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GE

OEXPLORATIOI{ }IONO GRAPH

Series

1-No. I

G u opu BLrcATro N

ss

ocIATE s

GE

OEXPLORATI ON MON
Series

GRAPIIS

1-No. I

Editors

H. Bnluxrrv Trondheim/NorwaY
R,. veN

Nosrnno Alexandria/Virginia USA

1966

GEBR,DER, BOR,NTR,AEGER, BER,LIN-NII{OLASSEE

Principles of Direct Current Resistivity Prospecting

by

GEZA KUNETZ
Ifead of the Department of Theoretical Research
Compagnie Gnrale de Gophysique-Paris

1966

Nen BoR,I{TR,AEGER, BERI,IN-NIKoLASSEE

Translation from the French by Roront VeN NostneNo, Manager of Research, Earh Sciences Division, Teledyne Industries, Alexandria, Virginia/U. S.A.

'r{
,\'"

,tsru

fio$Ht

All rights reserved, included those o{ translation or to reproduce parts of this book in any form. Cop'right @ 1966 by Gebrder Borntraeger, I Berlin 38 (Nikolassee) Printed in Germany by Langenscheidt KG, I Berlin 62 (Schneberg) Blocks: Dr. S. Toeche-Mittler, I Berlin 6l Paper: Scheufelen KG, 7311 Oberlenningen
Type: Borgis Exended

It

Table ol Contents
T.ist' of

Illustration
.

VII

Erata

Pesentation Foreword
C'hapter
a
.

.IX .XI XII

I I
1

f.

fntroduction

1 llistory
2. Rock Resistivities . 3. Potential Distribution in the Earth
-1.

Alternating Currents

5
8

5. Exploration Principles and Proc'edures Chapter

I
T2

II.

Equipotential Maps

I.
-1.

General

2. The Effect of Heterogeneities 3. The Effect of Anisotropy .

Conclusions

l2 r3 t8
23
24

Chapter

l.

fII.

Resistivity Profile and Maps

General

2. Configurations 3. Methods of Apptication

24 24
29

3a. Horizontal Profiling . 3b. The Rectangle Method 3c. Presentation of Results 1. Effect of Various Structures 4a. AB Rectangle 4b. Horizontal Profiling .
5. Conclusions
. \' ct,, j . ."'. tr+'.-rt^ad!rtl

29
31 35
rfu

43 43 48

Lfr?L"*^-**#rf

VI

Chapter
1.
q

s0
50

31

3. Stucly of Horizontal Stratification

3a. Relation between the

3:

5l
.

ii
u""*i*r so";d . I sl ..-p"i"a by'exact,Methods . 6r
rrra in"
uu

Curve

Resistivityli**i*ioo

4. The Efiects of Other

3b.Theoretical Electrical sounng co"o"*, 3c. Catalogues of Theoretical Curves 3d.Approximate Construction of Electrical Sounng

4a. Dipping Contacts 4b. Vertical Contacts 4c. Other Structures 5. Interpretation of Electrical

Structures

Curves

63
6b

7l ?l
77,
gb

Soundings Meum

Appendix l. Determination of the potential

Distribution in a Layered 2. Practical Calculation of Apparent Resjstivities

9l
gr
93

2c. Method of Numerical

iil#ll*l$:iB"J:il"_ftt";
Integration

3l
97

References Index.

. f00 . lo2

List of Illustrations
Page

:=. t. l:.- l. a:. 3.

f=. +. l':. 5.

Equipotentials and cunent lines in a homogeneous earlh B,efraction of current, Iines where they cross a bounclary between two media of different resistivities

6
7

EElipqtential from Coxno Sculurrsnnen's first experiments -m1p, _resulting in ValRicher (Calvados) in lgl2 paste-down
F,esults of experiments near Sassy (Calvaclos) in 1812 paste-down Effect of buried inhomogeneities on equipotentials and current lines at the earth's

surface lB f=. 6. Uniform current flowing through an earth containing a buried" sphere 14 -;. 7a. Equipot'ential lines about a point source at' he earth's surface near a verlical contact between two media 16 a:1.;b. Equipotential lines about a point source at fhe earth's surface near an inclined contact between two media 17 .=. S. Equipotential and current lines, at the earth's surface, due to a unilorm current crossing a contact between two meilia lb a=. 9. Effect of topography in a homogeneous earth 18 F;. 10. Effect of topography in an inhomogeneous earth lg I'r.11. Construction required to determine p in an anisotropic medium using the principle of compression l. 12. Current electrode buried in a pping, anisotropic medium 22 Iil. 13. Various configurations 2E lil.
1.5. Three independent quadripole

configurations
as

27 28

l-i:. 16. Determination of the geometric factor K . lil. 17. Presentation of results corresponding to configuration displacements fl. 18. Profiles ancl rectangle AB :rl. 19. Profrles across rectangle AB over a resistant anticline

shown

29
Z2

86
87

a.:0.

Effect of a buried, perfectly conducting

pipe

VIII

List of Illustrations
Pagc

Fig. 21a. Effect of some cylindrica,l structures on a uniform field tr'ig. 2lb. Effect of some cylindrical structures on a uni{orm field . Fig. 22. Il,esistivity profile over a vertical contact ancl a dipping contact

38 39

10
same

Fig. 23a. Comparison of the influence of cvlindrical structures and domes of the
diameter when the current, electrodes are far removeal

4I

Fig. 23b. Yariation in the maximum relief in the field as a function of the height of a cylindrical structure or a dome, when the diameter equals the depth to iis top . Fig.24. Effect on a uniform field of an eroded. anticline and syncline Fig. 25. Images formed when a current electrode is near , vertical contact between two
media

.tI
42
43

l'ig. 26. I{orizontal profiIes over a vertical contact Fig.27. Resistivity profile perpen{lggtar to a vertical concluctive bed of thickness AB/2, with infnitesimally small MN .

41 45 46

fig.28. Electrode effect in holizontal profrling over semi-circular, cylindrical and

spherical inhomogeneities of th same iameter

hemi-

Fig.29. Yariation of t'he apparent resistivity

and the overburden

due to vertical contacts in the sub-stratum

50

Fig. 30. rncrease in depth of penetration with increasing electrode separations Fig. 3L CoTparisorr of electrode effects due to MN for the Schlumberger ancl \{enner
configurations

Fig. 32. Advantages of drawing resistivity profiles to a bilogarithmic scale 54 l'ig. 33. Joining the branches o{ the resistivity curve for increasingly larger }rN's 55 Fig. 34. 9oyp-arison of-resistivity profiIes over horizontal beds and over slightly dipping beds far from the surfac tiace of the contact 56 !-ig. 35. Principle of equivalence and its limits 59 Fig. 36. Principle of suppression 60 Fig. 37. Comparison ol the apparent resistivity and Dar-Zarrouk curves 6t l'ig. 38. Nlethod of development' in an infinite series to compute the potential 62 fig. 39. Various forms taken on by apparent resistivity 64 "oro". Fig. 40a. Three-layer apparent resistivity curves. variable thickness of second layer 65 Fig. 40b. Three-layer apparent resistivity curyes. Resistivity of second layer variable 66 Fig. 40c. Fo'r-la,yer apparent resistivity curves. ri,esistivity of thircl layer variable tl/ Fig. 41. Approximate construction of apparent resistivity curves .. 68 Fig. 42. Graphical construction of approximate resistivity curves 69 Fig.43. Effect of a thin, conductive overburden over a resistant upper layer in the
two-layer case

Fig.44'
Fig. Fig.

70

Comparison belween resislivity. profiIes made dipping contact, and over a hoiizontal bed

wilh a configuration parallel to .: . .

45. {pPa,rent resistivity dipping

72

46.

contact Comparison of r-esisbivity curves made with the configuration parallel to the strike of a dipping bed and ov-er horizontal beds

curves made with a configuration normal to the strike of a

'i4
7E

Fig.47. Electrical soundings near a veriical fault over

stratum

an

infinitely esistant,

sub76

II

List of Illustations Fig' Fig'

IX
Page

48' 49'

sub-stratum
sub-stratum

Electrical soundings near a vertical contact underlain by an infnitely resistant

Electrical soundings near a thin vertical dike uderlain by an infinitely resistant

i7

F8.50. F.51.
Fig. 52.

stratum

Electrical soundings near a vertical fault, upiifting an infinitely resistant sub79

Electrical sounding a horst of infinite resistivity, with the configuratio' parallel to the axis -over
of the

horst

g0
tt2 g3

F9.53.
I rq,
D4.

resistivity curves made with configurations paralrer to, and normal to, infiritely resistant horsts, as measured on saled mocle'ls . . :"1 . .
Elecrical sounding over a cylindrical outcrop Electrical sounding with configuration parallel to a buried conductive pipe Resistivity curves with simple forms no compatible with two-layer or three-layer

comparison

of

g4
g7

-tr"- 05rr-s. ob.

problems

tt!.

rq.;s.

Determination of transverse resistances anc{ horizontal conductances . .,. R,esistivity curves for six layers alternatively resistr,nt and conductive construction of an electrical sounding curve by the method of

gg g0

decomposition

96

Errata

14 62 age rage 90
Fase

6 38 Fig. 57
Fig.
tr'ig.

on the drawing the angle $ should be at point M. instead of faktor, read factor

the "box', relaive to curve

(instead of

l-99-2-t/a-

o)

should read

l_Ig_2 _ll4_ x

To the memory of

CoNnao S cnr,ulrenR,c
(

DR,

r878 - te36)

Presentation
one of the mainstays f the evolution of geoexploration techniques. Thus, it seems most appropriate that Diect current Resistivity Methods by Gnza Krxrrz has become the first issue of the GEOEXPLORATTN MoNoGRApH
\4as

Scur'unnnenn's early work in direct current prospecting

SERTES; the author has been a long time conaborator of scnr,uMennsnn and the Lbmpagnie Gnrale de Gophysique. rt may also readily be admitted that d.ue attention has probably not . been paid to the merits of these classical I{rench developments in the further evolution of geoelectrics, probablv not in mining geoelectris anel certainly not in prospecting for deep structwes. we have recentrr looked anew at the earry rrench monograph: the "Etude sur la Prospection Electrique du sous-sol,, writien by coNnao
EER*ER

in 1920. rt shoutd still be read. by aI prospective exploration geophysicists. \\'Iith the ever-increasing wealth of information stored inJne fires of progressive organizations, or described in internal literature, Iike the present monograph, it is absolutel' necessary to a healthy development of the science ihut u, r"u*orrable amount of such information be made accessible to future students. I{ow can they otherwise

scrr,u.r_

ome to have a souncl conception of exploration geophysics ? The Compagnie Gnrale de Gophysique anclits Chairman Mn. L. Mrc.ux deserve the praise of everybody interesfudln'our science for consenting to the p'blication of this iono",unt text from its private library. This first releuse.-of an internal treatise does indeed mark a timely maturing of the profession. It will benefit all concerned. nd' we hope will be folrowed by corresponding rereases from other organizations.

I[.

Bn.mxnr.

R,. VaN lr[osrnao

tr'oreworil

Ou aim is to give a general but elementary treatiso on the principles of electrical r'rospecting with direct current resistivity methods. Thus we h#e voluntarily limited
:,urselves

to:

r-

!-

un oaerall aietn, for none of the subjects wil be treated furly tririnciples, for neither the apparatus used nor the methods of making measurements and of computing will be includ,ed, nor wil any practical results bo discussed
and

3'" direct current,

for the methods of alternating currents warrant special treatment,

+-

ro-'sstiu'ity me'thoils,for the other methods such as self potential, induced polarization and telluric current will not be treated.

-"1-:

llter an introduction which begins with a brief history and a general view of the srbject, tbree chapters deal successively with potential maps, resilstivity profiles and *aps- and electrical soundings. rn each of the chapters ihere is first a review
generalities, then an examination of the methods oi application, and finally, a look *'; the principles of interpretation. This latter term is taken in a restricted. sense ancl

of

--i-rs to the influence of various structures on the measurements. ' The mrmerous figures that illustrate the examples are, however, not schematic but n',st all of them represent exact curves obtained by computation or by measure-:nts on small-scale models. They compensate, to a certain &tent, for thelecessarily l-:a5tative discussions in the text. A few formulae and. numerical results have been n'if,r'f, to the same effect' Moreoyer, some mathematics on the methocLs of calculation :c :heoretical curves are given in an Appendix. The list of references, which is to be iound at the end of the text does not claim

:: io complete. ;

T[e hare thus tried to give a general survey, illustratecL by examples, of the various ':-'t'fures in use' makingpossible a comparison of their advuntug"nd disadvantages n- i an appreciation of their possibilities and their limitationi. This work shoofd, ;:'-;e all. awaken arr interest in the problems that are set by direct current resistivity

XVI

Foreword

prospecting, and serve as an introduction to a treatise d'evoted to a more thorough stud,y of the numerous facets f electrical prospecting' This text was originally written for an internal Manual of the compagnie Gnrale much of the material has been drawn from previous d.e Gophysiqo"; "oo*"qo"ntly, internJ publications. TL" uothot therefore wishes to thank all his colleagues whose theoretical and practical experience forms the basis of this book, and. above all Mr L on Mc-lux, Chairman of the Company, who, in addition, has allowed publication. He also expresses his gratitude to Dr. R,osnnr Vr Nosrnalto whose generous and boundless efforts of translation and revision have resulted in this English version of the text'
G.

Ku*utz

CzuPTER

INTR,ODUCTION

I.1

History

-\s in the rest of this work, we shall give but an outline of the historical develpment ',f electrical prospecting. Birth of Electrical Prospect'ing. For practical purposes, electrical prospecting rriginated during the summer of 1912. During the school vacation of that year, t- oxnao Scnr,urnnnenn, senior mining engineer and then professor of physics at :he Paris School of Mines, perfected the technique. 'Ihe procedure was the fruit of a -rng period of thinking, after which he chose his equipment and conducted. the first :-rper.iments in the fields of Normandie. Several attempts before this time remained without a follow-up because they were i,rulded upon more or less erroneous principles. Some persons had tried to use alterrating curtent whose frequency was so high that it could not penetrate the earth. q-thers used direct current but were content to measure the resistance offerecl" by the =arth to a current flowing between two electrodes, a resistance which depends practi,a1lr only upon the material immediately adjacent to the electrodes. We point out, -aorFever, that later alternating currents with properly chosen frequencies have :'=n.-lered. excellent results, particularly in mining exploration in crystalline rocks. Ear|y workers. rt seems equitable, even thougb it is not our purpose to give a -rrmplete history of electrical prospecting, to note rapidly some of the workers who -an justly be consid.ered to be fore-runners of CoNnep Scur,ulrsnnenn*. Although -re Englishmen, GRAy, wrrnr,nn and Wrsox, near the middle of the lSth century, ::terested themselves in the electrical properties of rocks and. measured their conrur'tirity, the first important work in electrical prospecting must be attributed to r -,s (1789-1877), who, through his knowledge of geology and his studies of the :orrperature of the earth, electricify, and terrestrial magnetism, merits being con-ierecl the grandfather of geophysicists. fn the mines of Cornwall, he observed. the :-' iitence of natural electric currents that he attributed to deposits of metallic sulficLes. h 1333, he constructecl the first potentiometer using the bridge principle. In partic* ]i:.s Nosrn.rvl & Coor, Interpretation of Resistivity Data, U.S.G.S., Professional Paper (in - ;::\plortion
1,1

fntroducion

ular, we find in his papers that he made the following prophetic statement: ,,rt seems likely that electromagnetism may become useful to the practical miner in determining, to some degree of probability at least, the relative quantity of ore in veins and th1 direction in which it most abounds." Although Fox'was the inventor of the phenomenon that Cownn Scrrr,unnnnenn 'was later to call "self-potential" (Polarisation Spontane), Marrnuccr, of the Green_ wich Observatory, was the first to have observed the existence of telluric currents and their correlation with the aruora borealis (1865). The first potential map was prepared by C. ScnT,uMBERGER in 1gt8 on the pyrite deposits of Sain-Bel (Rone). rn America, Benrns (1880), BnowN (1891) and wnr,r,s (lgl4), all members of the U.S. Geological Survey, studied self potential phenomena in mines in l[evada, an developed the first non-polarizing electrodes. It is interesting to note that the first of these, working a half-century after x'ox, concluded that ,,it was probable but not certain that the currents were associated with the ore" and that his experiments cannot be said to have settled the question as to whether lode cunents will, or.wiil not, be of practical assistance to the prospector.', Iundamental ld'ea ot' Conrad' Schlumberger. It will be observed that the work mentioned above bears on the particular aspect of electrical prospecting relating to natriral phenomena. rt was Coxn.n Scnr,nrlrenenn r,vho initiated ihe dynu*i" aspect of introducing electric currents into the earth; and it is his idea that remains to this day the basis of practicaily all methods of electrical prospecting using direct current. This idea was to compare the potential distribution resulting from a current applied to the real earth to that which would exist if the same current were applied. to a homogeneous earth, and to draw from observed differences conclusions con-cerning the nature of the real earth. The concept of apparent resistivity, which wilt be defined later, results from this comparison. It has to be remembered that, WnNNnn, of the U.S. Bureau of Standards, developed this same idea in about 1g15, or approximately at the same tjme as c. scnr,uMerRGER,, in analyzing the properties of a measuring configuration which still bears his name. WnvNnn's patents had been preceded by Bnomr in lgg3, and Der and Wrr,r,rrrs in 1g02, who were the first to be granted. patents on prospecting methods using alternating cunents at low frequencies. Canrad' Bchlumberger's F'rst Coworlcers. Although the essential principles of electrical prospecting were laid, down just before the First World War, field. applications r,vere mainly developed between the two World Wars. At flrst, Cownao Scrrr,ulrBEB,GER dedicated himself alone to the task. Soon, he was closely associated with his brother, Mmcnl, and then joined by other colleagues, the first of whom were E. G. LnoNennoN, E. M. Por,orNr, H. G. Dor,r,. ri,rst Appli,cati,ons anil Deaelopment before 1g40. A great variety of problems were progressively overcome and increasingty distant regions .were investigaled using this method. Actually, the method was applied from the beginning to the two ajor d'omains of geophysical prospecting; first, direct exploration for und.erground mineial deposits, particularly metallic ores; and secondly, indirect exploration by studying the form and nature of geologic structures. The most notable example oi th" *".orr

History si'proach is petroleum exploration, but it is also at times the only possibiJity in mining
These studies date back to the 1920's

:rploration.

eountry. . the meantime, there was development jn electrical prospectrg among workers :i itther countries. Although theoretical questions and -;: result of measurements were extended. by Huuunr,theoietical computations of in ;':lnd, it was above ali the German AmnnoNN, and the Germany and KrNs in swedes suxonnne and * |]-DBERG, lvho pushed the application furthermost. rt must be noted. that these v-:kers. driven by mining problems in their own countries, restricted their activity *,1:t1 to electromagnetic methods which are outside the realm of our subject. on -:s ide. the tr'rench school did not limit itself to the practical application of Scnr,urrI-Gsn's ideas. A team of technicians ancl scientists applied iiself to perfecting the ::rrrJ and interpretation. This team included Marr,r,nq as well ,* .o-" for"ilr,r"rs *.::r- as srnwpsco and Kosrlrzm. rt was through their efforts that the first ptent ;n ihe measurement of depth of horontal stratification was granted. on 15 September - r!-r' and thus marked a new orientation in tectonic studies for electrical prosipecting. l: interesting to recall that the Americans Grss and Roonnv, publishe oo ro s"iin-er 1925, their own work on the d.eternination of the trul resistivity and iis rl
ls:ribution which, of course, is equivalent to the measurements of depth. Sr:ce it is developed in the text, we only mention here srn,.wnsco,s solution of :r: problem of potential distribution in a semi-infinite stratified medium. Mer,r,nr r'*its c'itation, not only for his coilaboration with Dor,r, on anistropy of the earth -.'"33 - but also for the important eontribution on the fundamental principles of " i=ic1l prospecting with direct current, published in Geophysics of 1g47. -'t,:"-lopments since the Beconil world, war. During the second world war, a new - u-tion of these methods wasdeveloped by the Scur,oilrsnnenn school .i-:nts flowing in the earth. Their great depth of penetration withoutusing natural resrting to : :rterior source of energy Ieads to simplicity in instruments and rapi executlon, :*'r l=.* this method particularly attractive. presently, it enjoys great favor in the. ' :"S.R. and neighboring countries.
enlineering geophysics)

in France. There was exploration for iron in and Bray, for potash in Alsace, and for iignite in soiuthrvest x.rance. lrrmane rn }:-rrth A{rica the method was applied to dam emplacement problems and to water "rploration. Later, the method spread to l{orth America whire it was used on zinc i-posits in the U.S. and sulfide cLeposits in Canada. In parallel, techniques were developed for studying large scale structures and their " success was marked by the discovery of petrolJum'producing structures in 'jt the f rmanian Basin. Electrical prospecting continued to be aiplied in ihut u,ruu on a large s-ele unt'il the second wortd war, and in the meantime, penetrated to the l- efiect, it was tr'rench geophysicists of the scur,umnnnenn school *h",tl.s.s.. ;; ;;;_ :::ti]1g exploration and instructing crews from the caspian sea to r{orthern siberia, '*':iated their Russian colleagues in these methods which continue to remain in favor

- :hat

:'- :e the last war, work has been renewed uncler its double aspect of exploiation a nLi,L---'ir depth (mineral exploration, rvater exploration, and

fntrod.uction

and of studies of large scale tectonics, most, usually applied in the framework of petroleum exploration. Exploration at shallow depth has conquered new fields of application and has been developed in new countries. Larger scale tectonic studies have also been widely employed in Venezuela, Brazil, North Africa, Gabon, Madagascar and India, often in conjunction with natural currents. They have been able

to solve deeper and deeper problems, thanks to perfected apparatus and. techniclues of exploration. This proof of the ability of electrical methods to give valuable evidence about the nature of the earth to depths attaining several thousand. meters, merits underlining for it is generally believed that these methods can be of service only for problems within a few hunred meters of the surface.

1.2

Rock Resistivities Defini,tion. Among the parameters that characterize a body from the electrical point of view, resistivity alone is involved. in direct current prospecting. The same is irue in methods using alternating currents of frequencies low enough to penetrat the earth. The resistivity is defined as the ohmic resistance of a cylinder with a unit area of cross-section and a unit length. The normal units in geophysics are the ohm for resistance and the meter for length. Thus, the units of resistivity are ohm-meters2i meter, or more simply, ohm-meter. The ohm-centimeter is also used and ecluals 0.01 oLm-meter. The cond.uctir,'ity is the reciprocal of the resistivity' Metatlic Cond,ucti'ui'ty. All rocks cond'uct electricit5r' Unlike most' rocks, certain mineral deposits have conductivities comparable to those of metals. This is the case
of some sulphides such as pyrit'e and galena, oxid.es such as magnetite, and graphite. Other minerals, such as sphalerite, are noncond.ucting. The resistivity of these conducting minerals is of the order of 0.01 ohm-meter but in mass they may be found. to be more resistant because of imperfect contact between the individ.ual crystals. Electrolyti,c Cond,ucti,uity - Ord,ers ol Magni,tudn. Most rocks conduct electricity .water in pores and- fissures. This property is called only because of mineralized electrolytic concluctivity. Their conductivity depends on the conductivity of the contained water, the amount of water that is contained, and. the mannel in which the water is distributed. This relation is nearly linear for the first two factors but the influence of the latter is more complex and depends on the nature of the rocks. Resistivity is therefore a widely variable parameter if only because one of the determining elements, the resistivity of natural water, may vary from a few tenths o{ an ohm-meter to several tens or even hundreds of ohm-meters. The low end of the scale is represented- by sea water and. salt water found. in oil wells ; the high end. is represented by spring or river waters. The magnitude of rock resistivities thus range,from one to a few tens of ohm-meters for clays and marls, from ten to a hundred for sands and marly sandstones, and from a hundred to several thousands for limestones and
igneous rocks.

This wide range of values is at the same time the strength and the weakness of electrical prospecting. It is the strength because it facilitates istinction between difierent types of rocks; it is a weakness because it sometimes means variations in measurements that have no relation to the problem under consideration.

