Laplace Transformation

A special category of methods is represented by the operational methods. For these, the algorithm to solve the problem in transient regime is like the algorithm to solve the analysis for sinusoidal regime. The differential equations of network theory involve time as the independent variable and the differential equation is said to be in the time domain. The Laplace transformation and its use in a prescribed procedure take a linear differential equation with constant coefficients in the time domain and transforms it as it follows: (1) Transforms the differential equation into complex frequency (or s domain), where the independent variable is the complex frequency s= W  j[ . (2) Permits the use of algebraic methods to obtain the Laplace transform of the solution. (3) Allows the solution in the time domain to be recovered by an inverse transformation. The Definition of the Laplace Transform. Original and Image Functions The Laplace transformation, or Laplace transform, of a function f(t) is defined as:

L[ f (t )] ! F ( s) ! f (t )e  st dt
0

(1)

where, in general, s is a complex number ( W  j[ ). If the integral in the equation (1) is written as :

F (s ) ! f (t )e  st dt
0

(2)

then it is seen that the Laplace transform will exist as long as the limit given by the equation (2) exists. When this limit exists then equation (1) is said to converge, and the Laplace transforms exists and has meaning. If the limit of the integral does not exist the Laplace transform does not exist. In the equations (1) and (2), it should be noted that functions in the time domain are indicated by a lowercase letter [f(t),g(t),] and their corresponding Laplace transforms are designated by the corresponding uppercase [F(s),G(s),]. The inverse Laplace transformation:

f (t ) ! L1[ F ( s)] !
recovers it from F(s).

1 W 0  j[ st W 0  j[ F (s)e ds 2Tj

(3)

Some basic operations 1.The Laplace Transform of the Sum of Two Functions (Addition) Let L[f(t)]=F(s) and L[g(t)]=G(s) then:

L[ f (t )  g (t )] ! [ f (t )  g (t )]e  st dt ! f (t )e  st dt  g (t )e  st dt ! F ( s )  G ( s)
0 0 0

(It is shown that because integration is a linear operator, the Laplace transform is also a linear operator). Thus, the Laplace transform of the sum of two functions is the sum of the individual transforms of the functions: L[f(t)+g(t)]=F(s)+G(s) 2. The Laplace Transform of a Funtion Multiplied with a Constant Let L[f(t)]=F(s) then
g g

L[Cf (t )] ! Cf (t )e  st dt ! C f (t )e  st dt
0 0

or: L[Cf(t)]=CL[f(t)] The Laplace transform of a constant times a function(?...) is equal to the constant times the Laplace transform of the function. It is demonstrated that the Laplace transform is a linear operator:

L[ Ck f k (t )] ! Ck L[ f k (t )]
k !1 k !1

3. The Laplace Transform of the Derivate of a Fuction Let L[f(t)]=F(s). Then, assuming that f(t) possesses a derivative g d d L[ f (t )] ! [ f (t )]e  st dt 0 dt dt An integration by parts with: d u ! e  st ; dv ! [ f (t )]dt; du !  s e  st dt ; v ! f (t ) in: dt

0

g u dv ! u v / 0  vdu 0

gives:

L[
or:

g d g f (t )] ! f (t ) e  st / 0  s f (t )e  st dt 0 dt

d f (t )] ! sF ( s)  f (0) (*) dt Again let L[f(t)]=F(s). By equation (*): L[ f d)] ! sF ( s )  f (0) (t Thus: d L[ f d )] ! sL[ f d)  f d )] ! s[ sF ( s )  f (0)]  f d ) and hence: (t (t (0 (0 d L[ f d )] !! s 2 F ( s)  sf (0)  f d ) (t (0 These results may be extended by mathematical induction to the Laplace transform of the n-th derivative: L[ f n (t )] ! s n F ( s)  s n1 f (0)  s n 2 f d )  ...  f ( n1) (0) (0 L[
The Laplce Transform of the Integral Function With L[f(t)]=F(s) the Laplace transform of the integral with the upper limit t replaced by T where  g e a e 0  will be: g T T L[ f (t )dt ] ! f ( z )dz e  st dt a 0 a An application of integration by parts with T 1 u ! f ( z )dz; dv ! e  st dt; du ! f (t )dt ; v !  e  st a s gives: T T 1 1 g L[ f (t )dt ] !  e  st f ( z )dz / g  f (t )e  st dt 0 a a s s 0 or with the limits substituted, T 1 1 0 L[ f (t )dt ] ! F ( s )  f (t )dt a s s a The integral

