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The transformer
Figure 3.131 shows a simple transformer, which
consists of two separate coils of insulated wire wound
on a laminated core made from sheets of soft iron
separated by an insulating varnish. The sheets are
glued together so that they are electrically insulated
from each other. The two coils are not linked
electrically, the only connection between them being
any magnetic field in the core.
laminated
soft iron core
p.d. = vP
turns= NP
current= lp
a.c.

p.d. = vs
turns= N
5
current= /
5
Figure 3.131 Simple transformer
,One of the coils is referred to as the primary coil, aud
the other is called the secondary coil. The number of
turns on each (NP and N) is usually different.
In Section 3.5 on Electromagnetic induction, it was
shown that a changing current in the primary coil
induces an e.m.f. in the secondary coiL An
alternating. current in the primary will therefore
create an alternating magnetic field in the core,
which links with the turns of the secondary coil. This
alternating magnetic field therefore induces au e.m.f ..
in the secondary, alternating with the same frequency
as that in the primary. This e.m.f. will cause an
alternating current to flow in any external circuit
connected to the coil.
Assuming 100% efficiency, it cau be shown that the
p.d.s across the primary and secondary coils (VP aud
Vs respectively) are related to the number of turns of
wire (NP and N
5
respectively) as follows:
Equation 5
800 kVtransformers at a large substation in South America
If N
5
> NP then Vs > VP - a step-up transformer
If N
5
< NP then Vs < VP - a step-down transformer
Guided examples (2)
1. The primary coil of a transformer has 500
turns and the secondary coi12000 turns.
A 5 V alternating supply is connected to
the primary. Calculate the voltage across
the secondary.
2. In order to light a 12 V lamp, a transformer
with 2400 turns in the secondary coil is
used to step-down the voltage of the a. c.
mains (240 V). Calculate the number of turns
in the primary coil.
Guidelines
Use Equation 5 in each case.
Power and current in transformers
In a perfectly efficient transformer, there would be
no energy losses; i.e. the power delivered to the
primary would be equal to the power delivered by
the secondary.
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l.e. p =P
p s
Equation 6
Combining Equation 5 and Equation 6:
You should note that:
NP, VP and IP are the number of turns, p.d. and
currentrespectively in the primary coil and N
8
,
V
5
and Is are the number of turns, p.d. and current
respectively in the secondary coil.
In practice, the-secondary current in the
transformer depends on the resistance of the load
connected to it, not the turns ratio. The primary
current drawn from the supply is controlled by
the turns ratio.
Energy losses
The above equations assume 100% efficiency, i.e. all
the electrical energy supplied to the primary is
converted to electrical energy in the secondary.
In practice, a small amount of energy is dissipated to
the surroundings:
Coil resistance causes energy to be dissipated due
to the heating effect of current in the coils. This is
minimised by using high conductivity copper wire.
Eddy currents are circulating electric currents
within the iron core of the transformer. These are
induced in the iron core by the alternating
magnetic field. As iron has considerable resistance,
energy losses due to heating of the core would be
significant if these currents _ were not minimised.
The laminated construction of the core cuts down
possible paths for the flow of eddy currents {see
Figure 3.132).
thin sheets of
soft iron coated
with insulating
varnish and
glued together
Figure 3.132 Laminated
construction of transformer
core
Magnetic flux leakage. Some of the changing
magnetic flux produced in the primary may not
actually link with the secondary coil. The energy
loss due to this effect is minimised by appropriate
design - the primary and secondary coils are often
overlapping, for optimum flux linkage.
Hysteresis is the name given to the reluctance of a
material to undergo changes in magnetisation.
During each cycle of a.c., the core reverses the
polarity of its magnetisation, which requires
energy. This is minimised by careful choice of
material (with soft magnetic properties).
A well-designed transformer should suffer energy
losses of only 1% or so.
Transmission of electrical
energy
Since power = p.d. x current, it is possible to transmit
electrical energy at, forexample, a rate of 1 million
watts using an infinite number of combinations of p.d.
and current, some of which are shown in the
following table:
P.d. Current Power
N /A /W
1 X - 1 000 000
=
1 000 000
10 X 100000 = 1 000 000
100 X 10 000 = 1 000 000
1000 X 1 000 = 1 000 000
10 000 X 100 = 1 000 000
100 000 X 10 = 1000 000
1 000 000 X 1 = 1 000 000
Using transformers, the p.d. of an alternating supply
can be stepped-up or stepped-down at will with
negligible cost in terms of energy wasted.
The choice of which combination of p.d. and current
is best is a compromise based on the following
factors.
If the conducting wires have resistance R, and carry a
current /, the rate of energy loss due to heating of the
wires is equal to PR. In other words, the rate of loss
of energy is proportional to the square of the current
(since R is constant). So reducing the current by a half
brings a fourfold saving in energy.