Rock R,esistirities

Relation between Resistaity and, Rock races. The relationship between the regeologic facies, vhich can hare a great practical importance, is in -.:i itsel-f variable. In some cases, resistivity changes slowly along a given formation, - - I esample, because of the gradual variation of the salinity in the formation of water -- sands. fn other instances, the relationship is sometimes astonishingly constant, ;:.ir as in the case of certain Gulf Coast shales that, maintain practicalty the same :..'.tivity over hundreds of kilometers. Eontogenety and Heterogeneity. IL must be notei, however, that resistivities meas:-'i in expioration are actually ayerage values for large volumes of earth in place. -"-' average is tahen over larger and larger volumes as the investigation is macLe -:-ler. The homogeneity of rocks in exploration then, is taken as a bulk property on , -..rse scale. rn small detail, homogeneity is very imperfect, even within a given : :::ation. Sometimes interfering with, and sometimes the object of the search, local - :mogeneities have an effect only when they are relatively close to the point of - ..-:urement. It follows from this fact that, even clisregarding the changes that a ':-'1e may undergo after being gatherecl, resistivity measurements mad.e on rock '.'.-rles are not, comparable to those made in the fi.eld, uniess only the average of a ,::t number is considered." -:'tropy and, Anisotropy. oftery the resistivity of a given rock depends on the ,-:=:iion of current flow through the rock. In such a case, the rock is said to be . :--' -'tropic. This anisotropy may be due to the microstructure of the rock. Sedi- :-;ry beds, for example, are generally more resistant in the direction normal to - = :'edding plane. This anisotropy may be measured on a laboratory sample. How" -:. ior the large volumes that are involved in measurements in exploration, there - -; also be an apparent anisotropy. A succession of beds alternatingly resistant and : - ,;.rcting will appear to have a higher resistivity normal to the bedding. rn both ..-,'. the ratio between the resistivities measured in two perpenclicular directions can . :. nuch as several units. '

.-.ririty and the

. ..i Potential

Distribution in the Earth

: :''tnteters Measurerl. The only cluantity measurable in electrical prospecting is the : ...:':ial difference between two points. When one refers to the potential at a point, : - ,. speaking for practical purposes of the potential difference betweon the given : , -': nd some relat'ively distant point. As for the fielcl strength, it always refers to , ,,;raoe fleld strength equal to the potential difference between two closely spaced : --:. rided by the distance between the points. = '"c Equation. rn a homogeneous medium, the potentiar z due to a point source -' - , .rsel) proportional to the distance r; il is also directly proportional to the cur"-,- 1 emanating from the source and to the resistivitv p of the medium. rf one ..:::j-:s the earth to be a homogeneous half space of infinite extent, the constant of r : : -:tionality equals tf"n and the potential is then
r/ Ig ,:2r,

Introduction Pri'nci,ple ol Buperpositiott. Acbtally, the current emanating from any electrode must enter a second electrode, but followig the fundamental principle of superposition for a state of equilibrium, the potential at any point is the same as though a current,f emanates from the first electrode and"ind.ependently a current l emanates -

from the second electrode. Principle ol Reci,procity. The principle of reciprocity is a second" important principle which states that, in either a homogeneous or a heterogeneous isotropic or anisotropic medium, the potential at a point M due to a current source,4 is the same as the potential wouid be at point A tf Lhe same current source were at potnt M . In practice, the current is sent between two current electrodes.4 and B, and- the potential difterence is measured between two potential electrodes M and -lr/. The principles of superposition and reciprocity thus inclicate that the potential difference is the same as would be measured between,4 and -B if the same current were passed between M and -l/. Although it is not evident a priori, it should be noted that reciprocitv holds even when there are leaks in the line. Equi'potent,al Burlaces anil, Current Lines. The expression for the potential shorvs that in a homogeneous and isotropic earth the equipotential surfaces about a single current electrode are hemispheres centered- at the current electrode. X'or two cunent electrodes, the shape of the eqrripotential surfaces is more complicatecl but they wiil still be nearly spherical in the neighborhood of the electrodes. By the same token, the current lines, that'lvould be radial lines if there were only one electrode, actually curve progressively to enter the second. electrode. tr'igure la shows equipotential lines and current lines on the earth's surface. This pattern would be the same in any plane passing through the two electrodes, for example, a vertical plane.

100

15
50

z5
0

0,5

i '*//
llquipotentials Current Lines on the earth's surface

0,2

0,1

0,05 0,04
0,03

Fig.

l.

Equipotentials ancl current lines in a homogeneous earth

t'\ /:

Potential Distribution in the

Earth

f'gure lb indicates the behavior of the potential and its gradient, the electric field, -:sthe line joining the two electrodes. It shori's that the fietd is nearly uniorm ---": the midpoint between the two electrodes whiie the largest part of the potential : l occllrs in the neighborhood of the electrodes. :''ttlization ol Potent'al Dropt and, of Re,si,stance in the 1{ei,ghborhood, of Electrod,es. :: 1is underline the meaning of this last point. The potential drop between :-f , equipotential surfaces, divided by the total curent flowing across these , *rares, equals the resistance of the volume of earth included between the it'es. This reasoning leads us to see that almost all of the resistance offered ' 'ihe earth to the flow of current betl'veen two electrod.es comes from the earth -- lhe immediate vicinity of the electrodes. Thus, for a hemispherical electrode : :.'us a, 90 per cent of the resistance is furnished by the part of the earth .r-.'"i a radius of 10a of the electrodes. Since the rest of the earth makes a - a:t contribution, it is impossible to use such measurements to determinevery the ,:--:e of the earth, especially the nature of any minor heterogeneities that exist tr
tt--:;

it,

ot' Penetra,tion. The distribution of current lines given in Figure I shows , r:;er that an appreciable part of the current penetrates deeply into the earth. - -- 'r'ent penetrates more and more deeply as the electroiles are moved aparl. .,: rn verify, for example, that nearly half of the current flows through - ; -repth superior to the electrode spacing. But these deep beds reveal beds buried themselves --:-:;ir their influence on the potential d.istribution and, the fielcl strength at the . i:.:: and not on the resistance of the circuit. - t':"il',tLtion ol Current'in a Eeal Earth. The distribution of the potential in a real

-'.r,ils

"

r ':nntitatively a few special cases of the earth generally"*u-irru to be an consid.ered "-'.*'ile of media or beds, each of rhich is homogeneous but rvith fferent
-'.-.:

--.: is a difficult problem. rn the foJlowing chapters, we will

qualitatively

-ities.

,furface af fhe earfh

- --. -P.efoaetion of current lines where fhev ,.

:undary between two meclia of differenl
P1

tgc'

= Pztgoz

:-;-'tctiotz ol current L,ines. At the boundary betrveen two mea the potential .'- s continuous rhile the normal component of the gradient changes proportion-'- ': ihe respective resistivities. This latter property is identical to saying that there ' : ; .:ululation of electricity at the boundary. The result is that the current lines -. :'=:acted according to the law of tangents as they pass through the boundary; r: ,. ': io say, the tangents of the angles formed in each medium by the current iine : - :: normal to the surface are inversely proportional to the resistivities of the
--

fntroduction media. n'or example, a current line penetrating a more resistant medium r,vill be bent toward the normal to the boundary (Figure 2). Efrect of Ani,sotropy. In the most common case of anisotropy, the higher resistivity is that in the direction normal to the bedding planes and is called the transvetse resistivity; the lower resistivity is found. in all directions parallel to the bediling. Finally, iJ we consider a homogeneous but anisotropic medium, it can be shown that the equipotential surfaces about a point source of current are flattened ellipsoids

of revolution. The flattening i, also called the coefficient of anisotropy, is equal to the square root of the ratio of the transverse resistivity g, to the longitudinal resistivity p,: n'ln,

^:V

X'or anisotropic beds outcropping at a certain dip, the equipotential lines are elIipses or sections of the above ellipsoids. The current lines are not normal to the

equipotential surfaces in an anisotropic medium.

I.4

Alternating 0unents

Ad,uantages ol Alternat,ng Currents. Everything discussed above relates

to direct

ii

current. Ifowever, alternating current ofiers definite advantages from several points of view. These advantages have often led to a preference for the method in many countries, for example, Sweden. Advantages include ease of power prod.uction and, of measurement, facility to amplify potentials, and the ability to filter. This last possibility in particular facilitates the distinction between the useful signal and nonwanted electrical perturbations which can be natural or man-made, such as polarization of the electrodes or telluric currents which in general are slowly variable.

Admittedly, the problem of alternating current distribution in a heterogeneous

medium is more difficult. However, alternating eurrent carries an additional independent, parameter in its frequency; also, one can measure both the electric field. and its phase, and even the components of the ind.uced. magnetic field. There thus results a more flexible operation, as much for the execution of measurements as for production

of current. In particular, it is easy to induce current in the earth without the necessity of electrodes, and to measure the results in the same way; this technique permits a continuous measurement as one advances, either by vehicle or by plane. D'sad,aantages ol Alternating Currents-The Bhin Effect. All of these advantages however are largely ofiset by the major difficulty met in trying to penetrate a conducting earth with alternating current. This phenomenon, called the skin-efiect, consists in the concentration of alternating current near the contact between materials of fierent resistivities. This concentration of current' is more pronounced at higher frequencies and. for greater differences in resist'ivity and becomes part'icularly important at the surface of the earth. The skin-effect means a rapid decrease of current d.cnsity with depth, and consequently a decreased depth of investigation. The depth of penetration depends on the manner in which the cunent is introduced in the earth, but one can set an upper limit with respect to a plane wave, that is to

Alternating

Currents

!ar. to a source sufficiently removed. that for direct cunent the curent density would be constant at all depths. This is the case for certain telluric currents, for example. The so-called "depth of penetration" is given in kilometers by the expression

,:;l[.*
is the depth at which the current density is reduced to about one-third its value the surface. The period ? is given in seconds and the resistivity g in ohm-meters. It follows lhat' a 1000 cycles-per-second current in an earth of l0 ohm-meters rei'tivity would be reduced to one-third its surface density at a depth of 50 meters. Fariations of the resistivity of the near-surface formations thus have a preponderant ect on the distribution of the electric field at the surface, rendering a severe limitaron on alternating current methods in sedimentary sections of relatively high con:rd.

lt

:.uctivity.

Possibili'ty of a Compromis. However, it is still possible to profit from the advanon the condition that frequencies be used according to the resistivitv of the rds and the depth of investigation desired. x.or example, if the resistivity is l0 ohm=eters as above, a current of one cycle per second would have a useful depth of pene:rafion greater than 1000 meters. The same useful penetration could. be attained. in a ge,lium of 1000 ohm-meters with a current of 100 cycles per second. rn passing, it is noted that sinusoidal alternating curent is not the only way in *hich a variable current may be used. The study of the behavior of short puJses, or :i the transient behavior when a current is applied, which is theoretically equivalent, u able to afford certain practical advantages. These techniques are sometimes used
-.xS

:':.fuv.

Bkin Efrect in Prospecti,ng w,th Di,rect currents. The skin-effect is also from a practical viewpoint in prospecting with direct current. In effect, =rportant :: appearc when the current circuit is closed or opened. The current attains its stead.yi;ate distribution only after a certain period of time has elapsed. fnasmuch as certain -.ac'hniques to overcome variable natural potentials involve a series of opening and :.'xing the current circuit, it is necessary to investigate the time constants and. to .s,i-ure ourselves that the steady-state is really attained.
Th.e Role ol

L Exploration Principles and Proceilures

The Purpose and' the Means. The immediate object of eloctrical prospecting is to i=termine the distribution of resistivities in the earth. We have seen that the simplest *thod one is tempted to use, namely the measurement of the earth resistance ierirreen two current electrodes, leads to 1 impasse. All efficient methods are founded:lre or less directly on a comparison between the potential distribution created in t- real earth with that created in a homogeneous earth by the same current. Pr'tentiol Maps. The first method used in the application of electrical prospecting i:-lorred exactly that principle. The values of the potential in the neighborhood of a s;en set of current electrodes were plotted on a map, then the equipotential lines

l0

Introducion

were drawn and compared to those computed. for the same set of electrodes in a homogeneous earth. This is called "potential mapping." The ease of interpretation is ob-

viously related to the complexity of the potential distribution. The simplest, interpretation is possible when a uniform field. is attained but such a field is di{ficult to produce. Natural telluric currents attain this condition, but several rlifficulties are encountered with telluric currents because one can control neither the intensity nor the direction of the current. One is then led in practice to the spherical distribution around a single current electrod-e, that is to say, an electrode very far from a second electrode, or to the nearly uni{orm field. midway between two wiclely spaced electrodes. Although these methods are capable of yielding interesting results in some cases, they are difficult to ad.apt to a clear representation of the results, largely because of the mass of associated data. The results are presented in the form of equipotential maps that depend directly on the confrguration and. position chosen for the curreni electrodes. Therefore, to study an area completely, it is necessary to prepare and- compare a large number of
such maps. Potent,ol and, Apparent Resistiui,ty Anomalies. fn order to facilitate interpretation o{ the results, the first important step is to choose the desirable data from those taken,

to organize it properly, and to present it in a convenient form. In the beginning, it was noted. that, in place of the potential itself, it was preferable to consider directly the difierence between the real potential and the potential that would exist under the same conditions in a homogeneous earth. Normally, one takes the ratio of the measured potential to the theoretical potential, or the actual field strength to the theoretical field strength, at a given point. This ratio has become the fundamental parameter of electrical prospecting and is known as the "apparent resistivitv," when
the resistivity of the reference medium equals unity. The apparent resistivity becomes the real resistivity if the earth in question is homogeneous. Measurements i,n a single Direction anil two way,s ol Groupi,ng them. It was found" later that one could often lindt oneself to a single well chosen direction instead of making measurements in all djrections from the current electrod.e. Such cases are found fairly frequently, for example, when the sub-surface presents elongated structures with a marked strike or when the bedding is horizontal and presents no preferred direction at all. But, even with a single profile, there exist two independ.ont sets of data. In the first, the distance between the current and potential electrod-es is held constant as the two are moved from place to place; in the second, one of the electrodes is helcl fixed. while the second is made to move. The first of these methods leads to what are called. resistivity profiles or resistivity maps. The second method is what is called electrical sounding. Resi,sti,ai,ty Profiles and, Maps. The values of the potential, or of the field strength, measured at a given distance from the current electrode d.epend mainly on the properties of the earth within a volume of nearly constant dimensions about the electrodes. Consequently, as one morres the configuration of fixed length along a profile, he is investigating a band of earth with a given width and a given depth. If the procedure is repeated, rvith parallel profiles properly spaced, a whole slice of earth with the given

Exploration Principles and.

Procedures

li

=ronding to a given depth of investigation ancl n-jll reflect thJateral variations within :he slice of earth included in the measurement. B, comparing a series of such maps, =:ch corresponding to a different depth of investigatin, one could. determine ihe

:iickress will have been investigated. The parameter determined" witl be the apparent :esistivity defined above. a resistivity map or profile then groups the results corre_

r=eper beds. Of course, as the distance between the current electrodes is inJreased, -:e total volume of earth included in the measurement also increases laterally. But : - r a given center-position o{ the configuration, these increasing volumes overlap an -:- ess the lateral variationsa're too strong the successive results will be related stiictty : - the variations with depth. The comparison of electrical sounclings at neighboring :',hts is particularly helpful in the study of slowly varying becl depths and res]stivitiei i- an earth where the bedding is horizontal or onl. slightly dippirrg. The same set of measurements, along a profile for example,-*n bu grouped to best :.:re the problem in question. rn one case, they may be grouped into a succession of .-=:rrical soundings, nd in the other case into a set of r"*i.tirrity profiles of di:fferent

;ariation of resistivity with depth. However, the variation with depth woulcL be easier ::, study using the second method, or electrical sounding. Electrical Bound'ings. An expanng configuration permits us to reach deeper and

-.:th-c of investigation.

In the three following chapters, we will examine more closely the three methods 9f =--;-ling the distribution of resistivities in the earth that we have just outlined: the :'-:ential map, the resistivity profile or map, ancL the electrical sounng. rn the :::sent note, we limit ourselves to the study of direct cunent. rn particular, the :-:,rring methods fall outside of the scope of this work:

a' natural cu*ents, including self-pote.tials and telluric currents. b' ore extension methods consisting of preparing equipotentiar maps

v,en a current electrode is placed within an ore body by means of a bore-hole. c. induced polarization.

CI{APTER,II

EQUIPOTENTIAI, MAPS

il.1

General

The Very Pirst Maps-Results ol Conrad, Bchlumberger in 1912. Historically, the

method. of equipotential maps is the first form of applied electrical prospecting that met with success. It is possible that the very first realization of the method is shown in X'igures 3 and 4* which reproduce drawings of CoNn.n Scsr,ulrnrncun dated 1g12, together with his handwritten remarks. They represent the equipotential lines about a single current electrode and were drawn from measurements made in the field. In the first, there is supposedly a homogeneous earth; and, in the second., the electrode is near the contact between two materials of difierent resistivity. In this diagram can be seen the refraction of the curves at the boundary following t'he theory illusf,rted by CoNru.o Scro,umenncnn in a corner of the drawing. In spite of a strong resistivity contrast and the absence of overburden, one can see that the deformation of the equipotential lines is comparatively slight; this effect is due in part to the rapid variation of both the potential and. the normal field. in the neighborhood. of a current electrode. Earlier, we saw that the potential varies inversely as the distance from the electrode; the radial field varies inversely as the square of this distance. Potent,al and, Electria Ti,eld, ,,n a Homogeneous Med,ium; Erpress,ion near the Miclpoi,nt between Current Electrod,es. The normal potential distribution is more regular near the midpoint between the two current electrodes where the field is nearly constant. Bo smple, assume a rectangular coordinate system with its origin on the earth's surface. Then let a positive cunent electrod.e .4 be placed at n : a and a negative current electrodo be placed at n : - a, w'tlln the current l flowing between the two. Near the origin, which is midway between the cunent electrodes, the field parallel to the line of electrodes is approximately given by

il1

n-:::,f'*i @,-y,p))
electrodes (y :0)remains constant within third of the "f electrode separation and within 13 per cent in the middle frfth of the line. The field. varies even less perpendicular to the line of electrodes. Since the current lines form surfaces of revolution about the line of electrodes, it follon's that the field is nearly constant with depth as long as the depth is small compared to the electrode separation. This uniformity of the normal field permits us, not only to see better the modifications in the equipotentials due to heterogeneities in the earth, but also to investigate in depth a fairly extensive zone of nearly uniform thickness. Superficial effects influence the equipotential lines more as the measurements are made closer to the electrodes.
30 per cent in the middle
and back cover.

In particular, the fie1d along the U""

* See inside front

The Effect of

lleterogeneities

lB

The exact expression_in terms of the depth z, for the field immeately below the midpoint between the electrodes is also very simple:

t": *,/o2,a,7"t,
At a depth equal to one-half the distance between the current electrod.es (z:a), the field and consequently the current d.ensity is equal to a little more than one third. its value at the surface.

II.2

Tho Effect of Heterogeneities

Local Heterogeneity-cond,uctiue and, Resi,stant Bod,ies. since the method of equipotential maps is little used, at least in its original form, we will simply indite opldly how the potentials behave in the faco of some simple resistivity di*tribotiorr. in the earth. It is clear that localized. conducting materials will attract and. concentate current lines. Such local variations in resistilrity may,for example, be associated.
CONDUCTING MASS

i. 5. Effect oI buried inhomogeneities on :qaipotentials and current lines at the earth,s .:face

RESISTAN MASS

--- :::i"iTil^i1'J
x-ith certain mineralzed zones. The equipotential sur{aces, being perpenclicular to the :urrent lines, will suffer the opposite effect; that is to say, the quiiotential surfaces 'rl be separated by the conducting masses and be drawn together by the resistant :3-asses. tr'igure 5* is a classic one published" by coNnen scrr,uunpnenn in 1920, nd illustrates the preceng principle. -lpherictt'l Mass' Unortunately, the effects of these local inhomogeneities fall ofi ;err rapidly with distance and become difficuit to detect at distances of the same
* Cor-a'o ScrluMsonGR, "Etude sur la prospection lectrique du sous-sol,,, Gauhier-Villars. l:.1.1_r, pages
20 and 21.

14

Equipotential Maps

order of magnitude as the dimensions of the perturbing body. Thus, for a nearly spherical mass, buried, deeper than its own diameter, the relative perturbation of the potential in the zone where the fielc1 is uni{orm varies nearly as the cube of the ratio between the radius of the sphere and the distance from its center to the point of measurement. The relative effect is nearly equal to this ratio in the case of an infinitely resistant mass, twice this ratio and opposite in sign in the case of a perfect conductor. For finite restivities, the effect is obviously weaker ; it may be approximatecl by the following formula (as above, only if the depth of the mass is great enough as
compared to its dimensions)
:

| U-tQ,rlt* 2(n^-Q')al'l"oto r'n,_-Q,\//

|

where 1 is the current density, p. the resistivity of the earth outside the sphere, q, the resistivity .lvithin the sphere, r the length of the radius vector from the center of the sphere to the point of measufement, a lbe radius of the sphere and 0 the angle

1-/:

,/*_orncrrox or /.* fH E CURRENT

ls

*-t--)

{,!
i

rl

tr'ig.

6. Uniform current flowing through

an earth containing a buried sphere

between the radius vector and the direction o{ current flow (r cos 0 : c) (n'igure 6). When the mass is closer to the earth's surface, its efiect does not increase as rapidly
as the formula would indicate; the relative efiect (the second term in brackets) becomes exactly one-half for an outcropping hemispherical mass. Cylind,ri,cal Mass. Tf. the buried inhomogeneit'y is in the form of a horizontal cylinder perpendicular to the flov of current, the corresponding approximate expression for the potential will be:

(r

: r p,, l, + ,:=*

(#) (r - 2 cos, o) I .os

where the symbols used have meanings corresponding to those used in the case of the sphere above. This expression is also subject to the same restrictions applied in the case of the sphere. The perturbation due to several other forms such as slabs, dikes, etc., can be computed but will be left until later.

The effect of

lleterogeaeities

15

Heterogeneity. The effects of resistirit;' changes hvolving great volumes earth, such as the contact between two beds of difiererlt resistivities, do not mani:-st themselves in quite the same fashion. rn the first place, the perturbation due to ' restricted foreign body would be difficult to see in the vicinitylf the cunent elec:: lde ; the effect of a contact between t'n o beds of w-idely different resistivities would r risible. f,et us take still another example analog to that given in the first publica= :t 'n of Conrad Schlumberger relative to the vertical contact between two Jafurials -r'ose resistivit'ies bear the ratio of g. The current electrod.e is in either of - :a (n'igure 7a). We note the ,,attraction,'exerted b, the more resistant the two meclium ':- the equipotential lines and the refraction of these nes according to the la.lv of ::.rgents at the contact.

:i

.Ertended'

E'1upotential Lnes aboae a Vertical or Inclined, Contact between two Types of Roclcs. a region where the unperturbed field woulcl, be uniform, such a contact mani_ :-.is itself by a change in direction of the field and by a closer spacing of the equi: - ,ential lines in the medium of higher resistivity (Figure g). rf, insteacl of vertical

-:

- _ __eqtrpafenlia/

the cRoss sEcTro - . .>. --_.ssurIace,duetoauni[ormcurrent,crossingaffi -czrrenf " :-- i't between two media ,Z,Z,p J//,/A\\\.tc1\*

Equipotential and. current lines, a

/rhes /tttes

' :-:ac'ts which could correspond to faults or upturned beclding planes, one is dealing --:L a series of horizontal beds, it is evident that the equipotentl lines at the earth,s -:i:ce ' 'Tne rvould not be disturbed. intermediate case of clipping beds is ress simple. rn theory at least, the poten---. :-ra,dient, becomes nil or infinite at the contact between ih" t*o media, even - - =r each of them has a finite resistivity. rrowever, in practice, the media aro
=r - --'': tho equipotential iines for a contact dipping -'

:.

infinite in extent nor do the resistivities change absoluiely abruptly. tr'igure Tb 45 ilegreesior a resistivity ratio

.r:it.tc of ropography. The prececling discussion s'pposes measurements made plane surface of the earth. The presence of relief o" tfr" earth,s surface also -.'rbs the field. The current density is increasecl at the bottom of valieys an4 de:.:.sl near the top of a hill or mountain (Figure 9). The equipotential sqrfaces will dense in the valley bottoms ancl less dense near the tops of hills and moun_ -

' .

1o..

t6

Equipotential MaPs

tl;el

l26

L
\

\
I I

\ \
\

__t

Fig. Ta. Equipotential lines about a point source a the earth's surface near a vertical contact
between two mea

The Effec of Eeterogeneiies

.--\ -.-;..-\
2n\\

\\ \ \ \

/'/l\\l
_.-f-__\
_-__-7-_ __A

/t:
1
\
\ I

?b. Equipotential lines about a point source at tho earth's surface near &n inclined contac
womedia

kploration

1,1

18

Equipotential llaps

z5
/.3

t4
x2

/1

4B na

a 05

-,-

nf lhe earlh

;; r"n"**on";'i;",'"ous earttr. Distribution or equipotential and currenb Iines ",-.;:within the earth. ho : relief with respect to the surrounding plain " |
:

half-wi.lth of the topographic feature taken

at,

its mid-height ho/2

fri
lt
li

In an infinite homogeneous medium, and for the low reliefs that are encountered most often, this effect is not very marked. For example, in the bottom of a valley I00 meters deep and 500 meters wide at the point of half-depth, the spacing of equipotential surfaces is reduced only by 32 per cent. Figure 9 gives the effect of an even steeper mountain and valley on a uniJorm field, as well as on the distribution of cunent and equipotential lines within the earth. The effect can become annoying either in a very mountainous region or in a region where a surface conducting layer lies on a shallow resistant laver. In this latter case, almost all of the current, lines are concentrated near the earth's surface and any slight change in the thickness of the surface conducting layer, modifying the cross-section through which the current passes, will have an appreciable effect on the distribution of the fieid at the earth's
surface (n'igure 10).

II.3

The Effect of Anisotropy

Potenti,al Di,stributi,on ,n AnisotroTtic Med,ia Obta'iner| by Comlpres,si,on ol an Isotroytc Distr,bution. The equipotential map obtained at the earth's surface in the neighborhood of a curlent electrocle brings out especialJy lrell the phenomenon of anisotropy. The forms and orientation of the equipotential eilipses are related to the dip of the beds and to the degree of anisotropy.