0

f (t )dt is often called the accumulation from t=a to

t=0- and is represented as the value of a quantity at t=0-

0

f (t )dt ! f (t )dt / t !0

The accumulation represents the value of the integral at t=0-. For example, the charge that has accumulated on the plates of a capacitor during the time interval between some time t=a and t=0- is the value at t=0-:

q(0) ! i (t )dt ! idt / t !0

a

0

The flux set up around an inductor during the tie interval 0<t<0- is the value *(0) which derives from Faradays law(or from the induction law):

* (0) ! vdt ! vdt / t !0

a

0

Both of these permit the evaluation of initial voltages across the capacitor: q ( 0) 1 vc (0) ! uc (0) ! ! vdt / t !0 C C 5.Shifting Theorem A delayed function f(t-a) transforms as follows: L[ f (t  a)] ! e  as L[ f (t )] . The shifting theorem is very useful when we need to consider something which is delayed. For example there is a delay between turning a shower control and the temperature changing because of the time it takes for the water to travel along the pipes. The Laplace Transformations of Some Usual Functions in Electrotechniques We can calculate the Laplace images of some original functions frequently met in the analysis of the transient regimes of the linear networks in some simple examples(?...) We shall further consider some simple examples: 1)The Laplace Transformation of the function unitary step:

k , t u 0 h(t ) ! is (for t u 0): 0 , t 0 F ( s) ! L[h(t )] ! k e  st dt ! k e (E  s ) t dt ! k e (E  s ) t /( s )

0 0 g g

g 0

k s

2) The Laplace transformation of an exponential function: h(t)=

eE t is:

g g 1 1 (E  s ) t g F ( s) ! L[h(t )] ! eEt e  st dt ! e (E  s ) t dt ! e 0 ! ,for 0 0 s E E  s Re{s}>Re{ E }. 3) The Laplace transformation of Diracs impulse. The Dirac impulse is defined through a passing-to-limit process, starting from the rectangular impulse of unitary area:

1 ,0 e t e X H (t ) ! lim X . X p0 , t 0 0 or t " X Thus: F ( s) ! L[H (t )] ! H (t ) e  st dt !

0 g X 1 1  st e dt ! lim e  st dt ! 0 X X p0 0 X g

. 1 1  st X e  st  1 1  sX lim  e t 0 ! lim (e  1) ! lim !1 X p0 X X p0 ( st ) X p0  sX s In the following table we give the Laplace transformations of some usual functions met in electrotechnics: Original Function f(t) Image Function F(s) k k

e sE t t eE t
sin [t

s 1 s2 1 sO E 1 (s  E )2 [ s 2 [ 2

cos [t
sh[t ch[t

sin([t  F ) cos([t  F )
t sin Et

s s2  [ 2 [ s2 [ 2 s s2 [ 2 1 ?s sin F  [ cos F A 2 2 s [ 1 ?s cos F  [ sin F A 2 2 s [ 2E s (s 2  E 2 )2 s2 E 2 (s 2  E 2 )2 [ (s  E )2  [ 2 s E (s  E )2  [ 2 [ (s  E )2  [ 2 s E (s  E )2  [ 2

t cos Et e Et sin [t e Et cos [t e Et sh[t e Et ch[t

The Theorems of Laplace Transformation The main theorems referring to the Laplace transformations used in electrotechnics are: 1.The Theorem of Linear Combinations

L[E f (t )  F g (t )] ! E L[ f (t )]  F L[ g (t )] 2.The Derivation Theorem df ] ! s L[ f (t )]  f (0  ) dt In the absence of the initial conditions: L[ df ] ! s L[ f (t )] dt In the general form the relation has the expression: L[ dn f L[ n ] ! s n L[ f (t )]  s n1 f (0)  s n 2 f d )  ...  f ( n1) (0) (0 dt
3. The Integration Theorem

1 F (s ) L[ f (t )dt ] ! L[ f (t )] ! s s transformation of f(t). 4. The Delay Theorem

where

F(s)

is

the

Laplace

If F(s) is the Laplace transforme of f(t) and we define function g(t): g (t ) ! f (t  X ) then:

L[ g (t )] ! e  sX L[ f (t )] ! e  sX F ( s) 5. The Shifting Theorem

If F(s) is the Laplace transforme of f(t) then:

L[e Et f (t )] ! F ( s  E )

6. The Convolution Product Theorem (Borel) If F(s) and G(s) are the Laplace transformations of f(t), respectively g(t), then:

L[ f (X ) g (t  X )dX ] ! L[ f (t  X ) g (t )dX ] ! F ( s) . G ( s )
0 0

7. The Limit Values Theorems 7.1 The Initial Value Theorem

lim f (t ) ! f (0  ) ! lim s F ( s )
t p0 s pg

7.2 The Final Value Theorem

lim f (t ) ! f (g) ! lim s F ( s)

t pg s p0

The Inversion Methods. Heavisides Formulas After we determine the Laplace transformations of the functions which we are interested about, we must return in the time-domain. This can be done: 1) With the Mellin-Fourier formula, but applying this relation is difficult, even for relative simple cases. 2) Using the correspondence tables (like the one previously presented). 3) Using Heavisides formula when the Laplace transform F(s) is shown as a rational function: M (s) F (s ) ! with m<n where m=degree of M(s) and n=Degree of N ( s) N(s) M(s) and N(s) are polynomials with real or complex coefficients. 3.1. The first Heavisides Formula (With simple poles) If sk (k=1,2,,n) are the roots (different between them) of the equation: N(s)=0, (or the simple poles of F(s)) then F(s) can be decomposed in simple fractions:

n 1 Ck M ( sk ) ! (s k !1 N dk ) s  s k k !1 s  s k From here we deduce f(t): n M ( sk ) s k t f (t ) ! e (s k !1 N dk ) The previous relation is called also the first form of the development theorem or the first Heavisides theorem.

F ( s) !

3.2. The second Heavisides Theorem If one of the nominators roots is zero ( sn =0), so we have a pole in the origin, the polynomial N(s) = s R(s), in this case: M (0) n1 M ( sk ) f (t ) ! e sk t  (s R(0) k !1 sk Rdk ) 3.3 The third Heavisides Formula (for multiple poles) If N(s)=0 has the roots s1 , s2 ,, sr with the multiplicity degrees n1 , n2 ,, nr such that: n1 + n2 ++ nr =n then we can write N (s ) ! (s  s1 ) n1 ( s  s2 ) n2 ...( s  sr ) nr In this case: r nk d ( nk 1) ( s  sk ) nk M ( s) 1 1 F ( s) ! lim ( nk 1) (s  s )l s p sk ds ( N (s) k !1 l !1 nk  1)! k from where:

d ( nk 1) 1 f (t ) ! lim (l  1)!(nk  1)! spsk ds ( nk 1) k !1 l !1

r nk

(s  sk ) nk M ( s) l 1 sk t t e N ( s)

Laplace Transformation Used for Solving Problems of Transient Regime In a lot of practical situations the circuits found in transient regime can be easier solved by using the Laplace transformation. For this purpose, the system formed of integro-differential equations obtained using Kirchhoffs theorems can be transformed, by means of a proper application of Laplace transformation, into a system of algebraic equations, usually linear, whose solving is simpler than that in the time domain. After the calculation of the Laplace images of the known quantities we return to the time-domain using the recovering formulas presented in paragraph 9 To be able to pass to the Laplace transformation let us specify that we must take into account the appearance of some supplementary sources at coils and capacitors due to the initial conditions. These will appear then only in the circuit operational scheme, which is obtained from the real scheme given by the application of Laplace transformation theorems. 9 Supplementary Sources in Operational Schemes at Non-Zero Initial Conditions. The operational Impedances of Idle Elements of Circuit The elements with memory of electrical circuits will have their equivalent operational schemes supplementary sources because the timeevolution in a transient process at these elements depends also on their state before the respective transient process. (i) An idle coil with inductivity L, having a voltage between terminals u L and being pierced by a current iL (fig 9), presents the following relation between voltage and current: di uL ! L L dt

iL

I L (s)

uL

U L (s )

sL

e L ! L i L (0  )

(a) Fig 9

(b)

Applying the derivation theorem (paragraph 9) to the previous relation, we find, in the Laplace transformation domain: U L ! L?s I L ( s )  iL (0)A! s L I L (s )  eL (9.) or: U L  eL ! s L I L (s ) (9.*) where: (9.**) (fig 9b)) eL ! L iL (0  ) The supplementary source which appears, eL , given by (9.**) is due to the initial current through coil and has its orientation. It is series connected with the coil (rel.(9.*)). In the relation (9) if initially the coil is not pierced by an electric current ( iL (0  ) ! 0 ), it means that the supplementary source, eL from the operational scheme vanishes ( eL ! 0 ) and so, from (9)the relation between voltage and current is (in Laplace transformations domain): U L ( s ) ! ( s L) I L ( s ) (9) Under these circumstances we can define the coil operational impedance: U (s) ZL ! L ! sL (9) I L ( s) (ii) Considering two magnetic coupled coils, with their own inductivities L1 and L2 with a mutual-coupling inductivity M 12 then we

can write in time domain, considering the senses of crossing for the two loops as figured in fig(9):

the next relations between voltage and current : di di u1 ! L1 1  M 12 2 (a) dt dt di di u2 ! L2 2  M 21 1 (b) (9) dt dt Passing the relation (9(a)) into the Laplace transformation domain we find: U 1 (s ) ! L1 ?sI1 ( s)  i1 (0  )A M 12 ?sI 2 ( s )  i2 (0 )A! sL1 I1 (s )  (9...) sM 12 I 2 ( s )  L1 i1 (0  )  M 12 i2 (0  ) or:

U 1 ( s)  L1 i1 (0  )  M 12 i2 (0  ) ! sL1 I1 ( s )  sM 12 I 2 ( s ) U 1 ( s)  eL1  eM12 ! sL1 I1 ( s )  sM 12 I 2 ( s)

with the supplementary sources: eL1 ! L1 i1 (0 ) (a) (b) Obviously, the initial flow through the first coil is: J1 (0  ) ! J L1 (0  )  J M 12 (0  ) ! L1 i1 (0  )  M 12 i2 (0  )

(9) (9) (9)

eM 12 ! M 12 i2 (0 )

(9) then in series with the coil will appear a source of electromotive voltage equal to the initial total flow of the first coil (previously to the beginning of the transient process). In the absence of the initial currents from the 2 coils (i1(0-)=0), the relation (9) because: U 1 ( s) ! sL1 I1 (s )  sM 12 I 2 ( s ) (9) We can define the own operational impedances, respectively the impedances of mutual coupling as follows: - the own operational impedance of mutual coupling between the first and the second coil: U (s) Z L1 ( s ) ! 1 ! sL1 (9) I1 ( s ) I
2 ( s ) !0

- the operational impedance of mutual coupling between the first and the second coil: U ( s) ! sM 12 Z M12 ( s ) ! 1 (9) I 2 ( s) I
1( s ) !0

If we proceed in a similar manner with the second coil, then in the time-domain we obtain the relation 9b between the voltage u 2 and the currents i1 and i2 , which in the Laplace transformation domain becomes:

U 2 ( s ) ! L2 ?sI 2  i2 (0)A M 21 ?sI1  i1 (0)A! sL2 I 2 (s )  sM 21 I1 ( s)   L2i2 (0 )  M 21i1 (0  ) whence: U 2 ( s )  L2 i2 (0  )  M 21 i1 (0  ) ! sL2 I 2 ( s)  sM 21 I1 ( s ) with supplementary sources: eL2 ! L2 i2 (0  ) (a) eM 21 ! M 21 i1 (0  ) (b)

(9)

These correspond to the initial flow of the second coil: J 2 (0 ) ! L2 i2 (0  )  M 21 i1 (0  ) (9) the operational impedances when J 2 (0 ) ! 0 are obtained from: U 2 ( s ) ! sL2 I 2 ( s )  sM 21 I `1 ( s) (9) and are: -the own operational impedance of the second coil: U (s) ! sL2 Z L2 ( s) ! 2 (9) I 2 ( s) I
1( s ) ! 0

-the impedance of mutual coupling between the second coil and the first coil: U (s ) Z M 21 ( s ) ! 2 ! sM 12 (9) I1 ( s ) I
2 ( s ) !0

For reciprocal mutual couplings we get: M 12 = M 21 = M and then:

Z M12 ( s) ! Z M 21 ( s) ! sM 12 ! sM 21
The operational scheme corresponding to the relations (9) and (9) is (with reciprocal mutual coupling):

. Fig. 9The operational scheme of 2 magnetic-coupled coils with nonzero initial conditions Observations 1) The operational scheme for 2 magnetic-coupled coils is similar to the scheme from the complex domain, unless that at the operational impedances instead of (j[) we get s. 2) The operational scheme also contains sources of electromotive voltage, given by the initial flows which pierce the coils. If the currents senses or the sense of the coupling modality of the coils changes, this fact will be correspondingly reflected (as a sign) in the total flows of the coils. 3) For an idle capacitor (fig 9), the relation between the terminalsvoltage u c and the flowing current iC is:

uC (t ) !

1 iC dt uC (0  ) C

(9)

. fig. 9 Applying the theorem of the linear combinations and the theorem of integration to the relation (9), we find:

U C (s) !
or:

1 I C ( s ) u C (0  ) 1 u (0 )  ! I C (s)  C  C s s sC s uC ( 0  ) 1 ! I C (s) s sC

(9)

U C (s) 

(9)

In this case will then appear a supplementary source, due to the initial voltage of the capacitor (or to the charges accumulated in its armatures) of the form:

eC (0) ! 

uC (0) s

If the capacitors initial voltage is zero: uC (0  ) ! 0 (then

eC (0) ! 0 ) then we can define the operational impedance of the

capacitor:

Z C (s) !