However, reducing the current means a correspondin-g
increase in p.d. (to transmit the same power). This
increases the cost and complexity of the switch gear
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used to control the distribution of the supply around
the country. It also increases the danger to the public
since it is much more difficult to insulate 1 000 000 V
than 100 V.
In the UK, voltages up to 400 kV are used in the
'supergrid' while most electricityis transmitted at 132
kV nationally. This is stepped-down progressively to
33 kV and 11 kV for distribution to industry and
domestic substations, where it is finally stepped-down
to 240 V for homes.
Thus electrical power is transmitted at very high
voltage (and hencelow current) to minimise power
losses due to heating of the transmission cables.
Electricity generating stations therefore produce
alternating current due to the ease with which its
voltage can be stepped-up and stepped-down using
transformers.
Guided example (3)
1. Calculate the power loss in transmitting
2 MW of electrical power through cables of
total resistance 2 Q, if the voltage is
(a) 4000 V
(b) 400 kV.
Guidelines
Calculate the current:
current = power/voltage
Then calculate the power loss:
power loss = current
2
x resistance
Compare the two answers.
Rectification
The major advantage of a.c, is the ease with which its
voltage can be chaf!ged using transformers. However,
many components require a current in one direction
only - a direct current. Rectification is the process by
which a direct current is produced from an alternating
current.
Halfwave rectification
Figure 3.133 shows a simple arrangement for
rectifying an alternating current. A diode only passes
current when it is With a single
diode in series with the load as shown, current can
only pass in the direction A to B. This occurs during
the half of the cycle. when A 'is more positive than B.
When the supply p.d. reverses, the secondary p.d. also
reverses. However the diode is no longer forward-
biased, and does not conduct. So, for this half of the
cycle, there is no current. The current supplied is
direct current, since its ,direction da.es not alter, but
the magnitude shows con$iderable variation, and for
half the time, there is no current.
supply p.d.
a.c. supply
CJ

B A
current
no current in 'reverse' direction
Figure 3.133 Half-wave rectification
time
time
A better approximation to a steady direct current is
obtained using two diodes.
Full-wave rectification
Two diodes are arranged as shown in Figure 3,134 on
page 300 with a centre-tap transformer. Effectively the
load is supplied by two separate half-wave rectifiers.
Dtiri{\g one half of the cycle, only rectifier 1 is
forward-biased so it is the only one to conduct,
allowing current from A to B through the load. During
the second half of the cycle, only diode 2 conducts,
but there is still a current through the load from A to
B. Thus the output is a fluctuating direct current
through the load during both harves of cycle of
the a.c. supply.
The fullwave bridge rectifier
Four diode rectifiers 1, 2, 3 and 4 are arranged in a
square as shown in Figure 3.135 on page 300.
During the first half of a cycle, if U is the more
positive terminal, there is a current in the direction
U - V - W since diode 1 is forward-biased. Then
through the load from A to B, returning to the supply
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supplyp.d.
diode 1
I
current
a.c. supply
A
+
I
I
no current in 'reverse' direction
Figure 3.134 Full-WZV!? rectificatimt
a.c. supply
u
time
centre-tap
transformer
diode 2
time

Figure 3.135 Full-wave bridge rectifier
along the path X - Y - Z since diode 2 is also
forward-biased. During this diodes 3 and 4
are reverse-biased, and do not conduct.
During the second half, Z becomes more positive, so
diodes 3 and 4 are now forward-biased. So the current
path becomes Z - Y - W then through the load from
A to B as before, returning along the path X - V - U.
Smoothing
A rectified alternating current still fluctuates between
zero and a peak value when the above methods are
used. In order to minimise the fluctuations, a
smoothing capacitor (sometimes called a reservoir
capacitor) can be connected in parallel with the load,
as shown in Figure 3.136.
unsmoothed
rectified d.c.
/ +
.----. rm
B A
c
R
Figure 3.136 Use of capacitor for smoothing
The action of the capacitor can be readily explained
by considering Figure 3.137 on page 301.
If the capacitor is sufficiently large, then the time
constant of the capacitor and the load resistor ( CR)
will be large. Consider the sequence of events shown
in Figure 3.137. The dashed line is the unsmoothed
rectified p.d. The line AB shows the rising p.d. at
switch on. Theheavy line is the p.d. across the
capacitor (and hence the p.d. across the load).
Initially the rising supply p.d. sends a current through
R in Figure 3.136, and causes the p.d. across the
capacitor to increase to the peak value (almost). This is
shown by the line AB in Figure 3.137. As the supply
p.d. decreases from its peak, the capacitor cannot
discharge through the supply (wrong polaricy), only
through the load R. The p.d. can only fall slowly (due
to the large time constant, CR) shown by the line BC.