The Effect of -{nisotropr

t9

i0. Effect of topography in an inhomogeneous earth

Fig.

---

<ll;t

!:,"liiiJ;iLJii,i*1,',i",p,=-,

/20

!-n

TT A, /0) :
l

ll

+_

t/a LfL

8r: {or to

(at

', I _
C'oe'ff'ci'ent ol An'sotrop7. Suppose that one wants to cLetermine the potential s:ibrtion in a meum having an anisotropy of revolulion. By this, it is meant that, :e true resistivity presents a maximum in a certain clirection (transverse resistivity : !r) and a minimum (longitudinal resistivity : p,) in all directions perpendicular :, the first direction. Let l, : QlQt. one can show that the desired. dist"ibutio., of. :,:tential can be obtained by compressing the equipotential surfaces by a ratio of -'
,1,

/0

the direction of the axis of rotation, the equipotential surfaces of r"ierence being. :;en as those due to the same current source in an isotropic medium l,vhose resistivl -:-; is given by g-:letk, The transverse resistivitv win thenbe itimeshigher. ::;n that of the reference meum and the longitudinal resistivity will be r/; as igh ,,coefficient the reference resistivity. The coefficient : "-i>otropy." of llala, is called the i rt is always great'er than one but, ^ generaily smaller than t.wo. is E!!psoid' and' Ellipse of An,sotrolty. rn a homogeneous medium, the equipotential '.':-ces about a point source will be ellipsoi<ls of revolution, flattened. in the ratio ,4. - = notential distribution in planes perpendicular to the axis of revolution will re: :-:l the same as they rvouid be in the reference medjum of resistivity g_. This, ,.;- ploperty shows that, in the case of horizontal stratification, the equipiential -:! es on the earth's strrface will remain circles that or.re lvouid obtain in an isotropic

20

Equipotential Maps

medium of resistivity p-. Therefore, no surface measurement can indicate lhal a medium has such an anisotropy. In the other extreme case of bed.s upended vertically, the equipotential curves will be similar ellpses elongated parallel to the stratification

ratio of the two axes will be 2. Apparent ani'sotropy. rn the intermediate case of d-ippitrg beds, where the angle 6f dip is a, the equipotential curves will still be ellipses but the elongation wilt be less. This elongation, sometimes known as "apparent anisotropy," is parallel to the stratiflcation and is given by
and- the

: 1fl+lrtarlzu |/ t+ranio

(Fig. 12)

Iormulas lor Macro-Anisotropy. One can demonstrate that the average anisotropy of a succession of beds is charactered bv
Q: -r
zQihi and

!:*la' 8r Zhi
/.: lG+rtb@+ L*e
p)

If

the succession consists of alternating beds of thicknesses , and h" and of resistivities q, and- qr, one has
0

.). . : 0rrl8'e - , pt: 0t,fi(I*e) rf e p+e

A,nd

where

f:

a'lP,

and'

e: h'lhr'

Tor a given resistivity contrast, ,t urill be a maximq1 for beds of equal thickness. In order for i to be as high as 2, it is necessary that the resistivity contrast p be more than 14 which is not impossible. Efrect of An'sotropy on Apparent Resi,stiui,ty. Tine transverse, longituclinal, and .average resistivities of which we have spoken are the true resistivities of the earth. One would be able to measure them in samples in the case of microanisotropy or to compute them from a succession of field resistivity measuements in the case of macroanisotropy. The apparent resistivity defined above is related to these true re;sistivities through rather strange relati6nships, that are not at all evident at first sight but are easily derived by a consideration of the ellipsoid.s of anisotropy. rn Iigure 11, we show the construction that permits us to compute the apparent, resistivity in the general case of a configuration oriented- obliquely to the strike of dipping beds. We assume that we are to compute the apparent resistivity gu baseil ,on a potential measurement at a point M on t}-:e earth's surface, due to a curent source A, given the coefficient of anisotropy /. and the direction of the principal axis of anisotropy which we can term the "axis of compression." This axis of anisotropy .would be normal to the bedding planes. We first construct a vertical section n' parallel to the axis of anisotropy and passing through the point Jl[. In this section, we can construct the equipotential ellipse, since we know the direction and ratio of the major and.minor. axes: 2 : q.l F. The e,quipotential circle, correspo.pding to a fictitious isotropic medium, from which the ellipse is derivecl. by compression,
is

the circle of radius a.

22

Equipotential Maps

The explicit formulas in the general case would be complicated. These complicated formulas become simpler when the configuration is either parallel or perpendicular to the strike of the beds. In these cases, we have:

q, (par)

: gu (norm) :
pm

/p,1
Q^le

S,

independent of the dip alu'ays less than q*

.

The Parad,or of Ani,sotropy. Conttary to what one would expect, the apparent resistivity measured in a direction normal to the bedding is less than that measured in a direction parallel to the bedding. Speciflcally, if the beds are vertical, a configuration normal to the bedding planes v'ill give:
gu (norm)

Q'l )"

Qt

Thus, the apparent transverse resistivity will equal the true longitudinal resistivitv. This property is callecl tho "paradox of anisotropy." Measurements Mad,e i,n a Dri,il Hole; Determination ol Dips. If one made measurements with a vertical configuration as, for example, in well-logging, one would fintl:
cu

(vert)

: r,"/ll:

,-+#;

and

it

rvould be for the horizontal beds that one would obtain the true longitudinal

resistivity.
12. Current electrode buried in a dipping, anisotropic medium
X'ig.

p=lsq
d

e=f E= -i

current electrode at a known depth in a well. If the depth of the current electrode is D (Figure 12), the distance from the centet of the equipotential ellipses to the top of the well is /, and the ratio of the two axes is e; one would have for the dip :
tan a:'/t

In principle, one can determine the degree of anisotropy as well as the strike ancl p of the bedding by preparing an equipotential map at the earth's surface with the

/ \-- ,'l'

l\

Conclusion-s

oo

tr.{

Conclusions

\fe have said that the two most useful zones in the establishment of equipotential *-ps are the zone near the midpoint, between t*'o current electrodes and. the zone -rneately neighboring one current electrode. These zones are privileged because -t\- present the simplest potential distribution in a homogeneous medium. In the : -"e around. the current electrode, the method has certain inconveniences:
difficulty in bringing out and interpreting deformations in equipotentials corresponding to a rapidly varying field, even in a homogeneous countryrock; the predominant role played by the exact position of the current electrode with respect to the inhomogeneity, which requires us in principle to establish several maps for a given region; and, finaliv, the great variation in ihe depth of the beds involved. as one moves away from the current electrode,

first of these difficulties by plotting the ratio of the true :,:iential to its theoretical value. Ono thus obtains a sort of apparent resistivity, but :.-. 'lepth of investigation wiil vary from one point to another. is for the dominant role played by the location of the currerrt electrode, it is =ied in one particular case-that in which the electrode can be placed. in contact, v::h a conducting ore body. This method is used frequently in mining exploration ': -: ,l.oes not fall within the framework of this treatise. Tre same troubles are not found when the potential distribution is studied in the : : - = n-here the unperturbed field would be uniform. In fact, because of greater sim::-:ty in the normal distribution, we have preferred to study the fielcl itself instead . i :he potential. The value of the fietd is constant if the meum is homogeneous. ll:s. a map of the field will be equivalent to a map of the apparent resistivty for , -:r*f depth of investigation, assuming the distance betr,veen the current electrod.es .-- iintained constant. I;o variations of this method are still used currently; one, using telluric or natural r:'=nts will not be studied herein; the other, using the field measured mid.way be" r.tr two current electrodes A and. B, will be examined in the following chapter.

rltne can overcome the

CIIAPTER,

III

RESISTIYITY PROF'ILES AI{D MAPS

III.

General

The apparent resistivity is nothing more than the ratio of the real value of a potential or a field strength measured with a certain configuration to its theoretical value were the measurement made with the same configuration in a homogeneous medium.

An apparent resist'ivity map is a map of relative anomalies, usually in the fielcl strength. These anomalies are related to the tength and orientation of the configu-

ration rather than to a fixed position of the current electrode and to varying positions of the potential electrode as is the case of the equipotential map. The resistivit;r map thus constitutes a choice and a particular grouping of data. The choice of a direction is often difficult. It depends first on the nature of the problem at hand, but also on the practical possibilities o{ executing the rneasurements in the field. Maps or profiles established using a second direction often would help interpretation but are seldom made in practice. A given distance between current and potential electrodes corresponds to a set of data related to a nearly constant depth of investigation, and thus t a byer of ear-bh of a given thickness. The dimensions of the configuration will then be chosen in functiorr of the depth of the problem in quest'ion. Also, to be considered is the succession of resistivities, determined by electrical sounding and calibrated. if possible by drilling. Hero again, maps based on several lengths of configuration may be necessary to correctly interpret the results.

tf

III.2

Configurations

The choice of configuration poses absolutely no problem in the prcparation of a potential map. The t'wo current electrodes are kept fixed while ono potential electrocle is used to measure the potential fierence between a moving point and some frxed, far-removed point. rn the preparation of a resistivity map a large variety of electrocle configurations can be imagined. We witl now review the most common ones. Even if everv configuration must necessarily consist of at least, four electrodes, two current electrodes called ,4 and B-two potential electrodes called M and -ly', we can arrange them so that tr,vo have a constant if not negligible effect,. The simplest way to obtain this efiect is to leave two electrodes fixed at some great clistance from the points of measurement. D'ipoles ond' Pri'nciple ol superposi,tion. Thus, if one current and. one potential electrocle ate removecl to "infinity," the simplest theoretical configuration possible is obtained-a "pole AM" (Fig:ute l3). rn passing, note that the principle of superposition enables us to determine the resuits due to any configuration if we kno.w
those due to the invidual dipoles that make up the configuration.

rf

we

o"" vfi)

Confignrations
: 25

r denote the potential at' M due to a current electrode A, tlne potential difference :ttween points M and..l due to current electrodes .4 and B will be given by

lY:V

(A)

v(A) I -lv iYL.]f

rn)

(B) vl -f

In theoretical studies concerning the efiects of heterogeneities in the earth on the :'rtential at the earth's surface, it wili be easiest to compute the potential at a given :.'rint due to a single current electrode and then to combine in a convenient manner :re results computed for difierent positions and spacings of this basic dipole. How:;er, even if the dipole is the simplest configuration in theory, this is generally not, :;, case in practice, particularly because of the very long cables that would have to :e used to connect the electrodes at "infinity."
I rr rxrrnnv
]

AT INFINITY

OUAORIPOTE EOUIVAI.ENI TO TRIPOLE AMN.

M lN H
I
I

Fig. 13. Various configurations

(p/a,t w?w) I produ ces some lolenlia/

MadN

nl

iB

F:r practical reasons, we most often remove one of the current electrodes; it is found ::at fluctuations in natural potentials make the measutement of potential fierences
':.:tuations, are roughly proportional to

Tripoles. If we remove to infinity only one electrode (n'igure 13), we obtain a .dpoie AM N or ABM , both being equivalent by virtue of the principle of reciprocity.

{
xtr

:":.ther difflcult over long lines. These natural potential differences, and thus their

the distance between the potential elec-

The tripole that is used the most commonly is that in rvhich the three electrod.es :r= arranged. along a straight 7ine, A being outside the interval MN. Normally, either -;e tlrree electrodes are spaced. equidistant or the interval MN is madesmallcom:,red to the distance of M and. N to A. In the latter case, the potential difference ---;ided by the interval -M-l[ approximates the field strength at the midpoint O be-

les.

,-.er l[

and -l.

As for the second. current electrode, insteacl of being where its influence is negligible - - either of the potential electrodes, it may be placed in such a manner that it has ,t: same effect on both potential electrodes. In homogeneous earth for example, i{ ,t. second current electrode is placed. along the perpendicular bisector of the line :..:rreen the potential electrodes, it will create the same potential at each of the poten-

26

Resistivity profiles and 1\[aps

tial electrodes and thus satisfies our requirement. However, in practice, it is necessary to remoYe the current electrod.e an appreciable distance so that one can neglect any asJrmmetry introduced by inhomogeneities in the earth. The tripoles ofier a considerable advantage in rough terrain in that only three electrodes and correspondingly less cable are required to be moved" to execute resistivity profrles. I{owever, their asymmetrical character usually makes them less d.esirable
than quadripoles.
Quad'ri'poles. In most of the complete quadripoles used, the {our electrod.es are arranged along the same line. The two potential electrodes are normally inside of the current electrodes and generally are symmetrieally sposed with respect to the center of the configuration. When the configuration is asymmetrical and -44-l[ is much nearer one of the current electrodes than the other, as is normally the case when the potential electrodes are outside the current electrodes, one catr imagine that he has an imperfect tripole; the influence of the second current electrode is slight but not neg-

ligible. wenner and, Bchlumberger configurati,ons. The two quadripoles by far the most used (X'igure 14) are still the Wenner configuration in which the electrocles are equally spaced, and the Schiumberger configuration in which the distance MN is smail with respect to the clistance ,4-8, generally smaller than ABl5. With the latter configuration, the ratio of the potential difference to the interval MI{ is practically equal to the field strength near the center O of the configuration, since the field is nearly uniform in the neighborhood. of this point.
OUADRIPOTE

AMw" Mw Nw
Ms Ns

= Nw

B :wNNrR coNFtcuRATloN
coNrGURAIrox

aB
5

:scHLUMBERGR

..w

+-----18

DouBL

Drpolr Y--+

Fig-.

|a. _Configurations using quadripoles and double poles

conft,guration wi,th MN outsid,e. Among the quadripoles in which MN is exterior to AB, the only ones that are not imperfect tripoles are those in which the intervals MN and AB arc both small with respect to the separation between them. such a configuration is called a clouble dipole. The advantage of this configuraiion is that it requires much less cable for a given depth of investigation than do other configurations. This is because the depth of investigation is essentially determined by the shortest, dist'ance that separates a current electrode from a potential electrode. The disadvantages are the comparatively low potential difference between the electrodes MN or a given value of the applied cwrent and the preponderant role played by the nature of the terrain near the cunent electrod.es AB.In fact, the potential difference varies inversely as the cube of the distance between the current electrodes

Configuratioas

27

and the potential electrodes in this configuration, whereas in the Schlumberger confguration it varies inversely as the .qour" of the electrode interval -48. This confguration has been used very ttle in practice (except in USSR). Carpenter Configuration A finai variation of the in-line quadripole was recently proposed. by canrnNrnn (1955)*. rt consists of placing on of te potential electodes inside the current electrodes and one potential electrode outside. In fact, it could be interesting to use all combinations possible by interchanging the electrode

Fig. 15. Three independent quadripole con[guratrons

nethod" to be discussed in detail ]ater. ' conf'gurations wi,th more than four Electrod,es. Finally, there are configurations tht have more than four electrodes, and usually more than two potential electrod.es. Some of these are in principle nothing more than one of the four electrod.e configuations previously described.above, and they are used. only to accelerate the wrk md to increase the data. These are the ones in which different pairs of electrodes ae used- simultaneously or separately to yieid independent potential differences. An exrmple is the Lee configuration which places a fifth electrode at the midpoint of he Wenner configuration. The potential d.ifferences MP and, P-l are then measured. aimltaneously. The same is true of certain other configurations in which there are mveral pairs ,ilf.l symmetrical about the center of the configrration.

positions. Howevet, the principle of reciprocity tells us that there are actually only three independent combinations, any complete interchange of potential and current electrodes leading to an equivalent system (X'igure 15). A comparison of the results obtained with these three difierent hook-ups permits us to und.erstand the influence d the zone near each of the electrodes and can facitate interpretation. AB Rectangle. Among t.e configurations in which the electrodes are not on the same line, the only one cunently used is that in which MN is displaced. laterally rith respect to the line of the cunent electrod.es AB; MN remains parallel to AB and. not too far from its midpoint O. This technique permits the investigation of a rather exensive zone by displacing only two electrodes in an area where the field *hength is about uniform. It is evident that the depth of investigation remains about the same {or all such measurements. This configuration is the one called the ',rectangle

hoepecting, 3: 388-402.

ce'rNrnn, Enrc, 1g55, some note concerning tho wenner con{iguration

Geophysical

28

Resistivity profiles and Maps

I![easurement ol Potential Drop. In other cases, we can measure direcgy certain combinations of potential difierences measured with fferent pairs of potential electrodes. such is the case for the potential-Drop-Ratio method. lnu.o*f io which the electrod.es are aligned in the foltowing order: B well removed., a, M, p and -l[. The ratio between the potential drops M P and, P-l/ is then measured. This methoci. measures in effect a sort of derivative of the field strength, and" consequenily is very sensitive. IIn-fortunately, it is sensitive above all to local inhomogeneities near the

potential electrodes.
rations,

computat,on of Apporent Res^ti,aity-The coefficientK. x'or any of these configuit is easy to write the expression for the apparent resisiivity following"its definition: ratio between the measured value of the parameter in question urrJ it* theoretical value in a homogeneous medium of unit resistivity. Thus, for a given quadripole, v'e will have (X'igure 16) :

The coefficient of a v lr )n this formula depends only upon the geometric configuration and is called the "geometric factor" or is simply-designat-ed as K. x'or the symmetrical Schlumberger configuration,

"
If

: " V*]f!t :

"

l4!t_lLN)'

the lengths are given in meters, potential differences in millivolts, and the current ir, milliamps, the resistivities will be expressed- in ohm-meters. rn the same manner, in the potential-drop-ratio method, if -R is the ratio of potential differences, the apparent resistivity will be given by (X'igure 16):
n:-: SA

NUN-AP\
AP-AM

Potential-drop-ratio method

PMA
K:2n

Q": E t _ A:n
Qu: Il

( I _ r l_/ r _ r i \AM ANI \B,u In'J

with

_1 tt:p-a
AN.- AP

Qa:-t1 n.: -vt

Vz

For configuration symmetrical about 0:

AM.AN
MN

v
I
F'ig. f

6. Determination of the geometric factor K

Methocls of Application

29

m.3
TTT.

Methotls of Application

3a llorontal Profiting

Any one of the configurations d.escribed above can be used to establish resistivity profiles or maps. To that end, one must either move the complete configuration after each measurement or cause the electrodes -MN b occupy a series of different positions -r.rctn'een each movement of the current electrodes ,48. This latter option is used in the case of AB profiles or rectangles. fn both cases, the group of measurements will '.orrespond. to the same depth of investigation or to several, nearly constant values .rf that depth. Choice ol Li,ne Length. Configurations fixed. in length are displaced, along the line -'i electrodes, and, if they are short enough, the cables may be dragged along the
round (x'igure r7). This type of surveying is called "Horizontal profiling."
Apparent resistivity curves
P"

i=-\ /\---/
c'

/ZJr'JO

'

Displacement of the conflguration

:izontal proflling with Schlumberger conf.guration

Ilorizontal proflling with lee conflguation

17.

Presentation

of results

corresponding t'o configuration displacements as

sho.wryl

\nrspg the configurations commonly used, the simplest is the symmetrical quaiipole aMNB. The choice of the electrode separation AB for a given problem is an -:nportant and difficult question that can be answered only after a certain amount :j trial and error. Some possible cases are cited as examples: - Suppose that it is desired to map the nature of a structure masked by a variable :ijtness of overburden; one should then take a line as long as possible and perhaps much as 40 times the minimum thickness of the overburden. The effect of the ;,'rring thickness of overburden can be especially bothersome if its resistivity is

:i:h.

-?
30
R,esistivity profiles and Maps

2) If iL is desired to study the nature of an alluvium more or less argillaceous, ,48 must not be more than two to four times the minimum thickness of this alluvium. The measurements are more sensitive to the thickness of the alluvium as the resistivity contrast is increased between the alluvium and the underlying rocks. I{ote tha the addition of a thin, shallow layer can compricate the picture by imposing a lower limit on the electrode separation ,48. 3) Finally, if it is desired to follow the variations of the thickness of the overburden, one must choose an electrode separation that is neither too long nor too short-for example, five to ten times the average thickness of the overburden. This supposition is based on the case of two very homogeneous beds lr,.ith a strong resistivity con_ trast. Horizontal profiling is rarely applicabre to this sort of situation. Fot MN, an electrode separation.is taken between one-tenth and one-third the separation AB.Ibe interval between successive points of measurement will d"epend on the precision which is required of the suryey; normaliy this interval will equal the distance l4-0tr' Since this procedure involves adjacent measurements of the poi"otial difference MN, it leads to continuous profiling that cannot be attained inelec-

trical sounding.

sults from profi1e to profile. Use of Seueral Li'ne Lengths. Measurements with a single electrode separation may often be insufficient, even more so since the depth of investigation for*a given eleetrode separation may vary considerably depending on the vertical succession of resistivities in the sect'ion. Rather than do the measurements twice in two separate passes, we may use a technique such that measurements with several electrod.l separations are made simultaneously with a single pass along the profile. x'or rather shallow problems, we can use a symmetrical configurution ia' M a, n *i*tour current electrodes. For a given position of Ml{,measurements aro mad.e first withthe current flowing between A' and B'. The cable is then d.isplaced and the measure_ ments repeated at the next station. Besides the obvious aclvantage of providing two depths of investigation, this technique also enables us to identifylfiects of near surface inhomogeneities as the individual electrodes pass over them. confgurati'on with Mr{ outsid,e. with longer rines, an asymmetrical configuration is sometimes used with two current, electrocles and several pairs of potentlal electrodes exterior to AR and generally adjacent to one another: BA MN M'N' ... (Fig_ ure 15). There are thus provided a set of configurations with increasing depths of iivestigation, since these depths are essentially governed by the stance from the potentiai electrodes to the nearest current electrode. The measurements for the different pairs of MN may be made simultaneously after which the configuration is moved a distance generally equal to the ilterval l'l4ll. This technique permits the use of most of the potential electrodes for measurements at different d.epths of investiga-

When one profile is finished, adjacent parallel and equally-spaced profiles are executed until the entire surface to be surveyed is covered. The distance between acljacent profiles will always be at least as great as the distance between measurements along the profile, and often will be several t'imes greater. In fact, the profiles wilt usuall! be oriented normal to structures so that we may expect to find somewhat similar re-

Methocls of Appcation

31

tion -without actually moving them. The technique also permits us to obtain a large number of readings in a short time, but the interpretation of the data is sometims delicate. In fact, since the current electroile nearest, the potential electrodes enters ir1to play almost alone, the effect as it' crosses a structure is nearly double that of a srmmetrical configuration and should thus be sought carefully on the profiles ob_ tained. Use ol Beaeral Pa'rs of Potential Electrod,es. The use of several pairs of potential electrodes for each position of the current electrod.es may have as its only aim the separation of the efiects due to movement of the two kinds of electrodes. The most 'oormon technique in this category uses a symmetrical configuration wibh three po:ential electrodes MOI{, the center electrode being p}aced" at ihe midpoint of the line -lB. The T,ee configuration is an example. For a given position of the current elecirodes, the potential difierences betureen MO and OI{ arc successively measured, after rhich the configuration is moved. forwarcl an interval equal to the interval MO (Tig'rre l7). In this fashion, we have:

for the same measuring element Mo or

resistivity corresponding to tu.o successive positions of the line ,aB. The difference between these two measurements is a measure of the effect of the position of the current electrodes; for a given posiion of the line AB,two varues of the apparent resistivity corresponding to two successive positions of the potential electrodes MO and, ON , in other words, an element of the resistivity profile .48.

or,

two values of the apparent

the tot'al Mr{ is short compared. to the length AB, Lhe two parts Mo and, very nearly at the center of the configuration and all of the measurerents have approximately the same depth of investigation. ft is also evident that -ne could combine the above techniques such that two d.epths of investigation were :,railable using a configuration with seven electrodes AA'MOI{ BB, .
Since
'-^\ remain

il
ri

m. ial

3b The Rectangle Method

:rt remaining parallel to it, tho term "rectangle" is used. The potential electrodes ,:e usually kept within the middle third of the electrode separation aB, and. within ; lateral distance from the rine AB equal to AB 14 (Eigare Ig). A rectangle of these :'nrensions (AB13, AB12) is such that the field strength in the interior of te rectangle ,-'l the depth of investigation will be nearly constant if the earth is homogeneois. l"e interval ,44-l/ is kept comparatively small (,48/b0 to ABl25) so that.we can make , -arger number of measurements within a given rectangle without moving the cur:'rt electrodes. X'or each position of ,48 this method leads to a small -up o the fietcl .-length, or, more exactly, to a map of the component of the field, strength parallel

