and movement

continued

Vestibular (balance) mechanism, located within the inner ear, are specialized for receiving stimuli related to motion vectors within the head.

Interoceptors
Are specialized receptors that perceive sensory information from within organs of the body.

Specialized peripheral receptors


Certain peripheral receptors, specialized to receive particular stimuli, include mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptor, and nociceptors The dendritic ending located in various regions of the body, including muscles, tendons, skin, fascia and joint capsules

continued

These receptors are classified into three types :


Mechanoreceptors, which respond to touch Thermoreceptors,which respond to cold and warmth Nociceptors, which respond to pain due to mechanical stress, extremes temperature differences and chemical substance

Mechanoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors respond to mechanical stimuli that may deform the receptor or the tissue surrounding the receptor. Stimuli that trigger the mechanoreceptors are touch, stretch, vibration and pressure

Nonencapsulated mechanoreceptors
Are simple unmyelinated receptors present in the skin, connective tissues and surrounding hair follicle
Peritricial nerve ending, located in the epidermis of the skin, especially in the face and cornea of the eye Merckels disks, specialized for perceiving discriminatory touch, located in non hairy skin and regions of the body more sensitive to touch.

Encapsulated mechanoreceptors
Encapsulated Mechanoreceptors exhibit characteristic structure and are present in specific location 1. Meissner corpuscles : Specialist for tactile Location : dermal papillae of the non hair portin of the hand, eyelids, lip, tongue, nipples, skin of the foot and forearm. Each corpuscle is formed by three or four nerve terminals and their associated Schwann cells, all which are encapsulated by connective tissue.

continued

2. Pacinian corpuscles
Location : in the dermis and hypodermis in the digits of the hand, breast, connective tissue of the joint, periosteum and the mesentery Spezialied to perceive pressure, touch and fibration Morphology : ovoid & large receptor Single unmyelinated fiber as a core and its Schwann cell Surrounded by approximately 60 layers of modified fibroblast Each layer separated by a small fluid-filled space

Ruffinis corpuscles
Location : in the dermis of skin, nail beds, periodontal ligament and joint capsules Composition :
branched nonmyelinated terminals interspersed with collagen fibers Surrounded by four to five layers of modified fibroblast

Krauses end bulb


Morphology :
Spheris Unmyelinated nerve ending

Location : papilla dermis, joints, conjunctiva, peritoneum, genital regions, subendothelial c.t. of the oral and nasal cavities Function : unknown, they were thought to be receptors sensitive to cold

Muscle spindles and Golgi tendon organs


Muscle spindles provide feedback concerning the changes and the rate alteration of the muscle length Golgi tendon organs monitor the tension and the rate at which the tension is being produced during movement Information from these two sensory structures is processed at the unconscious level within the spinal cord; the information also reaches the cerebellum & cerebral cortex, so that individual may sense muscle position.

Thermoreceptor
Which respons to temperature differences of about 2 C, are three types: warmth receptors, cold receptors and temperaturesensitive nociceptors. Specific receptors have not been identified for warmth Cold receptors are derived from naked nerve ending in the epidermis

Nociceptors
Are receptors sensitive to pain caused by mechanical stress, extreme of temperature, and cytokines as bradykinin, serotonin and histamin. Are naked ending of myelinated nerve fibers that branch freely in the dermis before entering the dermis Divided into three groups :
Those that respond to mechanical stress or damage Those that respond to extremes in heat or cold Those that respond to chemical compound such as bradykinin, serotonin and histamin

Peripheral Nerve Endings: Afferent Endings


Receptor Neurons of Craniospinal Ganglion
pseudounipolar neurons of dorsal root ganglia trigeminal (semilunar, Gasserian ganglion), geniculate (VII), superior IX, superior X ganglia (GSA) geniculate (VII), inferior IX, inferior X ganglia (VA)

Morphological Classification
free nerve endings expanded tip endings encapsulated endings ----- CT envestment

Afferent Endings
Free Nerve Endings
- Nerve endings without special structural organization - pain and temperature receptor

Expanded Tip Endings


- Merkels Touch Corpuscle
Merkel cells in basal layer of epidermis

- Type I Hair cells of Vestibular Labyrinth

Afferent Endings
Encapsulated Endings
- Meissners Corpuscle - Pacinian Corpuscle (Corpuscle of Vater-Pacini) Vater- Genital Corpuscle - Ruffinis Ending - End Bulb of Krause - Golgi tendon organ: Proprioceptor

Receptor Endings

Free nerve

ending
Expanded

tip ending
Encapsulated

ending

Merkels Touch Corpuscle


expanded tip ending Merkel cell
- clear cell located in the basal layer of epidermis - membrane bound electron dense granules resembles synaptic vesicle

Meissners Corpuscle

Pacinian Corpuscle

Somatic Efferent Endings


Neuromuscular Junction
(Myoneural Junction, Motor End Plate)

Efferent Endings

Autonomic Efferent Endings


Endings on smooth muscle and blood vessels

Neuromuscular Junction
(Myoneural Junction, Motor End Plate)

M NMJ N

Autonomic Efferent Endings

Neuromuscular Spindle
Both receptor and effector Structure
1. Capsule 2. Intrafusal Muscle Fibers - Nuclear Bag Fiber - Nuclear Chain Fiber 3. Receptor and Effector Nerve Endings - Afferent Ending - Efferent Ending

NB: nuclear bag fiber CA: capsule

IF: intrafusal muscle fiber EF: extrafusal muscle fiber

Afferent Endings
Encapsulated Endings
- Meissners Corpuscle - Pacinian Corpuscle (Corpuscle of Vater-Pacini) Vater- Genital Corpuscle - Ruffinis Ending - End Bulb of Krause - Golgi tendon organ: Proprioceptor

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