GTU 104/3

Transport of Respiratory Gases

Dr. Idris Long School of Health Sciences, USM

Partial pressure of gases

Air is a mixture of gases-nitrogen, oxygen, water vapor,

carbon dioxide and others-each contributes to the total air pressure. The pressure of a specific gas in a mixture is called its partial pressure. Dalton law-the pressure each gas is independent of the pressure the others. These individual pressures termed partial pressures (PO2). Atmospheric air consists primarily Nitrogen=79%, O2=21%, CO2= 0.03%. P02 of atmospheric air is 0.21 x 760 mm Hg = 160 mm Hg at sea level.

Partial pressure of gases

Partial pressure are important because each gas diffuses from areas

where its partial pressure is higher to area where its partial pressure is lower in the body. When a liquid exposed to air containing a particular gas, molecules of the gas will enter the liquid and dissolve in it. Henrys law states that the amount of gas dissolved directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas with which the liquid is in equilibrium. Equilibrium= the partial pressures of the gas molecules in the liquid and gaseous phases must be identical.

External respiration : pulmonary gas exchange

Diffusion of O2 from air in the alveoli of the lungs to blood

in pulmonary capillaries and the diffusion of CO2 in the opposite direction. Coverts deoxygenated (low oxygen) blood that comes from the right side of the heart (venous blood) to oxygenated (high-oxygen) blood that returns to the left side of the heart (arterial blood).

External respiration : pulmonary gas exchange

O2 diffuses from alveolar air, where its partial pressure (Po2) is 105 mm Hg into the blood in pulmonary capillaries where Po2 is about 40 mm Hg in resting person. Diffusion continue until Po2 of pulmonary capillary blood increases to 105 mm Hg, matching

the Po2 of alveolar air. Blood leaving pulmonary capillaries near alveolar air spaces mixes with a small volume of blood that has flowed through conducting portions of the respiratory system where gas exchange does not occur. Thus Po2 of blood in the pulmonary vein is about 100 mm Hg, slightly less than the Po2 in pulmonary capillaries.

Internal respiration: systemic gas exchange

The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and through systemic arteries into systemic capillaries. The exchange of 02 and CO2 between systemic capillaries and tissue cells is called internal

respiration or systemic gas exchange. The Po2 of blood pumped into systemic capillaries is higher (100 mm Hg) than the Po2 in tissue cells (about 40 mm Hg)-because cells constantly use up 02 to produce ATP. O2 diffuses out of the capillaries into tissue cells, and blood Po2 decreases.

Transport of Oxygen (O2) O2 from atmosphere To alveoli (point of gases exchange) To plasma (pulmonary capillaries)

To tissues

External respiration : pulmonary gas exchange

The

Pco2 of deoxygenated blood is 45 mm Hg in a resting person, compared to the Pco2 of alveolar air which is 40 mm Hg. Because of this difference, carbon dioxide diffuses from deoxygenated blood into the alveoli until the Pco2 of the blood decreases to 40 mm Hg. Oxygenated blood returning to the left side of the heart in the pulmonary veins thus has a Pco2 of 40 mm Hg.

Internal respiration: systemic gas exchange

Because

tissue cells are constantly producing Co2, the Pco2 of cells (45 mm Hg at rest) is higher than that of systemic capillary blood (40 mm Hg). Co2 diffuses from tissue cells through interstitial fluid into systemic capillaries until the Pco2 in the blood increases. The deoxygenated blood then returns to the heart and is pumped to the lungs for another cycle of external respiration.

Transport of carbon dioxide (CO2) CO2 from tissues To the blood

To alveoli (point of gases exchange) To atmosphere

Relationship between metabolism and alveolar ventilation (External respiration)

Hypoventilation

-increase in the ratio of CO2 production to alveolar ventilation. -Alveolar ventilation cannot keep pace with CO2 production. -Alveolar PCO2 rises the normal value of 40 mmHg. Hyperventilation - Decrease in ratio of CO2 production to alveolar ventilation. - Alveolar ventilation too great for the amount of CO2 being produced. - Alveolar PCO2 decreases below the normal value of 40 mmHg.

Transport of O2 in Blood

About 19 ml of O2 is transported by 100 ml of blood by two methods: A. Physically dissolved in blood B.Chemically combined to the hemoglobin (Hb) in the erythrocytes

Transport of O2 in Blood
(A)

Physically dissolved oxygen Normal arterial blood contain only about 0.3 ml of physically dissolved oxygen in 100ml of blood. The resting oxygen consumption in an adult is about 250-300ml of oxygen per minute.

If all of the 0.3 ml of oxygen in the 100 ml of blood were to be removed, you would require at least 83.3 liters of blood to deliver that much of oxygen to the tissues in one minutes. During severe exercise oxygen demand could increase by some 1215 fold. It would be completely impossible for the cardiac output to meet this demand of oxygen. clearly the physically dissolved oxygen in the blood cannot meet the metabolic demand of oxygen.