Profiles with AB rired, and, AB Rectangles. The same principle of seyeral potenmeasurements for a given position of the electrodes AB can be extende con-J.erably, and thus has given rise to the technique called "profile and rectangl e A8.,, s long as the electrodes MN rcmain in line with the current electrodes, the term .profile" is used; when the element,Ml[ is moved off the line of current electrodes,

to

ResistiviY Profrles and MaPs

4-4
4-4

Profi/ AB Rectang/e,la

Fig. 18.
Profrles and rectangle AB

tothelineAB.Thevafiationsofthisfield,relativetothenearlyuniformfield.itthe to interpret' homogeneous, are relat'ively easy

earth were parent resistivity *hi";]. equal to unity. The

Inreality,however,wedonotdrawamapoftnefield'strength'butoneoftheapby a factor nearly ;;|r[y related.lo the field st'rengthstrength in a homoof the field the inverse
"or.n-.t

i,

prcisely

seneousearthataglvenpoint.Forthedimensionsoftherectangledescribedand rectangle rangel from 1/t'4 on the edge of the Io, u. infinitesimal MN,t'!rcconstant' parallel to the 1.;';;;;" *iap"irt oItU* edge of the.rect'angle in terms of the on the *"u**ing point {or 'ineABt" AB.The need ,"'"llp*"*if.i- factor "u"i the rnethod' M'l is an in*convenience of 'ne "rif"tgtl,Inuesti'gator'-o' oy AB Rectangle)' As for the depth of investigation' Depth of i* largest at thl mid'point and gets it also varies slightly *ii'fu'" the rectangl"; i of a of the r"ctangl". Iio*"t"r, the computat'ion slightly smaller to*u"A*lfr" "ag.. at a given point with to ,rhat one would get factor to normalize all measurents, of t'rue resistivities
a given electrode

AB' now depends on the succession withintheearth.rn"""to,",sucha"o,,""tio,'factorcanbecomputedonlyinthe

'"p;;ti";

caseofavefysimplehlothesissuchasasinglehomogeneousbedlyingonanin. sulo-stratum' finitely resistant or perfe"tty cond'u-cting than TJsa' th" u''"u' to be studied is much larger Tying AB R,*';;;; rog'ther' problem in question; in such a for the the area of the rectangle most appropriate each with an u succession of aijacent rectangles
case, the large area

is Jovered

*itf,

appropriatepositiorrofthecurrentelectrod'es.Matchingtheresultsofadjaeentrecnot the in fact,, the measurements are normally tangles sometimes p"-". l-pr"lem; between two adjacent rectangles with when made along the common t orrt*
same

tvodifferentpositionsofthecurrentelectrodes.Thiseffectisdue,'notonlytothe detailsofcurrent,i.,'it,o,io,'intheearth,buta]sotothespuriouseffectsofthe be neceselectrocles. In certain cases, it' will earth immedi-t"ry ;;;;;J the current, rvhere the various area to take out irregularities sary to smooth trr" *rf "r trre yhole all of t'he reapply the same correction factor t'o to rectangles touch. rt*J'p""r"*t1e sultsofagivenrectangle,choosingthecorrectionfactorsinsuchawayastoobtain rectangles. rf this matching proYes
the optimum

*ut.rirlti

uli th""oraers of the

Methods of

Application

33

to be too difficult, a more complicated technique must be adopted in which the corrections vary from point to point within a given rectangle. In this technique, the fact that only trvo electrodes are moved between successive measurements has two advantages. In the first place, it facilitates the execution of sunreys in difficult terrain; ancl in the second place, which is more important, it clirninishes the number of perturbations due to changes in the nature of the soil in the immediate vicinity of the current electrodes. In review, the disadvantages of the technique are: I. the depth of investigation is somewhat .i'ariable; 2. it is sometimes difficult to join the results of adjacent rectangles; 3. lengthy calculations are needed to compute geometrical coefficients normalizing the results of all the points within a given rectangle; and 4. there are certain diffrculties in the execution of the measulements such as a need for multiple conductors, line leaks needing to be checked, etc.
There are two cases in which the technique of rectangles finils its greatest use, in nining problems and in tectonic problems involving moderate or great depths. trn mining problems, it is advantageous to use an interval -MN very small in comparison rr-itlr the interval AB. At the same time, imperfect joining of adjacent rectangles is

not bothersome, for the aim is simply to map low resistivity trends and the absolute rlues of the resistivity are not important. In tectonic studies, for example, with ,48 ecual to 6000 meters or longer, it is not practical to drag the cables from station to station in horizontal profiling. Thus, the rectangle method is preferrecl because it permits a much more rapid advancement. The Telluric Method'. The distribution of the field, due to natural currents in telluric prospecting, has manr points in common with the distribution of the field in the rectangle method. fn particular, the manner in which geoiogic structures manifest themselves is quite similar in the two methods. The conditions favorable to the u._re of these two methods are also similar, and, therefore, it is useful, if we are to 'listinguish betu'een their similarities and differences, to bring to mind. an outline of the principles of telluric prospecting. Teliuric prospecting is founded on the fact that spontaneous currents flow in the erth and behave as though they came from extremely distant sources. Thus, telluric ,:urrents are uniform in a homogeneous earth. The conditions are the same as would i,.e expected near the center of a large rectangle AB, exeepl for the advantage that no current cables are needed in the case of telluric currents. The exception to this sirnilarity is that teliuric currents are quite variable in time as much in direction of
ow as in magnitud.e. The variation in intensity imposes the use only of comparative measurements. n'or -sample, the field intensity is measured at points in the area to be prospected reiative to the field. intensity at a fixed reference point. I'Ieasurements to be compared must be made at the same instant. The measurement of the current is impossibie in this '.ase, and, in a sense, is replaced by the measurement of the field strength at a point
-rf

reference.
Geoexlloration 1,1

34

Resistivity Proflles and Maps

The variation of the direction of flow leads us to measure two potential differences

MN, generally at right angles to each other. The two components then permit

us to

determine both the magnitude and. direction of the field vector. The relationship between tho field vectors at the station and the point of reference can also be quite vaable, depending on the direction of the field. This is not unexpeced (Figure 19) because different values of the apparent resistivity may be obtained depending on the direction of the current Ttne AB with respect to structural trends, other things being equal. The difficulty of choosing between the various ratios of the field vectors is overcome through a remarkable property of telluric fields. The areas swept by the field" vectors at two different points, during the same interval of time, bear a ratio to each other that depends only on the relationship of the geologic sections at the two points. It is this ratio of areas, a sort of average of fields taken in all directions, that is thc fundamental parameter in telluric prospecting. It is easy, however, to define a similar parameter using artifi.cial currents. To do so, we must use two current lines -48, long as compared to any structures present or to d.esired clepths of investigation and at right angles to each other. We measure with each the magnitude and direction of the field vector at the center of the configuration. The area of the triangle formed, by the two field vectors, thus measured, will everywhere be proportional to the areas measured in the telluric
method.
#i'i

There exists, moreover, a simplified version o{ the telluric method that is even
more like the rectangle technique and that is used in regions where the general structural trend, or at least the trend. of the structures sought, is rvell defined.. In this simplified method, only the component of the field vector normal to the general strike is measured. Respect',ae Ad,aantages of Telluric and, Rectangle Method,s. The respective advantages of the two methods are as follows:

ry
ttir

Telluric:
1. easier execution of measurements due to the suppression of current lines; 2. great depth of penetration, Iimited only by the skin-efiect; 3. information on structures of any orientation, except those parallel to the principal direction of culrent flow; and 4. no need to tie the rectangles together.

Rectangle -48:

to the problem in question; 2. current can be directed so as to give maximum effect over the structure to be studied.; 3. absolute measurements giving the apparent resistivitv instead of relative
measurements; and 4. use possible in regions perturbed by industrial curents.

1. depth of investigation adaptable

Methods of Application

.ti)

III.

3c Presentation of Results

The presentation of the data obtained by these methods lead.s to no particular problem. In the case of horizontal profiling, with one or more electrode separations, we can first of all draw resistivity profiles for a given line on the ground. There will be one curve for each electrode separation used. On the abscissa will be plotted a, point representing the position of the midpoint of the configuration at each measurement; at each point the value of the apparent resistivity is plotted on the ordinate using a linear or logarithmic scale as appropriate. fn the case of the asymmetric configuration srith l/ff outsid.e the current electrodes, it.is convenient to plot the value of the apparent resistivity at the midpoint between the two potential electrodes. This convention is arbitrary and it is ,r.."-r*u"y each time to note on the graph what convention has been used, as well as the position of the current electrodes. The results of a group of profiles are represented in the form of a map, one for cach electrode separation used in the survey. on the map is plotted. the midpoint of MN for each measurement and. the corresponding value of the apparent resistivity. Contours are then drawn representing points of equal resistivity. TLe contour interval may be chosen using an arithmetic or a geometric progression as desired. In the case of horontal profiling with the Lee configuration discussecl above, the apparent resistivities are plotted at the corresponding midpoints oI Mo and oll; thus, for a given position of the current electrodes aB,two values of the appareni resistivity are plotted and connected with a ]ine. conversely, for a given point on the abscissa, there are two values of the apparent resistivity representing two successive positions of the current electrodes ,4,B (Figure t7). I{ormal American plot of data from the Lee configuration differs from this representation in that two resistivity curves are plotted, one from the MO measurements and one from the OI{ measurements. In each case, tho apparent resistivity value is plotted at a position, of the midpoint of the corresponding potential electrodes, Mo or oI{. The resistivity profile thus obtained reveals, by its discontinuities, the effects due to the passage of the current electrodes across faults, etc. tr'inally, a resistivity map can be prepared from a series of profiles. when ptotting a map from this sort oi ,l*ti the average of the two values of the apparent resistivity at ch point is taken. A map of apparent resistivities is obtained directly, in the rectangle method, when all of the rectangles are plotted and smoothed as necessary.

III.4 Effeet of Yarious Structures

Resistivity profiles and maps obtained over a given geologic structure d.epend on the electrode configuration used and on its orientation. Becuse of the priiiciple of reciprocity, it is theoretically sufficient to compute the potentiai at all poirrt* Jr.", u, structure due to a single current electrode as it is moved from place to place. This in itself is often a difficult problem. In practice, it is more interesiing to compute the apparent resistivities considering alt of ihe elecfrodes in a given configuration. Certain catalogues exist indicating the resistivity profiles that are obtained, over some simple, structures with variors relative orientations for a given configuration.

36

B,esistivity Profiles and Maps

III.

4a ,4-B Rectangle

The simplest problem is that of a rectangle,4B, since it is to the first approximation a determination of the perturbation of a uniform field by a given inhomogeneity. Ilowever, it is o{ten helpful to consid.er that the current electrodes are not actually infinitely far away. Approximate Cylind,rical Structures and, Approrimate (Jniform Field,s-Cho,ce of L,,ne Or'entati,on. A cylindrical structure is one having a nearly uni{orm cross-section infinitely in both directions along its axis. A cylindrical structure would have no effect on a field that was really uniform and parallel to the axis of the structure. However, the fie1d due to two current electrodes separated by a finite distance.4B will be someA
A/Y.S
P/4 nAU

tl

f0,tlPl/tIufrt

\
s
.Q

AB (meqsured)

-f//V/ft

s IJ **
N
N

$
A1

A2

A.

Ll
/y
PIAN

t-f

.t

+f ++ +J-H1 +l+ //

/'1

//fW
f0R /V'fA$Uff/ulfl/ft 0/y M00fl:

A8=ga L'of
earhl

b:c :

/V/V

= a/z
2a

n-/ !r'*

Fig.19. Profiles

across rectangle

resistant anticline

AB over a

Effect of Various Structues

q-

what perturbed by a cylindrical structure parallel to the line AB,evennear the center of that line. conversely, a structure of great but finite length will always perturb somewhat a uniform field, even if the field is parallel to the structure. However, it is true that the effect of such structures is always more marked on a field that is perpendicular to the axis of the structure. It will be ad.vantageous therefore to use such an orientation of electrodes when searching for elongated structures. - The foregoing principles are illustrated by Figure 19 which gives profrles obtained from a reduced model of a rectangle AB over a resistant anticline. In A are shown the profiles when the line of electrodes is parallel to the structure and in B the profiles when the two are perpendicular. The fields measured vary from those com-

Fig. 20. Effect of a buried.. perfectly conducting pipe

PLAN

V IEW

B PtRPENDTCULAR to B pAnetlrt lo pp

PtPE

; Jz ; 4l
z^t

<

o'2
o'1

38
rIE[D A EARII{ S

Resistivity ProfiIes and Maps

SURfACT TIELD

AI EARI{ S SURTACE

BURIED INf INITETY RESISTANI VERfICAL PLAIE

BURIEO, PERTECTIY CONDUCTING HORIZONTAL PTATE

rero

enx's sunrce

2
7

q5

RESISIANT BED

POtt HtLD Fig.21 a. Effect of some cylindrical structures on a uniform field

puted for e uniform cuffent, due to the fact that the electrode separation r4B was ioo small compaied to the depth of the structurei e.g., AO :2.25b. In the case B, the configuration was not srmmetrica,l, except with the MN at the center position. fn order to correct the apparent resistivity q, to what it would have been if the configuration were symmetrical, the measured. apparent resistivity

must be multiplied by the factor:

., ":z*"-^r"."; In the presence of a infinitely resistant sub-stratum ,when MN is practically infinites-

Ztv-

Ktv-

Effect of Various Strrctures

rIEID A] 5
2
7

39
FIELD AT EARIH

EARTI{'S

SU R FACE

SURTACE

2
7

as

q5
02

RESISIANf OIXE

CONDUCTING OIKE

FIELD AT EARTH

SURfACE

FIEID AT EARTH S

SURFACE

lql

))
I

,t.
05

0,5

CONDUCTING 8ED

POIN FIEI.D

......"'..

AVFAGE FTTD

WIIH f INITE MN AS

SHOWN

Fig. 21 b.

Effect

of some cylindrical structures on a uniform field

imal, and when AB is more than three times the depth of the sub-stratum, we have

^ "

1+1" rt-frr-.rr2 ' rr2 rr2* rz2 I,I" 8 2rrr, r, ' r, (rr*r")"

40

Resistivity Profiles and Maps

where r, : AM and r, : BM.ktthe case where the lines are parallel to the structure, the expressions are much more complicated but fortunately the corrections are practically negligibie. Anoma\es Dueto Cond,uct,ae and, Reti,stae Bod,ies. The rule that the larger anomaiy is found when the configuration is perpendicular to the structure is more rigorous for resistant structures than for conductive structures. In fact, for cond.uctive structures with certain relationships between the dimensions of the structure and those of the configuration, it is possibte that the greater effect occurs when the two are parallel to each other. As an example, Figure 20 shows the computed apparent resistivity in the vicinity of a buried, perfectly conductive pipe. Th,n Bed,s. This differenco irr the efiect of conductive and resistant structures is still clearer in the case of extended inhomogeneities that are relatively thin, such as thin beds and veins. When only cyiindrical structures and a uniform field perpendicular to the structures are considered, the effects depend essentially on the dip of the beds. A thin, conductive layer will have little effect if it is vertical or nearly vertical, unless one of the current electrodes is nearly touching the layer. The same layer, if horizontal, will have a distinctive effect. A thin, resista,nt layer behaves in the opposite manner-being the more evident when it is vertical. X'igures 21 a and 21b show several examples of this type, the current electrod.es always being consid.ered to be at infrnity. Contact between Thictr Bed,s. The case of a plane eontact, between thick homogeneous formations of different resistivities rvill be relatively simpler, if we consider that the current electrodes are at infinity. For example, on either side of a vertical fault one would find constant apparent resistivities representing the true resistivities of the

t[{
tr

Frg.22. Resistivity profile over

a vertical contact and a dipping oontact

Effect of Various Structues

FIELDAT THE EARIH,S SURACE

4T

5
+ 3
2

1s
7

72ii :s-(\\rk
Fig. 23 a. Comparison of the influence of cylindrical structures and domes of the same diameter when the current electrodes are far removed

Fig. 23b. Variat'ion in the maximum relief

5

in the field as a function of the height of a cylindrical structure or a dome, when the
diameter equals the depth to its top

3
2,5

Cross eclnn

of enrlh

42

Resistivity Profiles

ancl MaPs

formations; in the vicinity of the contact, there ould be a grad.ual transition from one to the other, the rate of transition depending on the measuling interval MN.In the case of a dipping contact, there would still be the two steps. In reality, especially in this last, case, it is more often necessary to take into account the finite distance between the curent electrodes. X'igure 22 shows a profile AB ovet a vertical fault as compared to one over a fault pping 45 degrees. Morrn, anil, Domes. Inhomogeneities in the form of a mass or dome al'ways have

a jess marked effect than an extended one; this difference becomes even greater as the

inhomogeneity is more deeply buried. This is obviously due to the fact that the current can flow around the obstacle of this shape more easily. We saw earlier in Chapter II that the effect of a spherical mass varies inversely with the cube of the d'epth of its center, but that the perturbation d.ue to an infinite horizontal cylind.er falls off only as the square of the depth of its axis. An uplift of an infinitely resistant sub-stratum in the form of a circular dome, approximated. by a vertical circular cylinder, u'ould modify a uniform field only ten'per cent if the top were buried" to a depth equal to the diameter of the dome, regardless of the vertical extent of the dome. Figure 23 shows such a case with two different depths of the dome, in comparison with an anticline of infinite extent. Efiect ol Ani,sotropy. Folded bed.s can modify the field distribution by their microscopic or macroscopic anisotropy even il they are homogeneous. In fact, the current tends to follow the rection of bedfing in which it encountels the least, resistance' Once again, the field. in the direction perpencular to the strike of the beds is

particularly affected, the current density being higher over the summits of the

/,3

72

ll'

11

x0 49
08

47
46
0,5

Fig.24. Effect on
is

a uniform fleld of an eroded. anticline andsynclile. Coefficientofanisotropy .4, which could correspond. to a succession of thinly bedded sands and clays with pr/p. :20

Effec of Various

Sfructures

4g

anticlines and. less over the troughs. As is shown in Figure 24,fota uniform field perpendicular to the structure, one can show by computtions that the above effect is more pronounced and is of greater width ver tle fuoughs. shen the lines of current are parallel to the folds, the effects are much *"ukur, and can even be reversed rolatively over the anticline ancl the troughs.

of Interpretaton. IL is und.erstood that a wid.e variety of resistivity -.Ambigu'ty distributions in the earth can produce comparable effects on the fielct at the earth,s surface. Thus, the preceding examples relaie to structures assumed. to be infinitely resistant, but more shallow structures of a finite resistivity ancl slightly difierent form would lead. to the same results. This ambiguity can be rlsolved Jdy by comparison of results found with different electrod.e sparations and sometimes not even then; this question will be reviewed. later.

III.4b Horontal Profiling

The appearance of the resistivity profilo obtained. by horizontal profiling will depend notonly on the positions of the potential electrocLes M and.N,but also on th" posiiions of the current electrod.es A and, B with respect to the inhomogeneities in the earth, the reason being that all electrodes u"" -oo"d after each measurement. Electrode Eflects at AB and' MN. The variations in the apparent resistivity due to moving the current electrodes always complicate the interpretation of results. The effect may be due to variation of the electrode positions with respect to a structural feature or it may be due to spurious variations of the nature of the soil in the immediate vicinity of the electrodes themselves. The latter perturbation is, of course, undesirable and is referred to as an "electrode effect." The results may also be influenced by an electrode effect at one of the potential electrod"es .whicbis equally undesirable' rn discussions, these tr,vo cases must be distinguished. Vert'col contact betu.een ttno Med,i,o. a few examples, corresponding to simple structures, will serve to illustrate the manner in which the influence of electrode position manifests itselJ. The simplest structure is a vertical contact between media of different resistivities. The apparent resistivity is easy to compute in this case, since the potentials have simple expressions, arthough they are difierent in the two mea.

*
,[

t{
d
H

tion, we must take the sum or difference of four terms: the potential at each of the potential electrodes due to the source at each of the current electrodes. These terms

The complete computation is slightty long because, for each position of the configura-

A : Current

llecirode A,:

Image of current

electrode I:
a,

Curren strength

Fig. 25. Images formed when a current, electrode is near

vertical contact between two media

Resistivity Proflles and Maps

va,ry depending on the relative positions of the electrodes vith respect to the contact

Figwe 25). The potential in the

me:uLm containing the source is

,, -IQ,/ I - 4-\ 'r- 2n\AMr' A,Mr)

where
,

K:ffit.
Ip,(IfK) r: 2n AM,

The potential in the medium not containing the source is

We caution that these expressions are valid only for a vertical contact betrveen outcropping media. In Figure 26, are shown resistivity profiles that one would obtain perpendicular tg such a contact, depending on the type of configuration used. Their comparison helps us to distinguish the effects of the different electrodes. In particular, the efiect is shown as the current electrode passes across the contact; the explanation is ofteri ntuitive: the increase in the field strength as the cunent is repelled towards the

TNFTNTTEAB

lflNrrE MN (9

uH

"o Q

Tig.26. Ilorizontal
ne

ri^it.[$[.

hE

proles over a

vertical contact .

Effec of Yarious Structures

+c

potential electrodes by the resistant medium, the decrease in the field when the current is attracted in the opposite direction by the conductive medium. A Vertical Bed' of Mod,erate Thiclcness. Although the effects of the individual electrodes are easy enough to reveal when thick sections are inyolved, they become more di{ficult to separate when there is a succession of upturned beds and the thicknesses are of the same order of magnitude as the electrode separations used. X.or example, Figure 27 shows what one would obtain over a vertical bed., whose resistivity is less than that of the surrounding medium, when the thickness of the beil
half the separation between the current electrodes.
Po

"qori*

lr I
I

MNATb

0,s 0,s

l0'7
.0,5

0,5 0,4

0,J o09 0,08 0,07

0,06
0,05

0,0,t 0,o3

AB -T

Pr=39p

infi n itesimally small

!ig. ?1.. Resistivity p:ofile perpendicular to a vertical

1!trrT

conductive bed of thickness AB/2, with

46

Resistiviy Profiles and Maps

rn such cases, it is advantageous to use AB profiles, which do not display strong electrode effects. An alternate method. is to use a Lee-type technique in which the electrode effects can be d-istinguished from other effects. Profiles parallel to the contacts are also immune to these electrode effects and often enable us better to determine the resistivities. IIowever, it is evident that they are ill-adapted, to find the exact ]ocation of the contacts. Comparison ol Electrod,e Efreats at AB and, MN Erample of a Cytind,ri,ca,l or Bpherical outcrop. rt is obvious in the foregoing examples that, if the purpose of the study is to localize the contacts, the electrode effects of the potential electrodes cannot be consid.ered bothersome: it is the abrupt change in apparent resistivity as an electrode closses the contact that enables us to resolve our problem. fn this case, the effect of superf.cial resistivity changes on the potential electrodes is more bothersome than their effects on the curent electrodes. Thus, i{ one is confronted with a narrow, superficial band. of highly conducting material, he rvill obtain a greater anomaly when the potential electrodes cross the feature than when the cgrrent electrod.es cross it,. The effect on the current electrod.es will be even less il the zone consists only of a superficial alteration u.hose lateral extent in all directions is relatively small in comparison with the dimensions of the configuration. X'igure 28 shows a comparison between the effect of a perfectly conductive half-cylinder perpendicular to the line of electrodes and. the effect of a perfectly conductive hemi-sphere. The electrode effect is much more marked when one uses an asymmetric con-figuration with .MN exterior. fn effect, in this case, the field. depends mostly on the nearest
Po

i -ii, b

2.01

ir

rol
L

I I

rorxrrc or

rHE

rwo I L crooE ErFEcrs

451
I I

a?tl

I
.t-g'

ii=#

#=oo

inhomogeneities of the same diameter

28. Electrocle, effect in horizontal profiling over semi-circular, cylindrical and hemi-spherical

Effect of Yarious

Strucures

47

A".troAu irrutead of being the average of the fields due to each of the crrrent electrodes. Thus, the field suffers doubly when this one current electrode crosses a discontinuity. In summary, there is practically no electrode efiect due to the current, electrodes except in the presence of boundaries between large masses of material; in such cases, these are, strictly speaking, the only electrod.e effects. On the other hand,
z

_.____,,__ r
o
=

!9

t-: --

to

o a

\!/
l

!' o'

o 'o

i--

cB

,:

a p
@

lr

\-{

d l:

o
o
B

o
ts o

a q o I

o H

g g
o o
H

tr+ E Ep
'i

!9

6il

= v

ls

= gv

il = ev

qor = 8v

ho
Fq

48
them.

F,esistivitY Profiles and MaPs

very local inhomogeneities yieid an effect only when the potential electrodes cross
of Use of Seueral Li,ne Letzgths. The use of horizontal profiling simu]taneously with several fferent electrode separations is undertaken either to study layers at several different depths, or, more often, to facilitate the distinction between
Ad,aantage

structures that are indistinguishable because they produce overlapping effects at the

surface. For example, suppose that with a cert'ain electrode separation, a progressive change in the near-surface resistivity could lead to the same resistivit'y profile as a .rrariulion in the depth of a yery resistant, bed. These two causes would yield very distinguishable results i,f t'he electrod"e separation wele properly changed' n'igure 29 shows schematicallr ho-,v this principle works. Moteover, these diagrams permit us to estimate the most appropriaLe electrode separations, depending on the resistivities

rf,i

or depths in question. Th choice of electrode separations, as well as the interpretation of the fference in the resuits given by different electrode separations, depends on at least a partial knowledge of ihe vertical resistivity distribution in the earth. This knor'vledge usually can be guined only through one or more electrical soundings. Therefore, the execution of these electrical soundings must always precede a study using resistivity profiles. Historically, however, the resistivity profile antedates the electrical sounding. n'rom 1923 on, several crews operated in Rumania, the Gulf coast, etc., using only resistivity profiles, r,vhereas the frrst electrical soundings date from 1927.Tt was only

later that

iti

found necessary always to commence a survey with electrical soundings. As a matter of fact, several sryeys using resistivity maps failed because

it -u.

of a insufficient number of electrical soundings.

irl
r

III.