U C (s) 1 ! I C ( s ) sC

(9)

The operational scheme in this case is: . Fig. Then the capacitor has in the associated operational scheme a source (oriented in the opposite sense ) due to the initial charge of the capacitor and an impedance Z C ( s ) ! Observation We can symbolize the initial sources from coils, respectively from capacitors, using the functions H (t ) and h(t) (in time-domain) EL ! L iL (0  ) H (t )

1 sC

EC ! uC (0  ) h(t ) which have the correspondent in the domain of the Laplace transformation as we previously saw. 4) At a resistor supplied by a voltage u R , pierced by a current iR , the relation between voltage and current is: u R (t ) ! R iR (t ) (9)
. Fig 9. Then passing to the Laplace Transformation domain we get: U R (s ) ! R I R ( s ) The operational impedance of the resistor will be: U ( s) Z R (s ) ! R !R I R (s)

(9) (9)

9Solving of the Problems of Transient Regime Using Laplace Transformation As we previously mentioned, the solving algorithm for the problems of transient regime using Laplace transformation assumes the performing of the following steps: I The passing of the scheme from time-domain to Laplace transformation domain. II The writing of the operational equations and solving of the resulting algebraic system. III Returning to time-domain using the recovering formulas (MellinFourier, Heaviside, tables of correspondences). The most important step from the point of view of electrical circuits solving is the second step. Inside this step, after passing of the scheme in the Laplace transformation domain, we get an operational scheme. To find the requested operational quantities we can apply any of the known methods form the electrical circuits theory in the sinusoidal regime (Kirchhoffs theorems and the method of loop currents, the method of nodes potential, the superposition theorem, Vaschys theorem, etc.). In this situation the above mentioned methods are assumed as known. Let us see how the two Kirchhoffs theorems appear in the operational domain. Kirchhoffs First Theorem In time domain, as we know we have(): ik (t ) ! ja (t ) (9) na ! 1,2,..., n Applying the theorem of linear combinations, in the operational domain, we can write: I K (s ) ! J a ( s ) k( na ) (9) na ! 1,2,..., n For isolated networks, we obviously get: )I K ( s) ! 0 k( na (9) na ! 1,2,..., n
k( na )

Kirchhoffs Second Theorem As it is known () Kirchhoffs second theorem in instantaneous values has the expression:

l di j 1 R i  L dik  ) k k k dt LKj dt  C iK dt  uCK (0 ) ! K eK O j !1 K( O p k p j{K O p ! 1,2,..., o (9) To pass the relation (9) in the operational domain, we shall use the theorem of linear combinations, the derivation theorem, the integration theorem () obtaining:
K( O p )

[ RK I K (s )  sLK I K ( s)  LK iK (0  )  ( sLKj I j ( s)  LKj i j (0  )) 

j !1 j{K

uC (0  ) 1 I K (s)  K ] ! EK sCk s K O p

O p ! 1,2,..., n
Using the notations from 9 we can write l 1 [( RK  sLK  sC ) I K ( s)  sLKj I j ( s)] ! K [ EK ( s)  LK iK (0 )  K( O p ) j !1 O p k
j{ K

L
j !1 j{ K

Kj

i j (0  ) 

uC K ( 0  ) s

]!

K O p

[E

(s )  ELK ( s)  ECK ( s )  ELKJ (s )]

j !1 j{K

O p ! 1,2,..., n (9) with the operational sources values: ELK ( s ) ! LK iK (0 ) ECK (s ) !  uC K ( 0  ) s ELKJ ( s) ! LKj i j (0  )

Exemplification Determine how will vary the voltage between terminals represented in the figure at the breaker K closing when t=0 (fig. 9) . Fig 9. Solution Before the k- breaker closing, because the supplying is made from a source of continuous voltage with parameters U 0 , R0 and the regime from circuit is stable, it follows that through the bridge-circuit will flow only continuous currents which will be able to induce in the wrapping with L2 no electromotive voltage(
d* =0). Under these dt

circumstances the initial currents from the circuit will be identical in the 2 resistors of the bridge (for symmetry reasons): U0 i1 (0  ) ! i2 (0  ) ! R R0  2 In these conditions the initial flows of the 3 coils are: - identical for the coils from the bridge: U0 * L (0  ) ! L i1 (0 ) ! L i2 (0  ) ! L R  2 R0 - for the coil number two: U0 * L2 (0  ) ! * M (0 ) ! M iL (0  ) ! M R  2 R0 The operational scheme deduced in this situation is (after the closing of K): . Fig. 9 The operational scheme To find the transient quantities corresponding to the scheme In time-domain from fig.