Meanwhile the supply p.d. has fallen to zero and
started to increase again. At point C, the supply p.d.
becomes greater than the p.d. across the capacitor, and
the capacitor starts to recharge up to the peak p.d. (line
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initial
charge
charge
discharge \
'
smoothed output p.d.
unsmoothed rectified p.d.
Figure 3.137 Smoothing of the output p.d. from a full-wave rectifier
CD). The process repeats, giving rise to an almost
steady p.d., with only a ripple of small amplitude. The
capacitor must be matched to the output load R to give
a suitable time constant. If C is too small, the time
constant will be too short, allowing the capacitor to
discharge too much between peaks of p.d. If Cis too
large, it could draw too much current on its first
charging cycle, possibly damaging the rectifier.
'
'
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At any time (t) the p.d. (V) across the resistor is given
by: V = V
0
sin OJt
And the current I in the circuit is given
by: I= X= V0 sin OJt
R R
i.e. I= I
0
sin OJt where I
0
= Vo
R
Thus both I and V are sine functions which vary with
time as shown in Figure 3.138.
In a purely resistive a.c. circuit the p.d. (V) and the
current (I) are in phase.
The oppositionto a.c. which this
circuit presents is the resistance,
R-v
- I
The resistance of such a circuit is not affected by
the frequency of the supply.
Pure capacitor of capacitance C
This situation is less simple. As you already know, a
capacitor does not conduct electricity. The two plates
are separated by an insulator. However, an alternating
current does exist in the circuit to which it is
connected, as the charge alternately flows on and off
each plate in tum. The p.d. across the capacitor
depends on the amount of charge present on it- more
charge, more p.d. But the current is greatest when
there is no charge - i.e. zero p.d.! To examine this in
more detail, consider an alternating p.d. applied across
a capacitor, as shown in Figure 3.139.
R
I .
V .= V
0
sin rot
(a) Circuit
At any time (t) the p.d. (V) across the capacitor is
given by:
V = V
0
sin OJt
and the charge (Q) at this instant is given by:
Q = CV = CV
0
sin OJt
therefore the current (I) at this instant is given by:
I= dQ
dt
= ~ (CV
0
sin OJt)
dt
= c v o ~ (sin OJt)
dt
= 0JCV
0
cos OJ t
. . I = I
0
cos OJ t (where I
0
= OJ CV
0
)
This shows that Vis a sine function while I is a
cosine function, and they vary with time as shown in
Figure 3.139(b). So we see that the p.d. is a maximum
when the current is a minimum. This can be
understood if we remember that the charge flowing
into a capacitor is only opposed by the p.d. across it.
When the capacitor isuncharged, there is no p.d. and
therefore no opposition to current, so the current is
maximum. When the capacitor is fully charged, the
p.d. across it reduces the current to zero.
V.I
V= V
0
sin rot
t ,
(b) Variation of p.d. and current with time
Figure 3.138 Alternating p.d. applied across a pure resistor
c
I
'---rv--.....J 0
V= V
0
sin rot
I =1
0
cos rot
(a) Circuit (b) Variation of p.d. and current with time
Figure 3.139 Alternating p.d. applied across a pure capacitor
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In a purely capacitive circuit, the current (/) leads
the p.d. by 90 (rt/2 rad)- current must flow into the
capacitor before a p.d. can be developed across it.
The opposition to flow of a.c. produced by a pure
capacitance is known as the capacitive reactance
(Xc)
Xc = V nns = Vo = _l = _2_
Inns !
0
coCV
0
coC
and since co= 2nf, where fis the a. c. frequency:
Equation 1
You should note that:
Xc decreases with increasing frequency and
capacitance. At high frequencies, there is little time
for a large p.d. to build up on the capacitor.
Similarly, larger capacitors can store more charge
for a given rise of p.d., so they present less
opposition to the current than smaller ones.
1 1
Xc = 2nfC = 2nf%
units:
1
= V = .Q
s-
1
cV-
1
A
Pure inductor of inductance L
A pure inductor is one which has zero resistance to
direct current - i.e. no p.d. is developed across it due
to a direct current. An alternating current, however,
causes an alternating magnetic field, which induces
a back e.m.f.," which presents opposition to the
current. The back e.m.f. will be a maximum when the
rate of change of current is a maximum. The rate of
change of current is a maximum at the instant that it is
changing from positive to negative, i.e. when it
is zero. Therefore we have another situation in
which current and p.d. are out of phase, as shown
in Figure 3.140.
L
I
L...-----rv--_.