Conelusions

The apparent resistivity map has had- numerous applications since the aclvent of electrical prospecting ancl will continue to be useful on a large scale. Its principal advantages lie in the ease of making fie1d measurements and in the simplicity of a qualitative interpretation of the results. Once they are freed of various electrode effects, the apparent resistivities reflect' the corresponding variations in the true resistivities in a zone whose depth is fairly well kno'wn and is nearly constant. In relation to electrical soundings, to be scussed next', they have the advantage of permitthg continuous covelage (successive and adjacent MI{'s), which makes them preferable for detailed survevs of such features as subvertical {aults. The fact that the possibilities of the resistivity map are fairly limited, when it, comes to defining precisely the nature and the form of structures, is not a major ilconvenience:

in reconnaissance surveys 'where the only object is to reveal anomalies to be studied in detail by other methods; in attempts to localize shailow contacts or facies variations such as faults, upended beds, ancl conduct'ive pockets;

Conclusions

49

in the interpolation of a certain parameter, such as the resistivity or more often the d,epth to a given bed, when if is flsNsylnined. precisely at certain points by an expensive method such as drilling. rn certain simple cases, one can even calibrate the apparent resistivity making it possible to draw structural contours giving the d,epths directly. This has been done, for example, in the Joplin district (USA) and- near Hettenschlag (Alsace).
Whether it be for the choice of configuration or for the interpretation of the results, it is indispensable to have at least a few electrical soundings to furnish a more detailed knowledge of the vertical succession of resistivities.

Cleoexploration 1,1

CIIAPTER, TV

NLACTN,ICAL SOUNDINGS

ry.1

General

Definition and Cond,i,t,on lor Use. An electrical sounding, or vertical resistivity profile, consists of a suecession of apparent resistivity measutements made rvith an increasing electrode separation, the center of the configuration and its orierrtation remaining frxed. If the resistivity of the soil surrounding the current, electrodes does not vary appreciablv from measurement to roeasurement, the variation in apparent resistivity will essentiaily be due to the increasing penetration of the cunent into the earth; the distribution of the current will thus be influenced by deeper and deeper beds (X'igure 30). It is even more important for electrical soundings, than for horizonf,al

lf,i

rl
lf
rl

penetration

Fig.30. Increaso in depth of

with

increasing

electrode separations

$
[rli

profiling, that the variations to be sought have a lateral extension very great compared to their depths. The domains in which electrical soundings find their greatest application are surveys of broad structures in which the beds are nearly horizontal and shallow problems often arising in hydrology and civil engineering. Isolated, Electri'aal Sound,ings and, Sound'i'ng Profiles. However, even und"er the most favorable conditions, those in which the beds are horizontal and" the resistivity is a function only of depth, the relationship between the true resistivity and the apparent resistivity is complex, and, it is rarely possible to arrive at a quantitative interpretation only from data obtained by isolated electrical soundings. Such soundings, too separated from each other to permit us to follow continuously the evolution of the earth's characteristics, can furnish only qualitative information concerning the nature of the beds. They might indicate, for example, the comparative magnitude of resistivity contrasts, the presence of thick conductive beds or resistant beds that mask underlying beds from the current, as well as an order of magnitude of depths and resistivities. Especially in reconnaissance work, such information can be very useful to judge the advisability of using electrical methods and to help choose the best
method to execute them.

Configurations and thei Use

5l

It is only through a comparative

study of the common characteristics and the

progressive de{ormations of a nearly continuous set of electrical soundings that it becomes possible to draw procise conclusions. Even when one cannot determine the depths and t'rue resistivities exactly, one can at least deduct the trend. of variations. Such in-formation is, in the end, most usefui. Calibrati'on of Electrical Boundings. The determination of absolute values d.epends on other favorable circumstances. tr'or example, i{ there exist, drill holes to a sufficien depth in the area to be surveyed, the finclings can be used to calibrate the electricai soundings so that the variation of resistivity and depths can be determined fairly accurately in the space between individual holes. Another possible source of calibration would be an outcrop, or the presence, at very shallow depths, of the most imfacies can be assumed.

portant beds. In such cases, the true resistivity can easily be determined. If the to be constant over the area to be surveyed, a knowledge of the true resistivity thus determined will greatly facilitate the interpretation of electrical soundings. Since, in every case, various resistivity distributions quite different from each other can lead. to similar electrical soundings, every interpretation must be based on the integration of all geological and geophysical information available on the
region.

IY.z

Configurations antl their Uso

IY.2a Configurations In principle, any configuration that was examined above could be used in electrical sounding. In practice, however, we rarely use an.'thing except symmetrical quadripoles, and among these most often the Scnr,urresnenn or Wnnwnn eonfigurations.

t
{ { I

IJnderwater surveying is an exception to which we rill return later. tr'or both the Sour,uMsnnenn and WnNxpn configurations, successive lengths of line are generally increased in geometric progression, each length .48 being aboub 2 times the preced | ing length. In the Scur,uMenncnn configuration, the distance between the potentia,l electrodes M and '/ is in principle infinitety small; in the WnNnrR case, this interval equals one-third the interval AB. rn practice, the Scrr,uuBERGER MN cannol be made infinitely small; and, thus, it is kept as small as is commensurate with the measuring instruments and the potential difference to be measured. It is seen then that the two configurations fier in two essential ways: on one hand., with the Sour,urrBERcER, configuration, the potential diifference is measured between two points very close together; and on the other hand, these two points are held stationary for at least several lengths
of AB.

fr

There are two advantages of the wnxNpn configuration. The electrode spacing ,MIl always bears the same relationship to the eiectrode spacing .48, which facilitates

greatly the computation of the apparent resistivity for successive values of the electrode spacing. Also, the measured potential differences are greater and., therefore, more precise, assuming the same quality of measuring potentiometers in both cases.

52

Electrical Soundings

In this respect, it must be noted that the potential fferences due to telluric currents also become greater with greater electrode separations, and thus somewhat offset
this advantage in the WuNNnn case. Ad,uantages ol the Bchlumberger Configurat'ion The advantages of the Scsr,urrBEB,eER configuration lie in the fact that the potential electrodes are not moved, or at least are moved a minimum number o{ times during a given electrical sounding. On the one hand, this fact means a considerable saving in materiel and effort. On the other hand, it enables us either to eliminate to a great extent the electrode effects on the resistivitv curves or at least, to evaluate them. This results from the fact that the perturbation due to the passage of the potential electrodes over a superficial inhomogeneity are much greater than those due to the current, electrode (X'igure 28). Ilnfortunately, it is hardly possible to execute a complete sounding with a single position of -M and 1[. An -M-l small enough to correspond to small va]ues of the interval ,48 gives a potential difference for larger values of AB too small to be measured a,ccurately. In fact, the fleld at the center of the configurat'ion varies inversely as the square of the length of the configuration which sometimes varies from l0 meters to l0 kilometers; such a variation, with the current and MN spacing fixed, would yield a million for the ratio of the maximum to the minimum field. A constant electrode effect on 14y'l raises or lowers the whole resistivity curve without changing its shape; but, if this translation of the curve is strong and changes from one curve to the next, the comparative interpretation of the soundings becomes difficult. Thus, even if the constancy of the electrode effect on MN ina given sounding is more important than its actual value, the same is not true in the comparison of neighboring soundings. This presents one more reason not to use an interval MI{ too small in comparison with the interval AB, and thus too strongly influenced by possible local inhomogeneities.

{i
,iil

llii

ti
llrr

In practice then, we adopt a compromise solution. lVe commence the sounding with an interval ,44-l[ one-fourth to one-third the interval AB and use it until "48 is 20 to 50 times larger lhanMN; the governing factors are the current density and the sensitivity of the measuring instruments. For the last few measurements of this set, we begin to make simultaneous measurements with an interval Jl[-l[ from 5 to I0 times the first interval. 3inally, this longer interva] l4-l is used exclusively until in turn it becomes too short. This process is repeated as oft'en as necessary. These "matching" measurements, made simultaneously with two values of the
interval M N , ate very important, because they permit us to discover and sometimes to correct the electrode efiects due to changes in the positions of ,M1[. This possibility of distinguishing between the efiect of surface inhomogeneities on the potential electrodes and the influence of a resistivity variation in depth is a great advantage of the Scur,umBERcER configuration over the WnNNpn configuration. n'igure 3l illustrates the effect on both configurations o{ a superficial, high resistivity pocket near the center of the configuration. With the Scur,urlrennenn configuration, we get curves corresponding to each of the separations of M and.ly', the upper curve being for the middle valuo of the separation. It is obvious that we can join the two branches of the lower curve, corresponding to the smallest and. the largest value of -Mly', by using

Configurations anti their

LTse

53

the upper curve as a guide to interpolation. Tt is equally obvious that the curve for the Wpnrvpn configuration displays characteristics that may be ambiguously attributed to either lateral electrode effects or to vertical variation in resistivity. Even with the WnNNnn configuration, however, some of the ambiguity may be eliminated when
several electrical soundings are made along a profile.

ON A SCHI-UMEIRGTR

CONFIGURAIIO

Tig,3f. Comparison of electrode effects and tlue to -Wenner MN for the Schlumberger
configurations
ON A WTNTR CONIGURAfION

fn electrical soundings, usually to be interpreted under the assumption of horizontal bed.ding, we consider as electrode efiects any effects due to lateral variations in resistivity. We could, however, make a distinction between electrod.e effects proper, that are due to outcropping beds, and lateral efiects caused by anything other than horizontal beds, such as folds, faults, etc., even if they are deeply buried. The boundary between the two definitions is not always very clear. Other Proced,ures of Appl,cat,on - Crossed, Electri,cal Sounrlings. Electrode efiects due Lo A and B are in general less intense than those due to M and N , particularly because A and B are never influenced- by the same local inhomogeneity at the same time. I{owever, in review, they are often more to be feared because they are harder to avoid and harder to reveal. With the current electrodes it is the second type of lateral effects, discussed above, that are the most bothersome. They ean, in the case of

t
{

{ tl

fi

{'

moderately severe tectonics, render the interpretation difficult. It then becomes important to lay out the lines with the proper orientation and it may even become necessary or useful to lay out two soundings with a common center point and at right angles to each other. These are called "ctossed electrical soundings." Multiple MN's - Repet,t,ae Electrical Bound,i'ngs. For each position of AB, one can also measure several MN's, for example, one on each side of the central ll{-l[ discussed above. This technique, fur addition to crossed electrical soundings, yields some indication of the p of the beds and also helps in detecting electrode effects al A alr:d B. Another way to reveal electrod.e effects al A and B is to move only one o{ the two current electrodes between successive measurements. We thus obtain, in addition to the normal curve, a resistivity curve due to an asymmetric configuration; a comparison o{ corresponding points on the two curves can help to reveal which of the variations are due to electrode effects. Submari,ne Electrical, Sound,,ngs. Tripoles with one of the current electrodes at infinity find their greatest use in submarine surveying. For these measurements, cables

54

Electrical Sou:rdings

vith a large number of cond"uctors and tbe same number of electrodes may be used' A set of switches allows the use of a given electrode for either potential measurement or current. The resulting configurations thus obtained are of the WnlrNnn type in which AM:MN.In this way, it is possible to make several measurements for several electrical soundings before the cable at the bottom of the sea must be moved.

IV.2b Presentation of Results

The results of electrical soundings are represented in graphs in which the half length of the configur alonABl2isplotted on the abscissa and the coiresponding apparent resistivity is ptottea on the ordinate. The scales on both axes are logarithmic, which is a natural choice from two points of view. Tirst this scale results in the same movement of the curve for a given relative variation of the variables, regardless of t'heir actual

r,l I''

-t r mz lt.ir
^(m'r)

'zP

N
r!2

I'l 1';
I

Fig.32. Advantages of drawing resistivity profiles to a bilogarithmic

scale

Sturty of Horizontal Statification

5)

Fig. 33. Joining the branches ol t'he resistiyit]' curve for increasingly larger

fLYs

a
magnitud-es, as is desirable, the precision to be expected in the lesults being more logically expressed. in relative than in absolute values. This reasoning stems from the fact that the efioct of a given structure diminishes with depth, and at the same time

thereis aloss of precisionwithwhichwe candetermineitsdimensions.The determination vrithin 100 meters of the depth of a bed several thousand meters deep may be acceptable, while for a near surface problem we may require a precision to the nearest meter. The same reasoning is true in the case of the resistivity. It absolute values, we can measure the resistivity much more accurately for conductive beds than we can for resistant beds. We can hope to determine the resistivity of a conductive marl to within one ohm-meter; whereas such precision would be completely out of the question for a resistant limestone. A second advantage of the logarithmic scale is to factate comparison of the field curves with theoretical curves prepared in advance for a predetermined" succession of resistivities. In effect, if we multiply all of the electrode separations and bed thicknesses involved by the same factol, the apparent resistivity does not change; the theoretical curves representing the two cases may be mad"e to coincide on logarithmic scales simply by translating one of the curves parallel to the abscissa. If all of the resistivities in a given geologic section are multiplied by the same factor, the result is a simple translation of the original curve parallel to the ordinate (Figure 32)' Therefqre, because of this mode of representation, in the computation of theoretical curves, .we can always take both the thickness and the resistivity of one of the beds to be unity; the bed chosen is usually the surface bed. This procedure eliminates two parameters to be considered in a given model. Infl,uence ol a li,ni,te Length M-l[. Another device to reduce the number of theoretical curyes necessary is to use the field strength at the midpoint of the interval AB,in other words, to assume the interval MI{ to be infinitely small. This practice introduces a certain divergence between the fi.eld. curves ancl the theoretical cutYes, even when they corresponcl to the same resistivity distribution. There are also introduced slight changes, independent of electrode effects, from one branch to another of the field curve when the interval ll41 is changed. Ilowever, as long as the interval lfll[ remains betow ABl5, the difierences do not exceed six per cent and the branches are easily joineil.

i
1

j'l
fi
k

56

Elecrical Soundings

x'or a given electrode separation -48, the apparent resistivity obtained by increasing the interval M,N always corresponds to a smlller depth of petration. rt is therefore necessary with this latger_M-N to have a slightly target isto obtain the same plrelt resistivity. Thus, the branches of the curve corresponding to increasirrg ap_ valo-es o-f. MI{ will always be displaced. to the right, if erectrocLe effects at r[ and. I{ are discounted (Figure 38).

IV.3

Stutly of Horizontal Stratification

l
1

I I

An electrical sounding, adaptable above all to study the vertical distribution of resistivities, can attain deeper and deepor beds only at the price of greater and greater electrode separations. one can hope 1o determine that distributi*on then oJr, r it persists laterally to stances relatively great in comparison to the interval AB rcquired' It is for this reason that the studv of beds u.ith little or no dip gives the best results' One can demonstrate that the rsults for small dips differ very little frbm what they would be for absolutely horontal beds (Figure'84). Thus, the study of poterrtial distribution in horizontal beds will give at i"u*'t good. * uppro"imation to a large class of problems.

i
I

ffi

ili
ht

l,r hi
h

CROSS SECIION

Of fHE

EARIH

Fig.

son of resistivitv

34.

Compari-

zontal beds and over slightly dipping beds far from the surface trace of the contact

profiles over hori-

K
ror @ rro @
Er-ECTRtCAt- SOUND|NG

ron @

NORMAL---------- - -@ COTIGURAIION IO rHI SIRII(E pARALLL--* ---____O

OVIR HOR|zoNro|' eo

---,---_

__-@

Study of Horontal

Stratification

57

IV.3a Relation
Curve

between the Resistivity Distribution and the Electrical Sounding

unknown function, the resistivity as a function of the depth. At the same tie, following the basic assumptions, the results for any electuil sounding will consist of a function of a single variable, the apparent resistivity in terms of the separation between the current electrodes, regardless of the direction of the line. UnlesJ specifically stated otherwise in the discussion to follow, this statement also assumes that the interval MN will be infinitesimally small for all values of the electrod.e separation AB. One can demonstrate that, in principle the knowledge of one of the two functions determines uniquely the other; that is to sav, a given set of thicknesses and. resistivities corresponds uniquely to one resistivity curve, and, conversely a given resistivity curve can result from a single sposition of resistivities, und.er the asumptions
made.

Theoretical Relation 'n the IsotroTt,c Case. In the case of horizontal becls each assumed to be isotropic, the problem is reduced to the determination of a single

Proctioal Ambigzti,ty. rrowever, this reciprocity is far from being complete. The determination of a resistivity curve corresponding to a certain sucsession of resistivities can be called "stable" in the sense that a small modification in the thicknesses or in the resistivities will cause only a small variation in the resistivity curve; on the other hand, the distribution of resistivities determined from a resistivity curve is "unstable" in that two slightly different curves can conespond. to very fferent resistivity distributions. This instability in practice is equivalent to an ambiguity, because the field resistivity curves can be obtained only with a limited precision due to minor errors in measurements, local inhomogeneities, etc. We will return belo.w to the very important.practical consequences of this ambiguitv. An'isotropy - sign ol the Ercor. rf the hypothesis of isotropy is abandoned. it is in principle no longer possible to determine the resistivity distribution from an electrical sounding alone. For example, i{ one supposes the most common form of anisotropy in which there is one resistivity in a vertical direction and another resistivity in a horizontal direction, measurements made at the surface of the earth will not fierentiate between an isotropic bed of thickness and resistivity q and an anisotropic bed of thickness hlx and average resistivity g- equal t" /a . o. since i is always greater than unity, it follows that the depths based" on th assumption of isotropic beds will be too great if the beds are really anisotropic. Most of the time, this error can be corrected only if the electrical soundings can be calibrated. rvith the true resistivity stribution found in deep wells. Even in the case of isotropic beds, a quantitative interpretation requires complementary information in order to resolve the ambiguity mentioned above. This very important ambiguity manifests itself, among others, in two forms known under the names "principle of equivalence" and "principle of suppression." rn both cases, the difficulty is to determine with precision the characteristics of beds whose thicknesses are small compared to their depths.

t
t

rl

d f,

58

Electrical Soundings

such a bed' for Pri,nciple of Equi,t:alence. T:he principle of equivalence concetns or less than, both for the beds above and which the r"ri"ti-rity is either greatlr than, more conductive below the bed itself. It is found that a resistant bed, between two lesistance", or the product' of its beds, manifests itself mostly by its "transverse ,"si*ii-rity and. its thickness; on the otherhand, a conductive bed, betweentwo or t'he product' more resistant beds, shows essentially its "horizontal conductivity", or its thickness. of course, the horizontal conductivity is also of its cond.uctivity with difficult if not' the thickness divided by the resistivity. In other words, it will be thicknesses and impossible to distinguish between tw resistant beds of different same' Similarly, reslstivities if the products of the thickness and resistivity are the thickness to the two con<Iuctive bes cannot be distinguished if the ratios of the

resistivity are the same.

for they The limits of validity of this principle do not admit a simple difinition, However, *: depend on the charactristi"* of th" whole suite of beds present' ",1" tnut the principle is valid, or that the resistivity curYes will remain practically
*uy
unchanged.:

for cotductive

becls, as long as

their transverse resistance remains low with respect

l1

Ir lll

to the transverse resistances of the enclosing beds' for resistant beds, as long as their horizontal cond.uctivity remains low, compared to the horizontal conductivities of the sunounding beds' thick beds if there consequently, this principle will remain valid even for relatively with the neighboring beds' exists a irong resistivity contrast and its limits' Figure 35 sows two examples illustrating the principle of equivalence pi,noi,pte ol Suppresson. Te principle of suppression relates to those beds whose Such resistivities are intermediate between the resistivities of the enclosing beds. they do not have a great enough thickness, have practically no inbeds, as long as of the intermediate fluence on the resistivity curve (Figure 36a). when the thickness but' before we can bed begins to grow, ttre ued begins to afiect the resistivity curve; a identif! the td itself, its effect at first remains indistinguishable from that due to (Figure 36b)' change in thicknesses or in the resistivities of the enclosing beds ThIs failure to define beds of intermediate resistivity is met frequently in groundwater studies in which there is a surface layer of dry alluvium, t'hen wet alluvium, imposboth reposing on a conductive, shaly sub-stratum. In such a case, it becomes
sible to determine the depth of the sub-stratum' roles The Dar-Zarroulc Curie. The preceding discussion brings out the important and the horizontal conductance in deriving the played by the transverse resistaice re*istivity curve. Often, it is only one of these two quantities that one can hope to the resisdetermine from the resistivity curve. one is therefore led to try to replace the dpth ft, by the total transverse tesistance 'B as a fuction tivity p as a function of respectively of the total horizontal conductivity C.By R and C in this sense, we mean

the transverse resistance and. the horizontal conductance of all of the beds taken

together between the earth's surface and a given depth' This.function was introduced worked b5lRrvmoNn Mrr,r,nr and. called. th e "Dar-Zatrouk funct'ion," because he first a clear supe*itn it in the neighborhood of sidi Bou Said near carthage. It presents

Study of Horizontal Stratification

59

@ \ \\\\\\\'
x{..v4.\
lSiU:'."''""
'

Pr=Z,W
@

tYl.N

ID

lransrere resnfance

ph: u

oflle

x q -20x / = /ox2:

I x 4:20

secand ed

ffi mw?,=w ///////

@

!z-t//,,4q7

ffi7r7in ,ffi
---'P,=/0//2.

a--7-a--a-i7

lorhorzla/ conducfance of hle econd ed

h 05 7 2 4 ^, i:f:i: T:h:qZ

/ I
6

/0

6
4

Oephl of
0,/L

fte

f 870

Fig. 35. Principle of equivalence and. its limits

rioriiy over the resistivity function in that it can be determined from an electrical sounding curve with about the same o'stability" as that with which the sounng
can be determined from the constitution of the geologic section. A very resistant bed on a DarZarrouk curve drawn with linear scale will appear as a nearly vertical straight line; a mole resistant bed with a proportionately dimin-

60
@

Electrical Soundings

F/7778

E4IT.

n.-;p,T

ffi w
@ @
Pa

m'tZ/m, iil

il

ffi

!2=-1/9:':"lI$

tt

ki lir

4 6 8/0

t/Eo_1/
2

4 8/a

fig.36. Principle of suppression

ished thickness would differ from the first line by an almost, imperceptible change in the slope of the straight line (X'igure 37). It goes without saying that the ultimate aim is stil1 to determine the depths and the resistivities, but this interpretation can be facilitated it is broken down into two steps. The Dar-Zarcovk curve constitutes all

Stucly of Horizontal Stratiication

6t

/nmef/c / v/il
R:Ip u--;
h

Alpore/il re,t/ihtill curlej

6 8/0

@l
@lSane lransyerseresnlance ., lor rne set4no aeo..p.n=

/'/

@)

\70x2

lwrq____

Fig.37. Comparison of the apparent resistivity

and Dar-Zarrouk curves

\
i

that one can conclude {rom a single resistivity curve. The thicknesses and resistivities can be determined from the Dar-Zauouk curve if there are complementary data
available.