The operational quantities (currents, voltages) will be symbolized by capital letters without mentioning that they are functions of s (this thing being implied). The equations to determine U 2 result from the writting of Kirchhoffs theorems for the circuit represented in fig. 9 I ! I1  I 2

U0 S sL I 2  R I1 ! * L (0 ) whence: U0 R  * L (0 ) R0  2 R S I2 ! R R0  sL R0  2 R The voltage U 2 is in this case: R0 I  2 RI1 ! U 2 ( s ) ! sM I 2  M * M (0 ) ! M R

whence with Heavisides formula: t  M RR  R0 X u2 (t ) ! U 0 e L R  2 R0 R0  2 R

U 0  R0 i1 (0  ) R R0  sL ( R0  2 R)

X !

1 ! s1

1 LR0  2 R ! R R0 R R0 LR0  2 R Decomposition of Transient Regime Quantities in Transient and Permanent Components

As we have already seen from the differential equations solving, the transient regime quantities (voltages, currents) contain free(or transient) components and imposed (or permanent) components: u (t ) ! utr (t )  u p (t ) ! u f (t )  ul (t ) (9) i (t ) ! itr (t )  i p (t ) ! i f (t )  il (t ) The continuous or sinusoidal permanent components may be more easily determined following the elementary methods then using the operational calculus, by means of some specific methods

corresponding to these permanent regimes, being obviously influenced by the circuitry excitations (or the circuitry sources). Therefore, we shall use the operational calculus in these situations only to determine the transient components. Yet we must still mention that, in order to perform the calculus operational scheme we should take into account that the conservative quantities of the circuit reactive elements (which give the sources owed to the initial conditions in the circuit operational scheme) in these situations for transient regime will represent the difference between the respective initial quantity and the value at the initial moment of the component of permanent regime: (i) at coils imposing the condition: iL (0  ) ! iL (0  ) and taking into account (9) we shall obtain: i (0  ) ! itr (0  )  i p (0  ) ! itr (0  )  i p (0  ) (9) whence: itr (0  ) ! i (0  )  i p (0  ) (9) The relation (9) reveals that the operational source owed to the coil initial flow is obtained (to determined only the current transient component) if we consider that from the initial current of the coil we eliminate the current permanent component from the initial moment. Thus, from the operational scheme will directly result the transient component of the coil of the coil current, for example. Let us also specify that in this case the circuit initial sources-from the initial scheme, which give the permanent components of the circuit will vanish in the operational scheme (will be passivized) because the transient regime components are determined only by circuit internal structure and not by its excitations. (ii) at capacitors, following the same algorithm, it means that in the operational scheme the circuit sources which give the components of permanent regime are passivized and in the operational scheme which allows the determination of the transient regime components will occur some supplementary operational sources owed to the continuity of the capacitors voltage: uC (0  ) ! uC tr (0 )  uCp (0  ) ! uC (0 ) ! uC tr (0 )  uC p (0  ) (9) From (9) we get: uC tr (0 ) ! uC (0  )  uC p (0  ) (9)

The values of the transient voltages at moments immediately after the appearance of the transient regime will then represent the difference between the total voltages at the initial moment and the permanent regime voltages at moments after the appearance of the transient regime. Concluding, the algorithm for solving the transient regime problems using the method of transient quantities separation in the transient and permanent components assumes the next steps: 1. Using the circuit sources, we determine the circuit quantities of permanent regime, including those required in the transient regime. For this we use the methods specific to the respective operating regime (example: if the circuit sources have a sinusoidal variation we shall use the calculus in the complex domain); 2. To determine the transient components using the operational calculus we must consider two observations for the operational schemes building: 2.1. The circuit excitations (sources)-yield the permanent regime- are passivized in the operational scheme; 2.2. The initial conditions which give supplementary sources in the circuit operational scheme represent the difference between the global components at 0- and the permanent components at 0+((9)and(9)). This way will be determined only the transient components from the operational scheme (without the circuit initial sources). 3. We superpose the components of the permanent regime (from the first step) with those of the transient regime (from the second step) and we globally find the quantities of interest. To easier understand this algorithm we present an example: By opening the breaker at t=0, we connect the capacitor C in a circuit supplied by a voltage source with a sinusoidal variation of the form: u (t ) ! 2U sin([t  E ) . The current variation mode is required. Solution After the opening of k, a damped transient regime is established, which under circuit steady operating regime conditions turn into a permanently sinusoidal one, after a certain time. We search for the current through the circuit using the above mentioned algorithm.

For this aim we use the relation: i (t ) ! itr (t )  i p (t )

(9)

i p (t ) being the component of permanent (sinusoidal) regime, is determined using the calculus in complex. Thus the circuit equation (is after the opening of k): Ldi 1 Ri   idt ! u (t ) (9) dt C or, in complex: 1 R I  j[L I  I !U (9) j[ C with: U ! U e jE (9) whence we get:

I !
(9) or:

U 1 R  j [L  [C

i (t ) ! 2

U 1 R 2  [L  [C
2

[L  sin([t  E  arctg

1 [C ) ! 2 I sin([t  E  N ) R

(9) with the RMS value of the (sinusoidal) permanent current: U I! 2 (9) 2 1 2 R  [L  [C and the phase difference with respect to the supplying voltage: 1 [L  [C N ! arctg (9) R To determine the current transient component we use the operational calculus with the method presented in 9.