V = V
0
sin OJt
(a) Circuit
Figure 3.140 Alternating p.d. across a pure inductor
The alternating current I= I
0
sin cot through the
inductor sets up a varying magnetic flux which links
up with the coil and induces a back e.m.f. in it whose
value is given by
E=-L dl
dt
If V = applied p.d. at any time t then applying
Kirchhoff's second law, we have that:
dl
V-L- =0
dt
V- L _i. (1
0
sin cot) = 0
dt
V- coL/
0
cos cot= 0
V = coL/
0
cos cot
V = V
0
cos cot (where coL/
0
= V
0
)
In this case V is a cosine function and I is a sine
function. They vary with time as shown in Figure
3.140(b).
In a purely inductive a.c. circuit the p.d. (V) leads
the current (/) by 90 (rt/2 rad).
The opposition to a.c. presented by a pure
inductance is known as the inductive reactance XL.
V V coL/
0
_ . L
XL = ~ = ___Q_;: ---- co
Inns Io Io
(and since co= 2nj)
s-1
H
Equation 2
You should note that:
XL increases with increasing frequency and
inductance. Higher frequencies mean a higher rate
of change of current, and therefore higher back
e.m.f. Higher inductance also causes a higher back
e.m.f., which leads to a higher opposition to current
- higher reactance;
V,I
''l
(b) Variation of p.d. and current with time
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XL= 2nfL = 2nf di /
/dt
s-Iy
units:
v
= n
Phasor diagrams
In this type of diagram the alternating current in an
a. c. circuit and the p.d. across the circuit components
are represented by vectors (or phasors) which show.
the phase relationship between the two quantities. One
ofthe quantities (usually the current) is drawn as the
reference vector. The other quantities (the p.d.s) are
drawn as vectors at angles representing their phase
difference from the reference vector.
Figure 3.141 shows the phasor diagram for a.c.
circuits which are: (a) purely resistive, (b) purely
capacitive and (c) purely inductive. In (b) arid (c),
notice that the current and p.d. vectors are drawn at
90, since the phase difference between p.d. and
current is 90.
R-C series circuit
Consider an alternating p.d. (V) of frequency (j)
R
c
I
applied a resistor of resistance (R) and a
capacitor o(capacitance (C) connected in series as
shown in Figure 3.142(a). The phasor diagram for
this circuit is shown in Figure 3.142(b). In any series
circuit the current (I) in the circuit is the same through
each component and it is therefore used as the
referenc'e phasor.
R
c
Vc = IXc
I

v
(a) R-C series circuit
(b) Phasor diagram
Figure 3.142 R-C series circuit
Applying Pythagoras's theorem to the phasor diagram
we have:
V2 = + Vd =12R2 + /2Xd = /2 (R2+ XJ)
L
I
..
Vc = IXc I
...
I I I
v v v
I I
goo ("h rad)
Vc = IXc
goo ("h rad)
I
(a) Pure resistance (b) Pure capacitance (c) Pure inductance
Figure 3.141 Phasor diagrams
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from which we can define the impedance (Z) of the
R-C circuit as:
Equation 3
You should note that:
1
Xc=--
2rtfC
The impedance, (Z) is the total opposition to a.c.
flow due to resistance (R) and capacitive
reactance (Xc) which the circuit presents - Z is in
ohms(Q).
The current ([) in this circuit leads the applied p.d.
(V) by a phase angle (t/J) givenby:
tan t/J = V c = IXc
VR IR
Equation 4
R-L series circuit
In this case an alternating p.d. (V) offrequency (j) is
applied across a resistor of resistance (R) and an
inductor of inductance (L) connected in series.
Figure 3.143 shows the circuit and its phasor diagram.
From the phasor diagram we have:
from which we cari define the impedance (Z) of the
R-L circuit as:
Equation 5
R L
I
v
(a) R-L series circuit
Figure 3.143 R-L series circuit
You should note that:
XL = 2rtfL
The impedance (Z) in this case is the total
opposition to a.c. due to resistance and inductive
reactance.
The current (!) in this circuit lags behind the applied
p.d. (V) by a phase angle ( t/J) given by:
tan t/J= VL = IXL
VR IR
Equation 6
R-L-c series circuit
. The alternating p.d. Vis now applied to a resistor, a
capacitor and an inductor connected in series as
shown in Figure 3.144 on page 306.
From the phasor diagram we have:
y2 = V ~ + (VL- Vc)z = /2R2 + 12 (XL- Xc)2
= P[ Rz + (XL- Xc)z]
V =I ~ R
2
+(XL- Xc)
2
from which we can define the impedance (Z) of the
R-L-C circuit as:
Equation 7
The impedance (Z) in this case is the total opposition
to a.c. due to resistance, inductive reactance and
capacitive reactance.
(b) Phasor diagram