I t I

,!' fr

IV.3b Theoretical Electrical Sounding Curves, Computed by Exact l\fethods The inverse problem of computing the resistivity curve corresponding to a given succession of beds remains much easier to resolve. The apparent resistivity being proportional to the potential fference between the potential electrodes due to a given current flowing between the curent electrocles, it suffices to determine the potential stribution about a single point source of current. All t'echniques used in practice are founded on the method introduced by Srnn'aNnsco about 1930. We restrict ourselves to outlining this method. \Me assume that the earth is formed of a certain number of horizontal beds, each of which has a uniform resistivity that is different from the resistivity of the neighboring beds. We assume further that there is a single point source of current. The expressions Vr, Vr,..., and Z, of the potential in each of the beds due to this point source must first of all satisfy Lptcn's equation. The soiutions to this equation contain arbitrary constants which are determined by requiring that the solutions in
each of the beds satisfy collectively the boundary conditions:

that the potential and normal component of the current must be continuous at
each of the interfaces in the earth;

62

Electrical Sountlings

at the earth's the curent must vanish everywhere that the vertical component of r*i*", """"pt at the current electrode; "-iJtn" ptential must vanish at infrnity; and' potential must' varY of the currerrt^electrodes' the that, in the immeclial'e-ti"itity rn" i"""'" trom tf e

*#.;;
Th"r"

8ilffJiff "H:ffi l[**'"*oi""o**::-::1*,i:T:il1'.'#ffi;*:; ,":l;,11ff"ffi;T.i"iilru,"-*;:""'.x*1*r*l#;lik*ffii11x11lT; 'J:*'gJ1l'"Tt:d;iiIffiffi ;:*l:::"*ff fr Jil*:ffi:n""''*:iil:: il;;J;;s methods diner rrom one another'
il f,";H:J};;;fffli".il1il!;,
"ru three PrinciPal methods:
develoPment

u1*"1::t',:f;

integration' and approximation by numerical

decomPosition'

in an infinite

series'

widely used' to establish frrst metho{'-which has been Deaelopment'i'n Seri'es' The of ali the beds L .orrrr"rri"rrloo,ty if th: 'hiq"esses of catalogues of theoretical curves, tot"U**l "13"1t 10:^;1*Oo* consists are integral moitipr"*"il a series of exponentials' torr"tion it tU" irrt"gr*rrd into d.evelopment oi tnu Srr"ualr;l"o condjtion on the thick-

';;;"**""

f"

rapidlv +o:" and this series d'oes ";;;;;;""s" term by tr-m to obtain successive met. fn" *"ri* otuirr i" i*"gtr't"a nesses is not of the source in a homogeas potentials"due to images terms that can be interpreted il mukinlss ef hshighest of these imag"* *iiiur"*preJsed neous medium. rue epths of the images will be expressed' ;;;gth'; index and common factor of ,o""OJi;;.*;**rih. {""- lh";i;;t-;d.", ,h" resistivities, of thethe of the current emanated strength in terms a functron due to r gio"o'i*ug"-i, ,tt"" of summation. The potential measurement'' Since the strengths from ihe p"i.ti it of the image and of li- *"" and the points tu" ai*1i*es betw"en the imases ;;";;;9i the imageof ;;; sets of"quantities can be '"" at which the potentiais u''" to b" ""*p;;;ru;; of the elementary potentials' each tn" -"* computed independ.ffi ;i"."n "to"r.
=

*;;h ffih"

- frttknesses

llt'alef common lokfor n a// ed

tr'iE. 38. Methotl of develoPmnt in an infinite series t'o

comPute the Potential

n _80-4t +4r..*oo rn *r,orn: va- n- it ' ,,

Unit ot thickness is
tno

AMz

(Znms)z

H q
: I

Study of llorizont'al Stratification

I
1

a product of an image strenggh and the reciprocal of the image-potential electrode stance, gives the potential desired (Figure 38). The contribution of the images falls off rapidly with their depth when one is computing the potential close to the source; however, as the potential is considered farther and farther from the source, one must also consider the contributions of deeper and deeper images, that is to say, more anti more terms of the above series. Actuallv, for the Scm,uuBERGER configuration, the field and. not the potential is computed; but, the principle remains the same. The advantage of this method is that it renders the computations nearly automatic, without requiring a great number of operations nor a great precision. fn return, preparations for the computations are rather deiicate and the condition imposed on
the thicknesses restricts somewhat the generality. Numeri,cal Integrati,on. These two sadvantages can be avoided by evaluating the integral directly using approximate integrations; but, in order to obtain sufficient precision in all cases, this method requires a great number of computations. The use of electronic computers, however, permits a considerable reduction in the time required. Brvov has developed a method adapted for electronic computers to compute automatically, not only the integration itself, but also to calculate the function to be integrated, regardless of the number of beds, their resistivities or thei"r thicknesses. Starting with the thicknesses and resistivities, an IBM 650 by this method can compute any theoretical electrical sounding currre in some 20 minutes. Method, of Decomposi,ti,on. The method of decomposition is at the same time less general and less automatic than the preceding method. It presents an interest, however, in that in a great variety of cases it permits the rapid and accurate construction of theoretical curves with only the sliderule as an aid. It can be shown that, if the deepest bed is either perfectly conductive or perfectly resistant, the Sru'eNnsco function decomposes into the sum of a certain number of simple fractions, each of which, except for a multiplying factor, is the Srp'eNESCo function for two beds of the same thickness lying over a perfectly conductive sub-stratum. From this, we obtain the resistivity curve desired by adding the corresponding three-bed curves, each weighted appropriately. These three-bed curves constitute a familv of curves depend-ing on a single parameter, the ratio of the resistivities of the two upper beds. They are computed in advance for a large number of values of this ratio in order to facilitate interpolation. Whereas the actual decomposition is laborious in the general case, we can frnd relatively simple formulas a,s long as the thickness of the ensemble of beds overlying the sub-stratum d-oes not surpass six times the highest common factor of the thicknesses of the individual beds. However, the principle of equivalence permits us to construct curves for much thicker beds.

IJ

IV.3c Catalogues of Theoretical Curves The first and third methods were used- from 1933 to 1936 by the Compagnie Gnrale de Gophysique to compute systematically the theoretical resistivit.y curves
conesponding to three beds, or actually two beds and a sub-stratum*. The logarithmic

Catalogue of resistivity curves, Supplement, Geophysical Prospecting, Vol. 3, Sep. 1955'

64

Electrical Soundings

scale permits the resistivities and thicknesses of the first beds to be considered. equal

to unity in all of the models; thus the problem depends on only three parameters: the ratio of the thickness of the second to the thickness of the first' bed, h"lh' or in the noiation used in the catalogte (m, - m')lm1; and; the two ratios of resistivities, for example, the second and the thircl to the firsl, pr/q. and gr/gt. For two of these parameters, hrlhrand. gr, there has been adopted a sufficient range of values, closely enough spaced to permit easy interpolation, to cover the
cases of most practical use. The values

actually adopted are

as foiiows:

:119,I15,I13,I12,l, 2,3, 5,9, 24 Q,lQ, -- I/39, 1/I9, ll9, Il4, 317, 213, 312, 713,4, 9, 19, 39
h"lhl

As for the third parameter, the resistivit) of the sub-stratum, only four specific
values have been considered:

infinite conductivitv, ifrnite resistivity, the same resistivity as the first bed, ancl a resistivity such that the ratio of the third to the second is the same as the ratio of the second to the first. n'igure 39 schematises the different forms obtained for the
theoretical curves.
lrr f o
P,

Pr/

Pr

ll

ll,r r,l

h;
k:l
)tr

Pr>

P'

O t2

O - lf

Fig. 39. Various forms taken on by apparent resistivity curves

AII of these resistivity curves depend on the theoretical Scnr,uuoncER configuration with .MN infinitesimally small. A larger catalogue o{ analogous curves for the WnNwnn configuration was published by the University of Minnesota. This collection contains a much wider range of resistivities for the third bed t'han has been
described above.

The different combinations of rralues thus adopted yield a total of 480 clifferent curyes. These curves are grouped in families chosen in several fferent ways, the principal families being those groupings in which either the thickness or the resistivity of the second bed, as well as the resistivity of the third bed, is held const'ant. More recently, this collection has been broadened by assigning more values to the resistivity of the sub-stratum. The values chosen are such that the resistivit5r of the third bed is the geometric mean between the resistivities of the first two beds or such that

-l

Study of Horizontal Strati-frcation

65

the resistivi,.ty of the first bed is the geometric mean of the other two resistivities. Moreover, some families of four-layer currres in which three of the beds are of equal thiekness and the sub-stratum is either perfectly cond.uctive or perfectly resistant,
have also been computed. Figures 40a,40b, and 40c show some examples of theso families of curves. AII of the fanilies of curves for horizontal beds have been assigned serial numbers, followed by the lettrs CH, withoul regards to the succession of beds. CH I is the family for the two-layer case.

!/a/aes in boxes

hdcala mm1

/0nr tr'ig. 40 a. Three-layer apparent resistivity curves. Resistivity of second layer nine times that of irst and third layers, assumed equal. Variable thickness o{ second. laver
o7 t7t2

Finally, fames of electrical souncling cnrves have been computed for submarine electrical soundings. For these curves, it has been assumed that there exists a horizonhal layer of finite thickness and resistivity overlaying the configuration, as well as one or two beds over an infinitely resistant sub-stratum below the configuration. These families of curves have been computed for the WnNNnn configuration, which we pointed out is the most commonly used under the water.
IV.3d, Approximate Construction of Eleetrical Sounding Currres All of these curves have been computed by exact methods. However, either to verify rapidly some assumption as to the distribution of resistivities or even to facilitate the formulation of such a hypothesis, various methods have been proposed to approximate tho resistivity currres. Most of these methods are aimed. at determining the form of the curve for very great separations between the current electrodes, in other words, the asymptote of the curve in principle by using the two-layer curves for a single bed over a sub-stratum. The problem then consists of knowing where to place the origin (or "cross"), Qa : I and. ABl2: l, of the two-layer curvesr in order to obtain the best fit to the asymptote of the experimental curve. More precisely, it involves determining in the problem of z beds, which single imaginary bed best replaces all but Lhe nth bed in order that the resulting resistivity curve most nearly approximates the real resistivity curve for the largest values o{ the electrode separation. If this problem were to yield a simple solution, one could
5
Geoexploration 1,1

rl
i.

nt

'

66

Electrical Soundings

l/a/ues

boxes ndr'cale'pr/p,

\\
I
I

[[

l,

hl
h,r

Fig, 40b Three-layer apparent res-istivitv curves. Thickness of second. ldyer equals that of first. Resistivit.y of third layer in-

finite. Resistivity of
layer variable.

second

then apply it successively several times to approximate successive arcs that would finally be joined. to get the real resistivity curYe. Very ffucn Layeis. Thus, if one is faced. with a succession of thicker and' thicker the beds, ihe thicknss of each being relatively greater than the depth of its top, be made up of the joining of a succession of two-layer resistivity curve would simply curyes (I'igure 41). A satisfactory fit, even for moderate resistivity contrasts, requires verj rapidly increasing thicknesses: bzlh : 60, h3lh2: 30 for curve 4l a. x.or a slower increase of thicknesses, or larger resistivity contrasts, discrepaneies become considerable. TJnfortunately, in practice the conditions are more often of the latter type so that application of this method is seldom straightforwarcl. Rr.v*oNo Mlrlr,nr* first showed that it was convenient to distinguish three cases, depending on rrhether the resistivity of the next to the last bed is: Iower than that of the sub-stratum,

compuaion methods in elecrical prospecting, 1948, p.44 and following.

Study of llorizontal Strat'ification

(c) -:l-__-E -1l=',rt ^ ',=lL:---z-o ,',

67

la/ues in boxesQndicalept/p,

any tuccenrbn c/'Q/c/a such ha turyes a/so ya/td wlhth cerfam /tmil for tz p2 /mr pl : e p' '

and va/ue , too'

iiiiitiot t'

lo

! I
a

Fig. 40 c. Four-laYer anltaren resistivibY

:l

"iou*, of first

Thicknesses three laYers

I
I (

the same.

ResistivitY

of second laver nine times that of first laver and resistivitY

oi fourth laver in-

finite. ResistivitY of thirct layer variable

and that of the overlying bed; or higher than both that of the sub-stratum thln tlat of t'he sub-stratum' lower than that of tU"-oo"'t"g bed' but higher cases that the position of the origi' Hummel,,scrrrr. rti. o"ry * tu" first of these general terms' In this case' the single of the two-lay", .t o"*1. gien in simple and

J conductan:: :ql"l imaginary becl will be defiied as that Laving their total thickness. The of all but *" ,rrn bed and a thickess equal to rluctance coord.inates of the origin will then be

to the total con-

h:tlh,*"'Iho-'

a:

Tfir,/

"-+:lh"--'/

a"-,

68

Electrical goldings

Fig.41. Approximate consruction of apparent resistiYity

curYes

"'*ho-, dn-l where o:tlp. or the total conductance :ho:hrot*hr6r*, This is known as llummel's rule. An example is given in Figure 42a. The solid line is the actual theoretical resistivity curve. Its asymptotic behavior for small values of ABl2 is given by the two-layer curve for the first two layers in the model. The asymptotic cnrve for large vaiues ot" ABl2 is the two-layer curve in rvhich the thickness of the upper layer is h:L + 2 :3 ancl the resistivitY is er:3/(1 + 18) : .158. The total approximate curve is obtained by interpolation to join these two
as,mptotes.
Cross tor Bell-Shaped, Curaes. In the second- case, we can show that to a first ap' proximation the imaginary betl will have to be such that its horizontal conductance nd its transverse resistance must be the same as those of the ensemble of beds that it replaces. This will fix the origin of the two-layer cutves at:

n:lf nc, e:ff ac

where

C: \hi and n :lhiQi

iQi i

Ilowever, Mrr,r,nr has shown that one can better this approximation by multiplying each of these coordinates by an appropriate factor which is a function of the ratio oflla a to the total thickness of the beds. These factors lie between I and 0.8 for g, between I and 1.5 for b, rapidly approaching the latter values as the ratio involved
becomes relatively

high

//n-c >' , _\ t'') I zn, '

as a result of a high resistivity contrast between the various beds'

Study of Horizontal'Stratification

69

construction of approximate resistivity

curves

Fig.

42.

Graphical

,PO /r I

a) h:/
h:'JT+
p=

p7:/

hz:2 pr:l

ls-* k:/
(il h:/ &:/ hz:2 /z:9

4/,rs)l

@z

(d 4= /

p/:

/.

hz:5 /z:l ls:* Pt:*

4 6 8/0

6 8700

,48

Figure 42b represents such an example. Once again the two-layer curve based on the two upper. beds is the asymptotic curve for small Yalues oL ABl2. As a first approximation, the asymptotic curve for large values of. ABl2 is the two layer curve in which

n:llnc:1/rox
o:!'nc
--)f

v22:4.8r

and

n.zz

3.e4.

Since
glYes

l/nCl(nt *

hr)

>

1.5, we may also apply MErr,r,nr's approximation which

h'

:1.5h:7.215 and p':0.8q:3.I5.

70

Elecrical Sounclings

Cross for Descend,,i,ng Seps. Finally, in the third case, the imaginary bed must have in the first approximation the same transverse resistance and. the same total thickness as the real beds; but it is in this case that the approximation even with corrective factors uilI be the least valid, as is shown in x'igure 42c.Here, as a first

rections may also be applied. to get as a second approximf,ionh' :0.G7h:4 and e' :lJ4s:.30. As in all examples, the solid curve represents the oxact theoretical curve so that the validity of the various approximations may be estimated.. Locus ol crosses. When one is dealing with only three beds, the position of the origin in logarithmic coordinates depends only on the three parameters of the problem, hr, gr, and eai by maintaining one of these constant, one can then construct curves giving the position of the origin as a function of the other two parameters. To do this, one can use the rules given above or it can be done empirically using existing three-layer curves. The required. number of these auxiliary curves being much smaller than that of the corresponding resistivity curves, their use will be more flexible but also considerably less precise. The precision of the approximate constructions can be improved, by using, in place of the two-layer curves alone, the set of three-layer culves calculated". In this case, the imaginary bed would replace all but the last two beds.

approximation,h: I +5:6

and

at:Elh:

I.55/6

:0.26. Manr,or-type

cor-

9r

{;i

ll
t:

rt,f

'I lt,l

AB'

4
Fig. 43. Effect of
a thin, conductive overburden over a resistant upper

Iayer
case

in

the two-layer

principles where applicable, complex problems can be simplified. by reducing the number of beds and conveniently modifying their characteristics to reduce them to

Difficulty i,n Pred,icting the xorm ol curues. one can also construct approximate curves by profiting from the principles of equivalence and suppression. Using these

The Effects of Other

Structures

7l

known cases. In the same vein, more or less intuitive consid.erations often permit us to predict that the real curve vill lie between two known curYes, close enough together to allow a suffi.ciently precise interpolation. The intuition must, however, be used with caution, for the electrical sounding curves present numerous properties that are far from being immeately evident. Thus, let us compale in Figure 43 two curves
corresponding: one to a resistant bed overlying a thick conducting bed, and

in which the upper part of the overlying bed is a good conductor, resulting for example from a change of facies. Above a certain electrode separation, the apparent resistivity is much higher in the second case than in the first. This property is common enough in three'layer curves to receive special mention. In the case of the example given, it has been assumed that the thickness of the conductive cover is one-third that of the resistant bed, which condition could easily be found in practice due to the infuence of topography. We see that the appearance of such a conductive surface layer would result in a high resistivity are& on a resistivity map based on data using a ltne AB longer than 8 or l0 times the thickness , of the covering. The use of fames of curves constructed by these difierent methods will be exam'
the other to the
case

ined below.

IY.4

The Effects of Other Structures The interpretation of electrical soundings is diffrcult enough il we make the assumption of horizontal beds; but it becomes practically impossible iJ we abandor that hypthesis. This fact does not mean that it is unimportant to knorv how other struc' tures modify the form of the resistivity curves, even iJ it is only to foresee and even' tually correct at least approximately for the resulting perturbations.

IV.

4a Dipping Contacts

The closest case to that of horontal beds is the case in which the contacts are still plane but d.ipping. For the case of dipping beds, the only case to be stued is that in which there are two beds; even this case turns out to be extremely difficuit from the standpoint of mathematics. Contrary to what has often been said and pub' lished., eleetrical images are not applicable except when one of the beds is either perfectly conductive or perfectly resistant, and then only for certain angles of p. Configurati,ons Parallel to the Contac. We have shown that, when the dips are small and. all of the electrodes are far from surface trace of the contact, the resistivity curve from an electrical sounding r.ill fier very little from that over horontal beds. As the dip becomes larger, the differences also grow, although curves for configurations parallel to the strike of the beds always remain similar to those for horiza1 bedding. In this special case, they begin for small electrod.e separations as if the contact were horizontal and the depth of the lower bed were equal to the actual
perpeneular distance from the statiorr to the contact plane. The appaeniesrstivity

72
simple constant:

Electrical Soundings

for large electrode separations approaches an asymptote that can be expressed as a

'Qz ga:
,

t+

(;

n'/

n,-r)

where o is the angle of the wedge formed by the contact and the earth's surface (Figure 44, curves 1 and 2). By a large electrode separation, we mean one that is large in compatison with the distance from the configuration to the surface trace of the contact between the two beds. Assuming that g, is larger than qr, we note that the asymptotic value of gu is always smaller when the beds are dipping than when they are horizontal; in the latter
1 The

same tlue

resistivity and the

3::r?3ffJ.1ti?"l,i"T.rffil+."?i.tivities

same normal distance from the configuration to the bedding plane (curve 1 anal Z) and the same asvrnptote ror smatl etectrode separations (curve a) or large

fio
BD-

------

-.\-(a.r\\\s

rERNN\

o-

@---

Po
t0

/Pt

I
6

+
T'ig,'

a4- CoT+uisonletryeenresisti-vity profiles mad.e with the configuration parallt ;h configur*"oo n'"u""'tffi* contact, and over a horizontal bed

The Effects of Other Strucures

It

having the same amplitude for horontal beds, but corresponding, Lonsequently, not to the same true resistivity contrast, by its greater curvature lx.igure 44, curves 3 and 4). Ilowever, this distinction is not possible in practice, because there can be many other causes of varying curvature, for example the presence of a thin conducting layer near the contact. We note also that, if the resistivity of the underlying bed ii less than that of the overlying bed, this efiect is also less marked, even in ptitt"ipt". Conf,gurations Normal to the Contacii The resistivity curve is naturally -o." "o*plicated when the configuration is oriented perpendicular to the strike of the clipping beds. In all cases, the slope wilt be scontinuous, representing a sort of electrocl efiect, when a current electrode crosses the contact. But even to give a simple description of the form of this efiect, it is necessary to distinguish four separate cases, depending on whether the center of the configuration is updip or downd.ip from the contact, and depending on whether it is in the medium of lower or higher restivity. If the center of the configuration is clownd.ip from the eontact (Figure 45a) and the underlying meum is of higher restivity, 'when all electrodes are on the same side of the contact, the apparent resistivity rises much faster with an expanding configuration than it does in the case of horizontal bedding. When one cunent electrode crosses the contact, the apparent resistivity starts to decrease but then rises gradually. Curiously enough, instead of tening towards a finite value, it continues to rise to an asymptote that is a sloping line on a logarithmic scale. The behavior is about the reyerse when the underlying bed has the lower resistivity; however, the negative peak in the curve is somewhat less pronounced. than is the positive peak in the first case. when the center of the configuration is updip from the contact (I'igure 4bb), the appearance of the resistivity curve is even more complex, although the asyrnptotic behavior is the same as above.

the asymptotic value is always pr. tr'or example, when qr/g, : g, the ratio and only s when the dip is 45 degrees. rn principle, an electrical sounding curve for dipping beds can be distinguished from one
case,

ellg:5.4 if the dip is 15 degrees

IV. 4b Vertical Contacts

Vert'ical contact (aery d,eep substratum) An important special case of dipping beds, for which a theoretical study is much easier, is that in which the contact is vertical. When we ean ignore the sub-stratum, which is to assume that the contact extends vertically downward to infinity, .we can use the same computation methods as for horizontal beds and consequently determine resistivity curyes for any number of different media. It is obvious that the resistivity curve, for a configuration that is not parallel to the vertical contacts, will be very complicated, because there will be a sharp peak or trough every time an electrod.e crosses a contact. When the configuration is parallel to the contacts, the resulting resistivity curves will have once again the appearance of those for horizontal beds. Tor a single contact between two media and the configuration in the medium of higher resistivity, the variation in apparent resistivity along the resistivity curve will be almost as great as it would, were the beds horontal, and the thickness of the upper bed equal to the distance from the configuration to the vertical contact; i{ the configuration is in the

Electrical Sound.ings

|:='^-

i
,I
f

I
rl

ft

0,1

Pr

Fig. 45. Apparent resistivity curves made with a configuration normal to the stre of a dipping contact

The Effects of Other Structures

Same ratio of tlue resistivities @ and @, @ anrl @ Same asymptotes @ nd @, @ anrl @

1+

q8
0,

44

(^B

?i

o@

7rym ffiffi",, %"%,, sfffi ,ffi <<K

Fig,46. Comparison of resistivity curves made with the configuration parallel to the strike of
a pping bed and over horizontal beds

medium of lower resistivity, the variation in the resistivity curve is much less than for the horizontal beds (Figure 46). If the influence of the vertical beds is considered to be a perturbation in the resistivity curve made to study another problem, we can conclude that large lateral inhomogeneities perturb more when they are conducting than when they are resistant. Yert'i,cal Contact ouer a, Hgh Resi'sti,ai,ty Bubstratum. There have also been studies of the efiect of an abrupt lateral resistivity change due to two vertical beds or to a thin vertieal dike when the contact or ke terminate in a horizontal sub-stratum at a finite depth; the resistivity of the sub-stratum has been assumed to be very small or very large compared to those of the overlying beds. Here again, the efiect is more marked, especially when the configuration is parallel to the vertical contact, if the configuration is over the medium of higher resistivity. Wlen the configuration is over the medium of lower resistivity, the apparent resistivity for large electrodo separa-

76

Electrical Soundings

Fig. 47.
an

soundings nea,r
sub-stratum

Electricatr
a,

vertical fault over

infinitelyresistant

lp..-l

tions mar be double its initial value; whereas, when the configuration is in the terrain of higher resistivity, the apparent resistivity falls continuously with larger electrode separations.
The resistivity curves will be difficult to distinguish from those obtained- over hor-

If the medium beyond the contact from the configuration is resistant, the curves will rise slightly faster than the normal curve for horizontal beds, sometzonlal beds. times even passing the limiting slope of 45 degrees. Such behavior gives the impression of a depth smaller than the actual depth of the sub-stratum. If the medium beyond the contact is conductive, and- a certain relationship exists between the bed" depth and the distance from the configuration to the contact, the cuves may have the appearance of four-layer curves in which the succession is conductive bed, resistant bed, conductive bed, and an infinitely resistant bed (Figure47). When the configuration is oriented perpendicular to the contact, there are again angular peaks and troughs marking the passage of a current electrode across the boundarr, as is shown in Figure 48. A Thin Vertical, Bed,. The appearance of resistivity currres corresponding to electrical soundings with the configuration parallel to a contact is about the same, whether there are two media separated by a vertical contact, or a thin vertical dike embedded in a medium whose resistivity is very difierent from that of the dike. On the other hand, especially if the dike is resistant, a resistivity curve with the configuration perpendicular to a dike displays very strong peakiwhen the electrodes cross the dike. The curves of Figure 49 relate to an infinitesimally thin, perfectly insulating dike; but, according to the principle of equivalence, the crves would be little dif-

The Effects of Other

Structures

77

ferent for a thin dike with the same transverse resistance. Instead of the discontinuity where the electrod.e crosses the dike, there would" be a sharp trough following the sharp peak, and. the two branches of the curve would. be joined by a third" branch over a stance representing the thickness of the dike.
0-

: D, | 'I

r--+-Fvzz ul * ^+////. a 7/.t th (22

l,/?/a

Allil8

eYLlr
48. Electrical soundings near a vertical contact underlain by an infinitely resistant sub-stra,tum
tr'ig.

\lt,I

\7
45h

CVJ

sr

IAB
/0h z

IV. 4c Other Structures

Measurements on Red,uceil Scale Mod,els: Iaults, Horsts and, Anticlines A second class of structures, resembling those above, is that in which the bound.aries are horizontal and vertical planes. An example is the case in which a vertical fault cuts a series of horizontal beds. But even the simplest cases in this class are difficult, to treat theoretically; therefore the only recourse is to stues with scaled models. Measurements on mod.els with direct currents ofier no di{flculties in principle, since it su.tfices to reduce proportionately all of the dimensions of the configurations and the struc-

78

Dlectrical Soundings

Resblanf dtke

'. , lql '.1 ' .t.,.,

"t

\-r

t.,'.
lz'

l-=I

I I

,., - "1.

/0h

Tranlrerse re,/,lance:

R:;t: n.&

: O

P'

l-.'' l-'.'
l-.-'
I

Fie.

soundings near a thin

49.