For this aim we cancel the circuit source of permanent regime (putting it in short-circuit) and we determine the current transient component: it 2 (0  ) ! i (0 )  i p (0 ) (9) Obviously, through coil get the initial current i2 (0  ) ! i (0  ) and the capacitor is not initially charged with electrical charge, being short-circuited by the side with the breaker k in parallel. But i (0  ) is a current of (sinusoidal) the permanent regime from the circuit, when only the resistor R and the inductivity L are supplied by the sinusoidal source. This current may also be determined using the calculus in the complex domain: . U iL (t ) ! 2 sin([t  E  N1 ) (9) 2 2 R   L [ where:

N ! arctg
I1 ! 2 U

[L R ;
2

R 2  [L At t=0 we get

(9)

i (0  ) ! iL (0  ) ! 2 I L sin(E  N1 ) ! 2
(9...)

U [ R2   L
2

[L sin E  arctg R

In these circumstances, with (9),(9) and (9) we get: [L U sin E  arctg itr (0  ) ! iL (0  )  iP (0  ) ! 2  2 R [ R2   L

1 [L  (9) U [C sin E  arctg  2 2 R 1 2 R  [L  [C because iP (0  ) is obtained from (9) when t=0. Then the only source of circuit is it 2 (0  ) , having the sense of the current through the coil. The operational scheme in this case is the above one where * L is the coil flow in transient regime:

* L12 ! * L 21 ! L itr (0  ) ! U [L ! L 2 sin E  arctg  R R 2   L 2 [ 1 [L  U [C sin E  arctg 2 R 1 2 R  [L  [C !

(9)

! L 2U ?I1 sin(E  N1 )  I sin(E  N )A The source eL tr is a constant source then the Laplace constant image of the transient current is obtained writing the equation in the operational domain. eL 1 I ! tr R  sL  (9) sC s whence: eLtr eLtr s ! I! (9) 1 1 Ls 2  Rs  R  sL  C sC Symbolizing by: R H ! (we call is damping constant) 2L 1 [0 ! (resonance throb of the circuit RLC) LC W ! H 2  [0
2

then the relation (9) may also be written eL W I ! I ( s) ! tr WL ( s  W ) 2  W 2 W Ht But L e shWt ! (s  W ) 2  W 2

(9) (9)

then:

itr (t ) !

eLtr WL

e Ht shWt

(9) Then, the total current after the opening of k is (with (9) and (9)) eL i (t ) ! itr (t )  i p (t ) ! tr e Ht shWt  WL 1 [L  (9) U [C [t  E  arctg  2 sin 2 R [ [0  R 1 [ 0 [ Depending of the real or complex nature of the quantity W , we can distinguish the following operating regimes of the series R-L-C circuit: (a)-aperiodical regime, that is: L R"2 ! RC C

RC ! 2

L C is called circuit critical resistance.

L C

In this case the regime is damped (if eLtr { 0 ) (b) Critical aperiodical regime when R= RCR ! 2 in this case H ! [ 0 involving: eL itr (t ) ! lim itr (t ) ! tr t e Ht W p0 L then: eL i (t ) ! tr t e Ht  2 L sin([t  E  N ) L eLtr { 0 (c) Oscillating regime, when: R RCR In this case H

(9)

[ 0 and then:

W ! H 2  [ 0 ! j [ 0  H 2 ! j[ d (9) [ d the regime pseudo-throb, and: is U U U itr (t ) ! 0 e Ht sh j[ d! 0 e Ht j sh d! 0 e Ht j sh[ d t [ t t j[ d L j[ d L [d L (9) whence, with (9) we get i(t): U i (t ) ! 0 e Ht j sh d 2 I sin([ d E  N ) [ t t (9) [d L meaning that, in permanent regime, over the sinusoidal wave is superposed a sinusoid generally damped in time, with the throb [ d depending on the , circuit parameters. Observation: If eLtr ! 0 , practically through the circuit a permanent periodical sinusoidal regime is established, because the component of transient regime vanishes.
2 2

.Reducing of the Problems of Transient Regime to Problems with Zero Initial conditions In a lot of practical applications, the determination of the transient regimes which occur immediately after some known regimes may be more simplified by the superposition theorem application. For this aim, we can prove that any quantity of the new transient regime, after t=0, may be obtained by superposing the value of the quantity in the case when the switchings which produce the new transient regime (values assumed as known) should not take place, with the value of the quantity in a transient regime with zero initial conditions. This method can be applied both at some breakers closing and opening. 9 The Transient Regime Following a Breaker Closing We consider a complex electrical circuit in which at t=0 the breaker k is closing (fig. 9.a). We choose a time origin t=0 reported to which we d assume as known the values of currents intensities im ({ 0) and of voltages d d at the circuit elements terminals um ({ 0) including the voltage uk (t between the terminals of the contact k- before the contact closing (fig.9b).