Transport of O2 in Blood
B. Chemically combined with hemoglobin

Hemoglobin is a complex molecule with a molecular weight of about 64400 daltons.

Haemoglobin (Hb) = Heme (iron-porphyrin) + globin (protein) Globin has 4 protein polypeptide chains: 2 alpha (each has 141 aa) and 2 beta (each has 146 aa). One Hb molecule can bind 4 oxygen molecules

Hemoglobin
Hemoglobin rapidly combines reversibly with oxygen. The reaction is very fast with half time of 0.01 s or less.

Hb (Deoxyhemoglobin) + O2

Hb-O2 (oxyhemoglobin)

Each gram of hemoglobin is capable of combining with 1.39 ml of oxygen under optimal condition. For this reason, oxygen carrying capacity of hemoglobin is usually considered as 1.34ml/g Hb.
Therefore a person with 15g Hb/100 ml of blood has an oxygen carrying capacity of 20.1 ml of O2/100ml of blood. (Usually only 19 ml of O2 is carried by 100 ml of blood). More than 98% of oxygen in the blood is transported bound to hemoglobin inside the erythrocytes.

Hemoglobin
Under normal circumstances some hemoglobin exists as methemoglobin (in which the iron atom is in the ferric state ) or is combined with carbon monoxide. The oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is determined by the Hb concentration. If it is below normal, anaemia, the oxygen concentration of the blood is reduced. When the Hb concentration is high, polycythemia, the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood is increased. The Hb and red blood cell production in the body is under control of erythropoietin, which is produced by the kidneys. Its production is stimulated when the amount of oxygen delivered to the

kidneys is lower than normal. Normally Hb concentration in men is higher then women, because the red cell production is also stimulated by androgen.

Factors Affecting Transport & Delivery of O2

The amount of oxygen that

binds to hemoglobin depends on two factors 1.The Po2 of the plasma surrounding the red blood cell. 2. The amount of Hb. The relationship between the Po2 of the plasma and the percent of hemoglobin saturation is demonstrated as the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve. The relationship between Po2 and HbO2 is not linear: it is an S-shaped curve.

Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

There are a number factors

known to influence the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve. 1. Temperature High temperatures shift the curve to the right; low temperature shift the curve to the left. Temperature increases cause amount of O2 released from hemoglobin increases. Active tissues produce more heat, elevates the local temperature and promotes release of O2.

Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

2. pH Low pH shift the curve to the right, high pH shift curve to the left. In acidic environment, hemoglobin releases O2 more readily. During exercise, muscles produce lactic acid which promotes release of O2 from hemoglobin.

Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

3. Pco2 High Pco2 shift the curve to the right and low Pco2 shift the curve to the left. Hemoglobin releases more O2 as blood flows through active tissues that are producing more CO2, muscular tissue during exercise. The effects of pH and Pco2 on the hemoglobin dissociation curve is referred to as the Bohr effect.

Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve

4. 2,3-DPG (2,3-Diphosphoglycerate) in erythrocytes. 2,3 DPG is produced by erythrocytes during anaerobic glycolysis and is normally present in fairly high concentration within red blood cells (15 mol/ g Hb). Higher concentrations of 2,3 DPG shift the oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve to the right. It alters the oxygen affinity of hemoglobin by two mechanisms: -by binding to deoxyhemoglobin -by lowering the intracellular pH

Transport of CO2 in blood

CO2 is transported in 3 different forms in the

blood:
1. As simple solution 2. As bicarbonate 3. As carbamino compounds

Transport of CO2 in blood

1. As simple solution * CO2 dissolves in the water of plasma * only 7% 2. As bicarbonate ions * 70% * CO2 enters into RBC * CO2 reacts with water in RBC and forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) * Fast reaction in RBC due to the presence of enzyme carbonic anhydrase * H2CO3 is very unstable - dissociates into bicarbonate ions and hydrogen ions * HCO3 moves to plasma

Transport of CO2 in blood

Chloride shift or Hamburger phenomenonride shift

or Hamburger phenomenon IN PLASMA

NaCl Na+ ClCl-

H2O + CO2
CA

H2CO3

IN TISSUE CO2

HCO3NaHCO3

HCO-

H+ + Hb 3 =HHb IN RBC

Transport of CO2 in blood

Reverse Chloride Shift H2 O
IN PLASMA H2CO3 OxyHb Hb + O2 HHb

CO2
CO2

NaHCO3
Na HCO3ClHCO3 + H Cl-

IN ALVEOLUS O2

Nacl

IN RBC

Transport of CO2 in blood

4. As Carbamino Compounds
combines with hemoglobin carbamino hemoglobin
combines with plasma proteins carbamino proteins combines with proteins or Hb with loose bond (reversible

binding)
amount transported in combination with plasma proteins is

very less