Electrical

-.-@-'1--

vertical diko under' lain by an infnitelY

tn tues. As
a,

resistant sub-stratum

practical m&tter, the precision of measurements, the rapidity of meas' problems.* urements, antt the infuence of the model's bound.aries all bring up critical is that, of fintling one appa,rently simple problem, that has never really been solved, , o"ry hornogeneous material, easy to work, and for which one can vary the resistivity on convnientt5i throughout the range necessary. In praetice, electrical soundings vertical or dipping faults and scaled mod.ls have been limited to a fev cases such as horsts of fferent widths, in an infinitely resistant, substratum underlying a homogeneous overbufden. In each case, the structure is assumed to be infinitely
long in one dfuection. Che resistivity curves for electrical soundings parallel

to a fault have the same

elec' appearance as tlose due to a vortical contact, described above. For very large * I]rzurqN, R,., Electrical and telluric prospecting scaled model studies: Bull. AFTP, No' I07' 30 Sept. 1954'

The Efiects of Other Structures

79

lhe curyes iz dahed /tne, for nfrnie ! laye een laken from lhe /wo /ayar-currec n

-2

/2o

Para//e/

rzw
tlnlo
D| lt6n,fl1

//,/

'.4
b
2 q

AB

@Dae,/F1

A8 _T

@rpennaDFl

ings near a vertical fault, uplifting an infinitely resistant substratum

Fig. 50. Electrical sound-

48 -7

trod-e separations,

they all are asymptotic to a common straighl line sloping 45 degrees corresponding to an infinite horizontal sub-stratum whose depth equals the mean of the depths of the bed on either side of the fault. For small electrode separations, the shape of the curve depends on the position of the midpoint of the configuration with respect to the fault. They may start out similar to the two-layer curve corresponding to the upthrown compartment, with their slopes decreasing so that they can approach the common asymptote; or they may start out like a two-layer curye corresponding to the downthrown compartment, their slopes increasing over 45 degrees for the same reason; or, when the center of the configuration is over the downthrown block and the overburden is very thin in the upthrown block, the curves may be quite like those for an outcropping vertical bed. It is und.erstood, also, that there are all sorts of intermediate cases. Even when the center of the configuration

80

Electrical Soundings

is over the fault, the initial influence for small electrod.e separations comes from the upthrown block; the resistivjty curve starts out like a two-layer curve in which the

depth is 1.5 times that of the contact in the upthrown block. We note that an interpretation based on these asymptotes when the configuration is parallel to the fault will yield only an average depth that will not vary with the

hr"h2=h3.0'2

LIMITIIG ]WO-LAYER CURVE FOR

/0

I
6

,:,':,1 ", ^J, - J,,,], J"J,l= [,

I
6
4

A8

7
THE HORST - . _.RT,SISTIVIIY CURVE OVTR IHE TOUR-LAYER MODL SHOW

RtslSTlv[YcuRvr or

Fig. 51. Electrical sounding over a horst of infinite resistivity, with the configuration parallel to bhe axis of the horst

The Effects of Other

Structures

81

distance between the configuration and the fault. On the other hand, the initial slope of the curves will give depths intermediate between those in the two compartments; such indicated depths will depend on the distance between the configuration and. the fault' Electrical sounclings perpendicular to the fault plane will not display sharp peaks, since the contacts do not outclop. With such configurations, the asymptotes change, according to the relative position of the center of the configuration, between t'hose associated with each of the two compartments if they were infinite in extent. More' over, the limiting asymptote will be approached more quickly as the center of the

configuration is moved away from the fault over the upthrown block;itisreached only at some distance from the fault as the center of the configuration is moved in

the opposite direction (X'igure 50).

Th case of horsts has been studied on models with rectangular cross-sections, but the conclusions are valid even quantitatively over a large group of round'ed' structures and thus anticlinal folds. The results are moreover not greatly different from those for faults. Electrical sounding curves for configurations parallel to the axis of the structure all tend towards the same asymptote regardless of their position; the asymptote is determined, by the depth of the sub-stratum at the base of the structure. On the other hand, the curv a1l separate from each other as they begin to climb, even more so when the wid.th of the structure is large compared to its height. For structures both wide and. high, in relation to the depth to the top of the structure, the resistivity curves have a remarkable appearance. They begin like the two-layer curves for an oyerburden thickness equal to the depth of the structute, and" they terminate le the two-layer curves for an overburden thickness ecual to the depth of the base of the structure. Between these two extremities, there is an inflection that can sometimes evolve into a broad, horizontal step in the curve' The sirnilarity between these curyes and certain four-layer curves is striking and illustrates the great difficulty encountered in any quantitative interpretation (Figure 5l). In this partic' ular case, the execution of crossed. electrical soundings permits us to remove the ambiguity. Resistivity curves for configurations perpenclicular to the axis of the struciure tend toward asymptotes that depend. on the positions of the center of the configuration. When the center is directly over the axis of the structure, the asymptofu ven for very narrolv structures resembles that relating to a horizontal bed at' a depth equal to tLe d.epth of the top of the structure. on the other hand, for small electrod.e separations, these resistivity curves rise less rapidly than those for soundings made parallel to the structure, and they show much more pronouncerl electrode e ects' on tne whole, the d.ifficutty in distingushing between electrical sounr:lings made over an anticline and far from the anticline is about the same for parallel and perpen' dicular configurations when structures are wide as compared to their depths' How' ever, the,rurro*", the structure, the more advantage is presented by the perpendicular configuration as compared to the parallel configuration (x'igure 52). Hori,zoitat cyli,nd,ricat outcrop. The influence of many other types of structures

has been studied, either by computations or through the use of scaled models. The aim is usually to enable us to predict any perturbations that they might introduce in

Geoexplo4tion 1,1

82

Electical Soundings

to has been little hope of learning how a study of the stratigraphic column' There was in this spirit that eleca field srEvey. rt identifr the structur"* i"**"to"s from of shallow to*poted over a Yery long' narrow outcrop curves t"'u

trical sounding

CULA CONFIGURAfIO PERPEN D!

CONFIGURATION PARAIL EI

tPo
I

2
0,8

0F

ll M

tzY /,, /

T
1

/'

0,8 0,6

68 (1) coxrrcunnrtoN cETEREo ovtR IHE sfRucfuRE ,i2) aon'or*ot,oN cENTEREo FAR FRoM THE slRUcruRE mad'e vith configrrraiions Fie.52. Comparison of resistivity curves scaled models on t^-f;;iy t""5iurrt o.*tt, "t'*"i'ut*d

++

parallel to' and normal 1o'

The Effects of Other

St'ructures

83

matelialwhosecfoss-Secbionwassemi.cilcularwithitscenterattheaxisoftheout. and perpenwas orient'ed successively parallel crop (Figure 53). The configuration the first' case attenthe efiect, of the outcrop in is dicular to the outcrop. wJ that however' ihen the configuration il"" i* uates rapidly u,* t'h" r""gth oi ttt" i{ the material is j ns .oo.d.rubl" especiallv '""'"u*J; arr. to the

perpendicular "ffectrema represents two crossed ""iir.p, and dashedljnes in l'igure 53 a good conductor. _E".h;;f;i.;lid to what ext'ent tT:":-*:t: t'he oott'op' t" tu'" *"" electrical soundings e*eiuted over bv companng eaeh other' At the same time' vity curves are apt tu il"itr"""nt' from *:" that in turn t',hey same ind.ex in Tigure 52,we"1. these curves with those"riitn tn" a buriecl resist'ant horst'

differ considerably

rro* lro**.

electrical *oorrlng* over 2B

lo fle oulcroP

PerPendrbular

--Fig. 53. Electrical

f,onfrgurafuon para//e/ lo ltle

0ulcrop

souncling oYer a cYlindrical outcroP

&-a
6
4

/0

rr

ql

#-r
that of the efiect due interesting case in pract'ice is Metal,tia Coniluctors' Another ii horizontal profiling' This probto a buried metal pipe ,hut *n* alread.y ""**l*J fi'eld., but is quite the same from preceding o,'" i'''h" infinite lem is quite fifiereni t,o* tt," ii irrt"r"*ting to ,rot. that, even if we attribute consider a theoretical point of "1"]r. ia pipe, we must a]so t,imes .,o,,-*..,io,') to the conductance (i.e. conductivity
6*

84

Electrical Soundings

that the pipe has a finite diameter, not bqual lo zero, in order for it to have an influence on the resistivity curve. When the configuration is normal to the pipe, there is no appreciable effect on the resistivity curve except when one of the current electrodes is in the immediate vicinity of the pipe. Ilowever, when the configuration is parallel to the pipe, the resistivity curye can be greatly deformed by the presence of the pipe and will even tend to zero for large electrode separations il the conductivity is really perfect. With a finite conductivity, the electrode separation at which there will be a maximum efiect will vary as the ratio of the conductance of the pipe to the conductance of a cylinder of the enclosing earth with a raus equal to the distance from the pipe to the configuration. As an example, consider a ratio of 100 due to an iron pipe of resistivity l0-? ohm-meters, radius 20 centimeters and a configuration 200 meters from the pipe in an earth of resistivity I0 ohm-meters. The maximum effect rvill be about 40 per cent and will be attained for an AB rhIrfi times the distance from the pipe, or 6 kilometers. IJnder the same conditions, the effect will not surpass l0 per cent as long as.4B is kept less than four times this distance, or 800
meters (Figure 54).

%
#fr:,'
h
4

cz _026 q *16

@:+)

*------1 a

4-w
liig.54. Electrical sounding with configuration parallel to a buried. conduotive pipe

Cz

The Effects of Other Structures

E5

The theoretical study of less extended, or non-cylindrical structures is more difficult*, and" it is preferable to resort to measurements on scaled. models for most structures of this type. We mention in passing only the case of resistant domes. At least as long as its flanks are very steep, a dome will exert an appreciable effect only if its d.iameter is greater than the depth to its top.

IY.5

Interpretation of Aleetrical Sounilings Diffi,culties i,n Interpretation. As in all other methods, the interpretation of an electrical sounding survey consists of expressing in geological terms the information giverr by the measured- data. Such an interpretation demands, on the one hand, considerable practical experience with the method ancl, on the other, a sound. knowledge of the structural geology of the region under consideration. These two conditions are erren more important, because as we have seen a series of nearly identical measurements can lead to structures that differ widely. This interpretation will be founded on a study of the progressive deformation of neighboring resistivity curves more often than on a detailed study o{ the indiviclual curves. Fortunately, some of the resistivity curves can be interpreted surely and exactly because of a precise knowledge of the given site through drilling. The simultaneous execution and interpretation of a certain number of electrical soundings fairly close together, even 'hen the problem concerns regional st'ructures, is also useful to enable us to stinguish the effects on the resistivity curves that are due to local phenomena and" those due to structural phenomena. In any case, the manner in which the interpretation is approached will always be closely related to the naturs
of the problem posed and cannot be stated precisely except through the use of a long series of specific examples, which is beyond the scope of this monograph. Thus, we limit ourselves t'o the examination of a few more limited aspects of interpretation that

I ll I
J

we choose to call "physical interpretation." Use of Master Cu,rues. First of all, the vast collection of pre-computed. resistivity curves mentioned above, and the exact or approximate semputation methods by which it may be complemented, often enables us to solve the problem termed "inclirect interpretation." The problem may be stated as follows: in the limits of experimental error, are the field curves compat'ible with our hypothesis concerning the succession of beds, their t'hicknesses and resist'ivit'ies, taking into account such things as lateral effects, anisotropy, and the known regional geology. The grouping of curves into families can suggest, in case of poor agreement, the direction and order of magnitude of the modifications that we must make in our hypothesis to attain bet'ter agreement. Going even a little further, it sometimes permits us to omit from our hypothesis values of some of t'he parameters involved. Tor example, it might be possible to assume a certain number of beds of given resistivities, but without speci{ying all their thicknesses, the values of the missing parameters being determined. later by matching the experimental curves to find their proper place in a corresponding family of theoretical electrical sounding curves.

Coo< & Veu Nostnawn, 1953, Int'erpretation of resistivity data over frlleil sinks 19: 761-790.

--

Geophysics,

86

Electrical Soundings

Even if the initial hypotheses themselves cannot and must not, be built unicluely on the evidence of the electrical soundings, this evidence constitutes one of the important elements to be taken into consideration. This fact leads us to examine the conclusions that can reasonably be drawn solely from a study of the electrical sounding curves. As explained above, the curve studied. will not, in general, be the raw result of an isolated electrical sounding, but will have local effects removed from it by comparison with its neighbors. It is understood that we will have to content ourselves with a quick look at the elements of this difficult problem of "direct interpretation." Here again, it is only long familiarity with experimental and theoretical results that permits us, sometimes at a first glance, to establish a reasonable, if not exact, solution.

Mai,n Properties of Electrical Sound,ing Curaes ouer Horionto,l Bed,s. First of all, in order that a resistivity curve may be considered due only to horizontal bedding, it must fill certain conditions including: the slope of a rising curve m.ust never surpass 45 degrees, the radius of curvature near a maximum in the curve must never be smaller than a certain limit, about equal to a length corresponding to a ratio of 2 at the logarithmic scale adopted. Somewhat more complex limitations relate to the slope of decreasing curves and the radius of curvature in the neighborhood of minima. However,lvithout resorting to precise rules, an experienced eye will have no trouble to decipher the lateral and electrode effects incompatible with horizontal bedding. The experienced interpreter will even have no trouble in determining the minimum, if not the exact, number of beds present. fn fact, wit'h the Scrrr,uMsncnn configuration, not only d,oes each maximum and minimum indicate the presence of a distinct bed, but the same information is often founcl simply in a change of slope in a rising or decreasing branch of the curve, or even in an abnormal relationship between the slope and length of such a branch, assuming of course that electrode effects have been removed from the curves (n'igwe 55). Characl,erist',cs ol Surlace Luyer. Once it has been established t'hat the resistivity curve under consideration may reflect horizontal stratification, what quantitative conclusions can be made? Evidently, the parameters related to the shallo'west beds will be the easiest to estimate. Thus, i{ there exists at the surface a sufficiently homogeneous bed, it will be easy to determine its resistivity which is the asymptotic value of the apparent resistivity for very small electrode separations. In turn, one can then determine closely its thickness by comparison of the field curve for relat'ively small electrode separations with the family of two-layer curves. Characteri,stics ol the Second, Layer Resisti,uity and, Thickness, To determine the resistivity of the second medium is more difficult. Obviously, if the second, layer is very thick, the apparent resistivitv for long electrode separations will tend to a constant equal to the true resistivity of the bed; but, for this to happen, the thickness of the second. bed must be very great, especially if the second bed is more resistant than the first. X'or example, even if the second bed is 24 times as thick as the first, and if it is 4 times more resistant than the two enclosing beds, the maximum on the

li
rj
ll

't ll
I

rf
I

lt

The llffects of Other Structures

87

resistivity curve will be 10 per cent less than the true resistivity of the bed; if the resislivity of the second bed is I0 times that of the enclosing beds, the maximum on the resistivity curve wiil be 20 per cent less than the true resistivity of the bed' If, on the other hr1,nd, the middle bed is more conductive than its neighbors, the true resistivity will be nearly attained by the apparent resistivity for distinctly thinner beds. For example, if the thickness of the second bed is ten times the thickness of

Fig.55. Resistivitr

forms not comPatible with twolayer (Curve 1) or

curves with simple

three-layer (Curve

4) problems

the first, the apparent resistivity will come uithin 10 per cent of the true resistivity even if this true resistivity is very low. The minimum in the apparent resistivity cure will be attained. at much smaller electrode separations than is the maximum when the second bed is more resistant. In practice, even.when the electrode separations are great enough to bring out the *u*i*u or minima, they serve only to indicate limiting values, respectively lower or higher than the true resistivities. The slope of the first branch of the rising or decreasing curve permits us to estimate this resistivity, either by superposition oYer two- or three-layer curves, or, at least for rising curves, by using a very simple empiric relationship. Assunring as ever that the curve is plotted on a bilogarithmic scale, the slope p ol thl* branch is to the first apploximation equal to the "transmission coefficient," 1i between the first tu.o beds:

88

Electrical Soundings

x:fitl"t:o
The thickness of the second. bed can generally be determined only if its resistir,ity is if the resistivity is known, the thickness can be determined without much difficulty and, conversely, if the thickness is known, the resistivity can be d.etermined., when the bed is either more resistant or less resistant than either of the enclosing beds. Transuerse Res'istunce. As has been shown above, the resistivity curve permits us to estimate the transverse resistance, if the bed is more resistant, and the horizontal conductance, if the bed is less resistant. rn the first case, it can be shown that the transverse resistance generally is obtained to a good approximation by multiplying the maximum apparent resistivity by the corresponding length ABl2 (Eigure 56a,

known. On the other hand,

curve 1).
Hori,zontal Cond,uctance. When the second bed is a better conductor, and the third bed is stinctly more resistant and fairly thick, it is the position of the rise in the curve due to the third bed that fixes the horizontal cond.uctance of the second. In the case of an infinitely resistant third bed, this rise will be asymptotic to a 45-degree ne and the ratio of the abscissa reading to the ordinate reading at any point on this lino will equal the horizontal conductance sought. This very important rule is valid regardless of how many beds overlie the resistant mask, the horizontal cond.uctance in the general case being the sum of the conductances of the individual beds (X'ig-

ure 56b, curve 3). When the underlying bed. is not resistant' enough, the rising branch of the curve will have a slope less than 45 degrees. To estimate the horizontal conductance, we can adjust the curve upward. to 45 degrees or, more simply, use the coordinates of the minimum on the resistivity curve. When this minimum is sharp enough, the ratio of its abscissa reading to its ordinate reading will generally yiold. the horontal conductance $rithin 15 per cent (I-igure 56b, curve 4). Of course, if the section contains only three bed.s, this result mav be improved by comparison of the field. curve wibh pre-computed theoretical curves. When the resistivity of the second bed is intermediate between those of the first and third beds, the determination of its characteristics becomes much moie difficult, as was shown in the previous discussion of the principle of suppression. Deeper Bed's. Wthout recourse to complementary information, one cannot determine more than the resistances and. conductances, or perhaps the limiting values of the resistivities and thicknesses for more than two beds. Fortunately, the relative consistency of facies over large distances makes it possible to make reasonable assumptions concerning the resistivities of the various beds and, thus, from these to
deduce their thicknesses. Concerning the measurement of the resistances and conductances, the rules given above remain valid regardless of the number of beds and the position of the bed under consideration, with the condition that this bed causes a distinct peak or trough on the resistivity curve (Figure 56, curves 2 and 3). fn fact, it is false to think that every bed in a succession of beds, erren if alternatingly resistant and conductive, will give

The Effects of Other Structures

89

+++++

+i

R=XM,Yx=55
ALRESISTANCI:

P xh =19x3 =57

R = Xr.Yr= 28x1,25=35 L RESTSTANCE: Xh =39xi

P

.39

rorAL RrAL CONDUCTANCT:all_+_1:

Xm.Absc rANc crvEN By
THE

. l,ol

=13 \n=gr/

AsyMpToTt

Xd

- lo Yo l0 l.ao=

tANcE GIvEN 8Y rH

gv:f,15

1,15.

l1 .o,s

I
a

t,

xo =t0
Yo =t0

i
c?

r,ts.5

1,15. 5,8 =4.3 rh = 1.55

talcoNoucrANcE:

h -to/s-' s =.s P=

xm= 5,9 Ym I,55

"

AB -?'

Fig. 56. Determination of transverse resistances and horizontal cond.uctances

rise to a turning point on the resistivity curve (Figure 57). Beds, even

if relatively thick and presenting strong resistivity contrasts, often are indicated. on the resistivitlr
nearly horizontal step in a rising curve should almost never be interpreted. as incating the presence of a bed having a true resistivity equal to the ordLate reading
7
Geoexplomtion 1,1

curve only by points of inflection that may be more or less cliscernible. Thus, a shori,

-t'

90

Electrical Sounclings

of the step; it vill almost always indicate the presence of a much more conductive bect (Figure 57, curves 4 and 5). Even if there are a few rules that could help to at least estimate the resistances and conductances from inflections, the quantitative interpretation of these inflections on the resistivity curves is very difficult.

/t

/a

tr'ig. 57. Resistivity curves for six layers and conductive, each
sistant sub-stratum
lr

alternatively resistant
with the same thickness,

rlt

iti il

V=E=A

Curves ofaincd y c/nnalrng 3uccesspn of rebhfultes

rcrlon

eds

oYer an infinitely re-

There remain for maxima and minima certain relativelv simple rules, of which we shall give one, to conclude: the ratio of the abscissa reading to the ord.inate reading for a maximum on the resistivity curve about equals the double of the total conductance of all the beds overlying the bed responsible for the maximum. Let us emphasize once more that such rules are not, meant to construct a trial interpretation but

only to limit the possible hypotheses, so that the geologic section proposed rrill not be completely incompatible with the resistivity curves obtained.. The interpretation proper will always remain as much, if not more, the domain of the geologist than of the geophysicist. Even if the data available at the moment of interpretation are insuffieient to warrant a definite solution, reasonable hypotheses founded on continuity or progressive variations in the character of the geology lead to a geologic interpretation at least qualitatively correct. Such sections can be imp.oo htr, as new data furnished, for example by drilling, is considered'

APPENDIX

a.l Detormi'ation

of resistivities Qt, Qz, ..., po and of thicknesses hr,hr, ..., hf,_r;tn" irriil" being infinitery thick' one now wishes to determine the potential distribution due to a sou'ce placed on the earth's surfaee.

of the potential Distribution in a Layered Medium Let us consicler a succession of horizontal, homogeneous, and isotropic beds

rn

is written in cylindrical coordinates as:

each one of the beds, the potentiar

[/i must satisfy Lrplac',s equation which

dzu 1 du dzu drrt r dr* drr:0

The Z-axis is assumed-positive downward, and the source is assumed to be at the origin. To separate
variables, one sets
U (r,z)

R(r) z (z)

which leads to particular solutions in the form of

e-xt

Jo1]rr and,

e+1" Jo1),r

where is an arbitrary constant, and /o a Bnssnr, function. A linear combination of 'i these solutions, multiplied by undetermined functions of 2, an an integral of this combination with respect to /,, will also be solutions:

ar: f lai(t). e-xz + Bi e).e+tz1 . J6 e,r) .d)"

functions ,4 (2) .The ,ri rrl wil be determined r.vill satisfy the required boundary contions:

in such a way thatthe sorution

f . in the neighborhood of the current electrod.e; and 2' at the boundaries of the beds such as the earth's

tween beds, and infinity.

surface, interfaces be-

homogeneous and infinite

1' rn order to insure that the potential tends to infinity as electrode, one looks for the expression for the potentiar

an expression that may be expressed through WEnEn,s

in extent. This potential, cared the primary potentiar, has

if

it must near the current the fust medium *,ere

irt.gr;i;,

lrF R: r, zr: .l e-^'tJo7rldl rt

7t

then results that the potential in the first medium can be written in the form:

92

Appendix

u,

. .//Prl,r, - r) "-^" + s, "*^u)roe,) i;

d,)"

2. n'irstly, at the earth's surface, the vertical component of the current must be zero everywhere except at the electrode. Since the primary potential already satisfies that condition, it is then suf"ficient to choose the coefffcients of the second term so that it also satisfies the condition. Thus, one writes:

A1-I:

Bt

At the interfaces between bed i

quires that Ai
(1,)

a,nd bed.

1, the continuity of the potential re(1) e-^pi

' e xni * B (1) . e+xpi

: Ai+,

Bia1 (),) e+^ei

where the depth of this interface is 1oi : hr*hr+ ... + /i1 . The normal sqmponent of the current flo'lv across the boundary must also be continuous so that

"i

l-

-4i Q) . e-Ati

+ Bi (l) ' e+^pl: oi+r f- Ai*r7).

e-^pi

Bi*, (i).

e+ni]

Finally, in the last bed, the potential must tend to zero so that B" (i) must be zero. There are then 2n lin:ear equations to determine t}re 2n unknown functions Ai and. Bi : one furnished by the first condition that is the only one not to be homogeneous, (2n -2) by the boundary conditions at the (n -I) interfaces, and one try the last condition. T,et us make the computation for the simplest case, that of trvo beds-a, bed of thickness and. resistivity q, resting on an infinitely thick substratum of resistivity
t9

z.

One rvill then have the equations:

At-8,
Ar. e th

-l B,
e-nh

. e+1h

:1 : Az. e-Lh
"^o

t - 8r'o,.
By making

*' 'Pt'

ur.

: - r ,1n. "-^h Q,
one gets

^:
AL-L:

Q:-0r 8z*0r
L

Bt: K

"-'^o',- Ke 'll

u'hence the expression for the poential at the earth's surface is

(J' (r'

o\: c I t + z i" ''^n J:--'^n"-atl' 'r-Ke''tn lr !

I

The apparent resistivity with the Scur,urrspncnn configuration is proportional to

,'

dJl'
dr

Determination of the Potential Distribution in a Layered Meclium

93

In the same way, in the case of three beds consisting of two upper layers of thicknesses r and hz and resistivities g. and qr, and a substratum of resistivity qr, the
potential on the earth's surface is given by

u.:clL*z[", ' lr J
o

)'r) \^ /

I Kle -

zlt,r

K, e-2),h, { K, e-zL(hr+br) .rntd'1) Kre-2l(hr+hr) * K, Kre-z)h,

rvhere

x':1";:l

""u

'':::;;;

The fraction by which the Bnssnr, function is multiplied under the integral has been given the name "SrEtr'aNESco Function."