After the closing of the contact k, these quantities have the values im (t ) ! 0 , um (t ) ! 0 and uk (t ) ! 0 (corresponding to the respective transient regime). .. To determine the quantities of transient regime we apply the superposition theorem, as we see in figure 9 . In the regime from fig 9 a the currents and voltages have values identical to those of the circuit from figure 9 a, irrespective of the position k (open or closed) because its terminals have identical potentials. Also , the regime from figure 9c is identical to that from figure 9b, because the effect of the opposite sources is compensated, the initial conditions are identical and the electromotive voltages have identical values, because the quantities with the index are zero. d Then, if we should know the quantities um (t ) of the permanent regime of k before closing, then the quantities um (t ) and im (t ) of the transient regime performed at closing of the contact k can be determined adding to d d d um (t ) and to im (t ) the quantities umd) and i"m (t ) - corresponding to the (t auxiliary regime for the scheme from figure 9 b: d um (t ) ! udt )  udt ) (9) m( m( d d d im (t ) ! im (t )  im (t ) (9) Thus the problem of transient regime is reduced to the calculus of the regime from figure 9b. the analyses of this transient regime assume then the pasivising of the circuit sources ( eP (t ) ! 0 ) and the cancellation of the d d initial values of the currents intensities ( im (0 ) ! 0 ) and of the voltages of d d sides terminals ( um (0  ) ! 0 ) and in series with the breaker k (which closes at t=0) we introduce an idle source of electromotive voltage e0 equal to the voltage uk (t ) at the breaker ends when this one closes(then the value of the potential difference between the breaker contacts before the commutation performing). .9The Transient Regime Following to a Breaker k Opening A judgment similar to those from the previous paragraph shows that at a breaker k opening appears a regime in which the quantities have the same

expressions (9) and (9) if the quantities symbolized by correspond to the regime when the breaker k is closed(before the commutation d d d d performing), and the quantities um (t ) and im (t ) correspond to the auxiliary regime performed through the circuit passvisation, the considerations of some zero initial conditions and the introduction in parallel with the contact k (which was opened) of an idle source of current, I sk . The current of this source is equal and of contrary sense to the current d ik (t ) which flows through the contact k before the switching (when k opens). This algorithm is presented in figure 9a,b,c. 9Network Functions As we saw, the Laplace transformation usage allows the characterization of the properties of an electrical circuit through analytical functions of variable s, namely: operational impedances, real or fake operational electromotive voltages (owed to the initial conditions). For a complete characterization of the circuit properties with respect to its operation, we can define input and transfer operational quantities (through analogy with the impedances from the symbolical method). (i) Operational Imittances of Dipolar Circuits fig 9... For a dipolar circuit without internal independent sources and in zero initial conditions, we can define the next input quantities (figure 9.): a) the input operational impedance: U ( s) Z kk ! Z kk ( s ) ! k (9) I k (s) b) the input operational admittance I (s) Ykk ! Ykk ( s) ! k (9) U k ( s) The input impedance and admittance are also called input operational imittances, being kinked through the relation: 1 Ykk ( s) ! (9) Z kk ( s ) (ii) Transfer Operational Functions of Diport Circuits

We consider a diport circuit (with two ports), linear, without independent internal sources and under zero initial conditions, and we also consider a source Ek (s) connected to the input terminals 1 1 and a receiver having the operational impedance Z j (s) connected to the output terminals 2 2; then we can define the next operational transfer functions from input to output (figure 9.) ... 1) Transfer operational impedance: U j (s) Z jh ! (9) I h ( s) 2) Transfer operational admittance: I j (s) Y jh ! (9) U h ( s) 3) Amplification or transfer function in voltage: U j (s) A jh ! (9) U h (s) All these quantities defined within this paragraph are also called functions of circuit or network functions. The functions of circuit are also called system functions or transfer functions, which in a wider sense are defined as a ratio between the Laplace transformation of the output quantity and the Laplace transformation of the input quantity: . Fig. 9. M (s ) H (s) ! e (9) M i ( s) Usually, H(s) is presented under the form of the ratio between two polynomials: M (s ) H ( s) ! (9) N ( s)