L.2

Practical Calculation of Apparent Resistivities The integrals that give the potential or apparent resistivity can not be computed. analytically. Thus, there have been developed methods to evaluate them by approxirnate methods with the d"esired precision. Three of these methods will be examined: expansion in a series as has been dono {or the majority of the curYes n the catalogues, the method of decomposition whose value is less general but which is alone applicable without a calculating machine, and finally numerical integration which through the use of electronic computers is the most rapid'
I

A. 2a Method of

Series

I
I

This method consists of a development of the Srn'rvpsoo function in a series of exponentials. This development is particularly easy when the thicknesses are not too great and are whole multiples of some common unit thickness o. In such a case, it sufces to divide the two polynomials in e'xbo that constitute the numerator and d.enominator of the Sr:nreNESCo fimction. The coeffrcients of the quotient-polynomial are obtained by id"entifying the coeffi.cients of the product of this polynomial and the denominator of the fraction with those of the numerator. Thus, in the case of three beds, by placing
hi
ll -:

mi and {'lho

one will have to identi{y term by term

Krg-r1- Krg^t+^, l,

t--

^rn-, -

Krgmt+mz

KrKrg*rll inrntl I LT--" I this com-

in

putation automatic; specifically, the higher order coefficients-those with an index higher than (m, f mr)-are obtained by the application of a simple recurrence formula
4m1+m2+i

ord.er

to determine the unknown

coeffi.cients g1.

It is easy to render

:Krbmr+i*

KzQi'Ktczgmt+i

94
fn the

Appenclix case of two beds, the results are even simpler:

-*n,,-: r-Ks
integrals in the forrn of

Ks

* KaI'* K"g" +.,..

Having found the necessary coeffi.cients, there remains only the task of evaluating

lr:

qrio thr

e-'ho1 d,1"

But it has been shown above that these integrals are exact and yield

Ii:q.yr,+lenrll,
so that the potential

will then be given by the sum of a series such as

u:clr +2i, Fi
lr
In the
Qapp:
ir

qt:l

Vr,

(zhor)

same fashion, the apparent resistivity

will have the form

cit

*',1

lr* rrT" u;1,,1

![
,

These series are convergent and thus one may obtain any desired precision bv including in the sum a sufficient number of terms of the series; in some cases, it is necessary to include several hundred. Two remarks are in order. X'irst, it must be emphasized that the thicknesses and resistivities of the beds enter into these formulas only through the coefficients qt i the expressions which are dividing these coefficients are purely geometric and. depend only on the index i of the term and on the mt'io AM lho, for which a set of values in

geometric progression of ratio l/D is g"tr"rally chosen. These expressions are called "coefficients of separation" and thus computed one time for all and the construction of the practical curves is reduced to a determination of the q,'s and. their successive multiplication with the coefficients of separation. It must also be noted that each of the terms in the series giving the potential can be interpreted as the potential created at the point M by an image of strength g, situated directly below the source at a depth 2io (Figure 38 page 62). one could. find these fictitious sources, but much more laboriously, by the theory of electrical images (Figure 25 page a! by following the successive reflections of the real source in the various interfaces and the earth's surface. A.2b The Method of Decomposition This method is applicable only if the substratum is either infinitely resistant or infinitely conductive. I{or is the application convenient if the depth to the substratum is not a fairly small whole multiple of the highest common factor of the various bed

?ractical Calculation of Apparent

Resistivities

95

by introducing thicknesses. Ilowever, one can fairly often fall back on such u ""*" the principle of equivalence. The method consists of breaking down the Srnrelcnsco function into a weighted sum of simpler fractions each of which is the Srnr.Npsoo function for a simpler succession of beds. One can show that under the assumptions made (infinitely resistant or cond.uctive substratum) it is always possible to fall back on a sum of fractions, each of which relates to two beds of unit thickness overlying an infinitely conductive substratum. It then results that the curves sought are obtained as the weighted sum of a certain number of curves, each corresponding to such a three-layer model. As an example, let us consider the case in which two layers rest on a resistant sub-

stratum(whichisindicatedbykr:t),thesecondbedbeingthreetimesasthickas the first (hr:3hr). By setting nz)"hr: g, the StnrlNEsco function for three beds is

krg*ga

r-}'9 lkt7"-9n
to give
l"g-g'

It

can be shown without difficulty that this fraction can be decomposed the following:
D -.. I u:'L-g-r where t a -g lt

l+g-r

L^, Y

t- zlc'g*g'
and k':
kr

:
1 -L lr''

a- l-k, t'-z(z+k)

^.- r!-,kr' r'-r-kJ

The last term in the decomposition corresponds to two layors of unit thickness, the second being

infinitely conductive. Each of the first two terms relates to a single bed of unit thickness, lying over an infinitely resistant bed, in the first case, and a perfectly conductive bed, in the second. case. Since the theoretical curves for a large number of such resistivity distributions are computed in advance, it suffices to multiply respectively by n, F, and 7 the curves cxrls;ondins to the resistivity contrasts involved., that is to say infinity, zero, ancl ,:;, ,and then to add them to obtain the resistivity curve sought. Thus, il the second bed is four times more conductive than the first, Qrlp, :1/a and Ih : - 0.6, whence

ffi

times more resistant than the first, overlying a substratum

u:0.077 P:0.57L Y:0'352 andk, : - 0.3 from which c : 120 grades (Figure 58). on the set of curves cH 309,* from which these curves are taken, the curves are labelled in values of C : arc cos k' expressed- in hund.redths of a grade (100 grades :90 degrees). The curve CI1 309, 0 grades, (or the rising c,/ l) must then be multiplied by 0.077, the cH 309 200
grades by 0.571, and the CH 309 120 grades by 0.352, after rhich they are all added.

* last plate of the catalogue Master

Curves for Electrical Sounding (2nd ed. EAEG, 1963).

96

Appendix

-\-s-ffiI I il-s'-x
I

/
48
46

*->'-si\\sr N S)l :'-s-S \- N $ N ss$s$s

E---f >\

$-s-t$s{s *-i- tl o{.ils q

N \RJ- ris$

1_>.=-1-}.*s\S

r I s:'\) i*

4q

0,/

408
006

40/
0

Fig.58. Construction of an electrical soundirg curve by the method of decomposition

Elowever, on a logarithmic scale, multiplyeng all of the ordinates of a curve by a given factor is the same as translating t]ne zero on the origin by a corresponding quantity. In order to obtain the curve sought, the three component curves are displaced by placing their respective origins at the points (1, cr), (1, B), and (1, 7) after which for a given value of the abscissa the three values of the ordinate are added (X'igure 5g).

Practical Calculation of Apparent Resistivities

97

It
of

can be verified that the curve thus obtained is identical to the corresponding curve set CH 4 or CH 83 of the above mentioned. catalogue of Master Curves.

A.2c Method of lrTumerical Integration The two principal advant'ages of this method are that it is liberated of the restrictions on the thicknesses and it can be entirely automated since the computing machine is capable of computing the resistivity curve directly from the thicknesses and resis-

tivities.
The SrnNESco function under the integral is first of all computed by the method of iteration. We have seen above that this function is the one designated" by Br(.1) and determined b5r the boundary conditions at the interfaces between successive beds. Let,
us introduce the function
uo'r'.'i',

fir (r)

"'

^n' . .. .

ki
1,

h,

h,

+. . . . *

/i)

Because of the condition that

Bt : At -

it follows that
.

:!n',B,(1):I a'14(.1) . J?,

-

s-'ih,

It

then su{fices to compute -Bt(2). But, in divid,ing, term by term, the two equations that result from the boundary

conditions between bed

and bed (d
-Ri (,4)

f
Qi

1), one gets

I* Iwhence

_ .Bi (,1)

Qi+r

I * -Bi+r(.1) 'e '""i+t I - Rt+t(],) .e -2ihi+t

it can be concluded. that

ki * fii+, '"-']hi+, "t - I * fri..R+, . "-'thi+,

This recurrence formula permits the computation of -Bi from -Bi*r, kr, and ft,*r; since Bo : 0, whence fin : 0, one can comrnonce with -Bo-, : kn-r. The part of the integrand depending on the particular conditions of the problem being thus computed, there remains only the integration. Without going into detail concerning the difficulties to overcome in order to compromise between speed, precision, and automation, we will content ourselves to outline the idea that permits us to use a single given set of numerical coefficients, computed in advance, for computing all of the points of all the resistivity curves. The integral to be computed is of the form

I(r\:

J' o

lS(1\J(1r\d)

98

Appendix

where r is the distance,4 M, S(1) is the Srnrosco function more or less modified and depending on the particular parameters of the problem, and J(Xr) is a combination of Bpssnr, functions depending only on the product ,1r. This last circumsta,nce combined with the natural representation of resistivity curves on a logarithmic scale permits

the following change in variables:

Log),:r
The integral then takes the form z
1,t

Logr:s

i*s1"

71*

,' d,*

where the sign "-" indicates that the funetions concerned no longer have the same meanings as in the previous equations. An approximation of the integral is obtained by subdividing the interval of integration into an infinity of small equal.segments / in each of which B may be considered. to be constant:
A

+@

1(s): ),8 lJ(r{s)d,r

It i--o J -2

, I '*

moreover, we compute the integral 1(s) for values of s themselves equally by the same interval /, resulting in values of the apparent resistivity for values of the abscissa increasing in geometric progression, we c&n make s : i/ and oi : A io vrnte
spaced

If,

/(s)::
By changing variables to y

+o
l:-

I & I (*+jzt,
I @r

1'), li + 2l

t 1\o \,-zt

n + iA

:,4:; i'r, o'

(+i-f,)^

li++l),

problem and depends only on the index

But once / is fixed., the integral is independent of the particular conditions of the i I i; if is the (o f i)th term of a suite of coefficients Ciai, that' one can compute in ad.vance, and the final formula is

: i:-o ls'c*:

Practical Calculation of Apparent Resisivities One can then obtain the successive points on a resistivity cnrrre by taking the cumulative sum of the products of successive values of the Srn'ESoo function with a suite of precomputed. coefficients, the two sets being progressively displaced with respect to each other (convolution of B and C).

References Boolcs: Fgrrscu, Y. (19Slt Princ_iples of elecrical_.methods in applied geophysics, 412 pp. Vienna, _ Manzche Verlags- und Univ. Buchhanung. HnnaNo, C. A. (f940): Geophysical exploration-, 1013 pp. New-York, Prentice-Hall, Inc. J-Ko_sKy, J-. J. (1950) : Exploration geophysics, 800 pp. - r,os Angeles, Times Mirror Fress, 1g40,
2nd trldition, 1195 pp., Los Aageles, Trija Pulisliing Co. Kne,vnv, A. P. (I95I): Principles of geoelectiic methocls-of prospecting: Pa1,445 ?p,, Moscow.. Le'sranouns,.P.: Prospect'io lectrique par courants <,ooiituli. c*"le de poentiei,'resistivit, polarisation.spgnlaqge, polarisation induite. - Masson & Cie, Paris, 290 p., 162 fig. Pntnovsrv, A. A. & L. Ya. Nnsrnnov (1932) : Electrical prospecting by direct corr"t, 165 p.
The Geological and Prospecting Service, Leningrad }fining Instituie, Moscow-Leningrad.i Por,orNr (L947)tLa prospection lectrique du sous-ol. l'. R,uge et Cie, S. A., Lausane. ZABoB,ovsRrr, A. I. (1943): Electrical.xploration, 444pp. Gosudarstvermoe Nauch:ro-Tekni
cheskoe Isadtel'stvo Neftianoi

Gorno-Toplivnoi Literatury, Moscow.

Papers:
Amero, L. (1959):-Lrtroduction to the interpretation
of resistivity measurements for complicated. structural conditions. 3: 3II-66, 20 flg. - Geophysical Prospecting, 7,apparent resistivity values in electrical (1960): The influence of surface formations on he - prospecting. Geophysical Prospecting, B, 4: 576-606,23 frg. biblio. (f961): The - prospe.cfing. influence of surface forma,tions on the apparent resistivity values in electrical - Geophysical Prospecting, 5,2.2L34I;16 fig. biblio. BeruNov, V. & G. KuNnrz (1958) : Potential distribution in a stralified medium. C. R,. Academie des Sciences, 19 Dec. 1958,2L70-2I71. Bnnussn, J. J. (1937): Applicatior de la, mthode des rsistivits dans le bassin ptrolifre roumain. - IIme Congrs Mondial du Ptrole, T. l, Section I, Paris pp.7I7-7r2. C.e.eNreno, I,. (1948): Im_portanco des phnomnes d'anisotropie dans l,e problme de I'interprtaion des donnes d'un sondage lectrique, consquences pratiques. - Anales de l'Institu de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg, nouv. ste,4,3: 3-28. Canrurrnn, E. W. (f955): Q9m9 qoteg concerning the Wenner configuration. - Geophysical Prospecting, S,4: 388-402, l0 fig. biblio. Csesrer on Gtnv, J. & G. Kuxntl (1956): Potential and apparent resistivity over dipping beds. - Geophvsics,2l, 3: 780-793. Compagnie Gnrale des Gophysique (1955): Abaques de sond.ages lectriques. Geophysical

Coor, K. L. & R,. L. Gnv (1961):-Theoretical horizontal resistiviy profiles over hemispherical _ sinks. - Geophysics, 3: 342. - Corrections by autors: Geophysics, b: 648. 196l. Dnrrnmremt, K. (f954): Die Abhngigkeit des scheinbaren Wid.erstandes vom Sondenabstand

Prospecting,

III,

suppl. no 3,

Duscrnrrz, B. (I93f ) : One hundred years of electrical prospecting for ore. KaI-i, 25: 7l-76 88-92.

bei der Vierprrnkt-Metl,lode.

Geophysical Prospecting,

I,f,4:262-78,7

frg.

ancl

tr'lerqn, H. (1955): A practical method of calculaing,geoelectrical model graphs for horontally

7 fig. biblio. 18 fig. Grsu, O. H. (f 938): Use of geoelectric methods in search for oil. Transactions of the Societv of ^. PetroleuT Geophysicists, p. 167, no 3, Early Geophysical Papers, p. 497, L947. Guete, R. N. & P. K. Bsetros,ne (f 963): Unipole method oI eliectrical prohfing. Geophysics, 28, 4: 608-16, 7 fig. biblio. Iluaaunr,,,J. N. (f 932): The_o_retical sttdy oI apparent resistirity in surface potential methods.
Geophysical, vol., A.I.II.E. (f^935); tr'o-undations o^f geoelectrical methods of prospecting. Geophysik, 5:32-L32. Prospecting,

stratified media. Geophysical Prospecting, III'S: 268-94, 9 fig. bibllo. (196.3): Five-layer master curves {or the hydrogeological interprtation of geoelectrical resisivity ll_ea_surements above a two-storey aquifer. Geophysicl Prospectin!, XIr 4: 471-50g,

-.

Beitrge zur angewandten

J.c.nr.nsa. sanru.E,

v.J. lloQf .^Mg{"d tripotential IX, 4: 568-81, t2 fig. biblio.

prospecting method.

Geophysical

References
*ou"oro, O.

I0I

r""u",'.t."p., ,o

at great dephts. -S,, Su^onu"o'& A. G. Trsov (1-947): Electrical sounding Razvedka Nedr.o 13, 3, Moscow: 40-1. KuNnrz, e. IfOSS, i""d vertikaler Schichten auf elektrische Sondierungen. - Zeitschri{t fr Geophys 1955 no I. M,r.r-r, R,. (1947): The fundamental equations of electrical prospecting.
525-56.

(1955): Resistivity curves for a conducting-layer^of finite hicLress embedded in an oh""#i"" h'omogeneous"and less conducting earth, - Geoph'sical Prospecting, III,3: 258-67, I fig. 5 tabl. biblio. of geoelectrical sounding data' IfOOO: getieralized Cagniarcl graph for lhe i1telp-rglation ' Geofhysial Prospecting, VIII, 3 : 459-65,5 fig. biblio.

19,4r 739.

01 1i954: Mapping nearly vertical discontinuities by earth resistirities. -

Geophysics,

Geophysics, 12:

It{err,r,nr, R,. & H. G. Dor,r, (1932): Sur un theorme relatif aux milieux lectriquement uryo"tlofgt el ss applications la propection lectrique en courant continu. - Ergnzungs-flette Iilr angewandte GeoPhYsik, 3: 109-24. M,i,nt R,. & L. l\fteix i942: Coxneo Scm,uusonenn et la prospection lectrique. - Annales

Mreui, L. &

des Mines.

Congrds Mondial du Ptrole, Ro*9. Physics of the earth. E{rcrimental determination I[reiui,'f,., J. L. Asrrne & P. Rvor, (1960): ----'61 tlu lectrical resistance of deepr strta iri the earth crust. C. R. Aeaclmie des Sciences, 25 Juillet 1960, pp. 567-569. nnales de Gophysique, 16,4:.555-560'

G.

I(urnrz

(1955): Share of the electrical surface methods

-.

in oil prospecting' -

Musr, M. & H.'lEvrocrn (1941): Current fen-etrtion in direct current prospecting. -

Vr os'rrio, n.

Geophysics, 8t 4:397. C. A k. L. Coor (1954): Interpretation of resistivity data over flllecl sinks' Geophysics, L9' 4:76I. O"o"tiii, 'S. Oosr o-""i.a,I analysis of -relative resistivity for a horizontally layered earth. Geophysics, 28,2z 222-231, 3 tabl' t fig. biblio. R"M;i:iig:dl r i" ffu*uf fnction in th surface potentia,l {or a horizontally stratified earth. - Geoihysics, 2L 2z 232-249, 20 schmas, biblio. UrzmlNlr,h."(1954): Prosp;tion lectrique "t t"il*iqo". Etude sur modles rcluits. - Bulletin de fA.F.T.P., no I07, 30 Sept. 1954' Paris. WEi#;;, S. A W. G.'R.or,r'r (1948i: Interpretation of data from electrical resistivity geo' physical surveys. Nature, T,ondon, 162: 187' yuiu, S. U. irg'ozt " tn" of te surface electrical me!\ods-o^f geophysical prospecting

- --

"ol" in le petroLumintlustry. - Geophysics,27,3, Juin: 393-396, 3 fig' biblio'

Intlex
Anisotropy 5
Curves

- coefficient of 1920,41,57 effec of - ellipsoicl 7, 18, ellipse - formulas and macro- 19 for 20 - measurements in a drill hole 22 - paradox of 22 - principle of compression 18, lg - sign of error due to 57 Apparent resistivity l0 in anisoropic - computation ofmea 20,22 values its theoretical - for horizontal sratification 93-98 in a half space 28 in the rectangle method 32

- ggmp-qtallon (exact) of electrical sounding 61-63, 91-99 Dar-Zarrouk 58 - main_properies - use of master 85 of electrical sounding 86 Cylindrical structures 36 - approximate 36 resistant 40 conductive and - electrical sounding near 8l-84 - 29, 30 of penetration 7, 8 9, - of the telluric currents 13 - (and dippiog contacts)35 Dip determination - anisotropy 22 of the dip in the case of electrical sounding over dipping contacts - 7L-73 - equipotential lines above a pping contact 15
Dipoles (see configurations) Domes (or masses) formula, 13, - approximateAB rectangle 14 effect, on an 4l
I) at -Z art ottk f unction 5 8 Depthof investigation for anABrectangle 32, 85 of investigation in horizontal profiling ll,

for various structures (see Structures, Becls)

Bed of moderate thickness (electrode effect

Baranov 30

I5, 40-44, - 13,76 (effec on - thin bedsan electricalan AB rectangle) 40 (effect on sounding) 76
Conductance horizontal (named also horizontal conductivity) 58, 67, 68, 88, 90 of a metallic conductor 83 Conductiviy 3 (see also conductance)

when crossing ...) 45 thick beds (contact between ...)

- electrol).tic 4 - metallic 4 Configurations Cenpnrrnn 27 - dipoles 24 - Lee 27 - multiple MN's 53 - quadripoles 26 - AB rectangle2T, SI - respective advantages of - Sosr,ultsnnene" 52, 53 tripoles 25-53 - Schlumberger 26 - Wenner 26 - for electrical soundings 5l Contact (see Bed and Vertical)

WNNnn and

Electrical souniling (or vertical resistivity profiIe) 1I,50 5l - calibration ofof ... curves (see curves) computation - configuration 51-53
crossed 53

over a horizontal stratification presentation of 54 on reduced moclels 77-81

interpretation of (see Interpretation) isolated and profiles of 50 repetitive 53

subma,rine 53, 54

55-60

Cross 65 for bell-shaped. curves 68, 69 for descending steps 70

- locus of crosses 70 - Huunnr,'s 67 Current direct, and alternating l, 8 - lines 6,7, 13, 15 - telluric (or natural) t, 33-35 Curves approximate of 65-7I - catalogues of construction63, 64 theoretical -

7l-85 (see also Sructures, Beds) Electrod.e, efiec in electrical sounding 52, 58 - effect in horizontal profiling 43-49 localisation of resistance near the 7 Ellipsoide (and ellipsgs) of anisotropy lg, 20 Equipotential, lines above a contact'I-5 - lines in the presence of relief, 18 maps 9, 13 - surfaces 12,15 6, - surfaces in anisotropic media lg
over various structures

Faults, effect of 77-81 Fielcl (electrical field) (see also Current, Potential, E quipotential)

Index Field, approximately unorme 36

Geometric factor (or

103

Principle of, compression 18, 19

coefficient') 28 in the case of AB rectangles 32

"K"

fleterogeneity (also inhomogeneiy) 5 extenileil 15,47 - local 13,43,47,52 Ilorizontal profiling, efiect oi structures and eleetrode effects

equivalence 58

reciprocity 6
superposition 6
suppression 58

Quaclripole (see Configurations) Rectangle (AB rectangle) 27,3L advantages and disadvantages 33 - connection with telluric method. and. respec- tive advantages 35

- 43-48 m.ethods of application 29-31 Eorizontal stra,tification (see also Electrical

soundrgs, Interpretation)

study of electrical sou:rdings over 55-60

- effect of various structures 36--43 - tying together 32 Resistance transverse 58, 68, 88
Resistivity 3 apparent (see apparent resistivity)

depth of investigation 32

Interpretation (of electrical sounclings) of the first layers 86-88 - characteristics85 ditEcultios of theoretical unicity and pratical ambiguity
OI D/

special rules 89, 90

use of master curves 85 use of transverse resistance and horizontal

- maps (see MaPs) - profiles (see Horontal profiling) - relation to rock Iacies 5 - of rocks, orders of magrritucle 4 - transverse and. longitudinal in anisotropic - meaL9-22
Self-potenial 2, 1l Skin-effect' 8, 9, 35 SrnnlNnsco 3, 6I

conductance 8

Logarihmic (scale), advantages of the 54

lllrnr 3, 58, 66, 68 Maps equipotential 9,12, 13 rith AB rectangle 32 - apparent resistivity L0,24' 36' 48 Master curves (see Curves) Models, measutements on red.uced. scale 77-81
Potential (see also Equipotential) distribution in the earth 2, 5-7,9, 10, 12

Structures, effect of various on a potential map 13-15 AB rectangle 36-41 on electrical soundings 7I-85 Submarine, electrical sounding configuration 53,54 electrical sounding master curves 65
comparison to AB rectangle 35

function 62,63,93

- op ratio method 28 - influence of anisotropy 18-22 - influence of topographv 15, 18 - theoretical ilist'rlution in a Iayerd - 9I-93
Presenta,ion of results

Telluric methocl 33-35

Topogrphy (or
meum

relief) influence of 15, 18'

I9
Tripole (see Configurations) Vertical beds 40, 45,76,77 contacts (or faults) 40, 43, 73-81 - ProflIing (see Sounding)

horizontal profiling and maps 35, 36

AB rectangles 32
electrical soundings 54

GEOEXP
Several excellent

LO RAT I O N

M O N O G RAP H

text books exist which cover the subject of

Applied

Geophysics but the degree of specialisation and sophistication of present geophysical techniques inevitably means that they have insufficient detail to be used. other than a,s a, general introduction.

GA intends to provide a series of monographs with sufficient detail to be of use t'o the practising geophysicist and with sufficient discussion of the scientific fundamentals to be suitable for the student and the research
worker.

Essentially, the monographs will be critical reviews of the aims, methods and. status of the various techniques covering the whole range of instrumentation, operation and interpretation. They wiil each be written by a practising geophysicist of considerable experience.
The monographs appeal to advanced students in geoexploration at Universities and Technical High Schools as well as to geophysicists and others engaged in

geophysical exploration.

Gn o p u B LrcATro N As so crATE s H. Bnenxrnlv, Trondheim - G. GnLu, Paris - O. Konnonn, Delft G. KuNnrz, Paris - Ii[. Mnxznl, Ilamburg - C. Monsr,r,r, Trieste R. G. V.N l{osrnANn, Alexandria/Virginia P. N. S. O'BRrnN, London
O. RosnNscu, Clausthal

S. SExov, Aarhus

GE BR,DE R, BOR,NTR,AB GE

R,

I BER,LIN 38 T{IKOLASSEE