CHAPTER

and review thoseparts of elementary In this chapterwe gathertogetherfor reference for necessary the study of calculus.We assumethat you are mathematicsthat are But familiar with mostof this materialandthat you don't requiredetailedexplanations. few wordsaboutthe natureofcalculusand a briefoutlineofthe historyofthe first a subject.

r r.r WHAT rscArculus?

was a pebbleusedin countingand To a Romanin the daysof the empire,a "calculus'o gambling.Centurieslater,"calculare" cameto mean"to calculate,""to compute,""to geometry (algebra, mathematics calculusis elementary figure out." For our purposes, by trigonometry)enhanced the limit process. and extendsthem to a more Calculustakes ideasfrom elementarymathematics generalsituation.Someexamples on pages2 and3. On the left-handsideyou will are by mathematics; the right, this sameidea as extended on find an idea from elementary calculus. The originscanbe traced aboutthe history of calculus. It is fitting to saysomething (oftenparadoxical) The ancientGreeksraisedmanyquestions back to ancientGreece. that motion, area,the infinitely small, the infinitely large--questions about tangents, by today are clarified and answered calculus.Here and there the Greeksthemselves (somevery elegant), mostly they providedonly questions. providedanswers but

ElementaryMathematics

Calculus

slopeof a line Y:mx+b

slopeofa curve y : f(x)

(Tablecontinues)

cHAPTER PREcALcULUS I REVTEW

tangentline to a circle

tangentline to a more generalcurve

areaof a regionbounded by line segments

areaof a region bounded by curves

length a line segment of

length of a curve

volumeof a rectangular solid

volumeof a solid with a curvedboundary

motion alonga straight line with constant velocity

motion along a curved pathwith varying velocity

work doneby a constant force

work doneby a varying force

I.2 REVIEW ELEMENTARY T OF MATHEMATICS 3

massof an object ofconstant density mass of an object ofvarying density

-- --

----t

centerofa sphere

center ofgravity of a moreseneral solid

progress slow.Communication limited" eachscholar After theGreeks, was was and wasobligedto startalmostfrom scratch. Overthe centuries, someingenious solutions problemswere devise4but no generaltechniques to calculus-type were put forth. Progress impeded the lack of a convenient was by notation. Algebra,foundedin the ninthcenturyby Arab scholars, not fully systematized the sixteenth was until century. Then, theseventeenth in Descartes geometry, thestage century, established analytic and wasset. The actualinventionof calculusis creditedto Sir IsaacNewton (1642-1727), anEnglishman, to GottfriedWilhelm Leibniz(1646-1716), German. and Newton's a invention one of the few goodturnsthat the greatplaguedid mankind.The plague is forced closingof Cambridge the University 1665, youngIsaac in Newtonof Trinity and returned his home in Lincolnshire eighteen to College for monthsof meditation, out of whichgrewhis method offluxions,histheoryof gravitation,andhis theoryof light. Themethodof fluxionsis whatconcerns here.A treatise us with this title waswritten by Newtonin 1672,but it remained unpublished until 1736,nineyearsafterhis death. Thenew method(calculus us) was first announced 1687,but in vaguegeneral to in terms withoutsymbolism, formulas, applications. Newtonhimselfseemed or reluctant to publishanythingtangibleabouthis new method,and it is not surprising that its development the Continent, spiteof a latestart,soonovertook on in Newtonandwent beyond him. Leibnizstarted work in 1673, his eightyears afterNewton.In 1675he initiated the basic modern notation: and . His firstpublications dx in appeared 1684 1686. and These [ made little stir in Germany, thetwo brothers but Bernoulliof Basel(Switzerland) took profusely them.From 1690 uptheideas added and to grewrapidlyand onwardcalculus reached roughlyits present in years. state abouta hundred Certain theoretical subtleties werenot fully resolved until thetwentieth century.

. 1.2 REVIEW ELEMENTARY OF MATHEMATICS

In this section we review the terminology, notation, and formulas of elementarymathematics.

Sets
A sel is a collection distinctobjects. of The objects a setarecalledtheelements in or members theset.Wewill denote by capital of sets letters B , C, .. . anduselowercase l,
laltarc n h n fn rlennfc fhc clemenfq

1.8 A NOTE MATHEMATICAL ON PROOF; MATHEMATICAL INDUCTIONI

47

both positiveandnegative values.Compare your graphs with the graphof f, and describe effect that varying the b hason the graphofF. (b) Now fix a valueof b andgraphF for several valuesof a; again,use both positive and negativevalues.Compare your graphswith the graphoff, and describethe effect that varying c has on the graph of F. (c) Choosevaluesfor a andb, and graph -F. What effect doeschangingthe sign ofF haveon the graph? 64. For all valuesofa and D,the graphofF is a parabolawhich opens upward.Find valuesfor a andb suchthat the parabola will havex-intercepts ' ] arrd2. Verifr your result algeaI braically. pExercises 65_{16. /(.r): sinr. Set 65. (a) Using a graphing utility, graph cf for c : -3, -2, -1,2,3. Compare your graphs with the graph f. of : (b) N ow graphg(x) f(cx)forc : -3, -2, -i , i. l, Z. a Compareyour graphswith the graphofl 66. (a) Using a graphing utility, graph g(x) : f (x - c) for

pExercises61-62. Set f (r) : x2 - 4,g(x) : !L, r1*1: z-x k&): .2* . Usea CAS to find the indicated Jx+4. and 3 +"r
composlrlon. 6 1 . ( a)f og; 6 2 . ( a) go f ; ( b) g o k ; ( b) k o g ; (c ) f o k o g .

(c )g o f o k . pExercises 63 and 64. Setf(x) : x2 and, F(x): (r - a)2 + b. 63.(a) Choose avaluefor aand,using graph agraphingutility, F for severaldifferent valuesof b. Be sure to choose

" with the graph ofl (b) Now graph g(x) : af(bx - c) for severalvalues of a, b, c.Describethe effectof a, the effectof D,the effect of c.

: -trn, -i", fu,)r,n,2tr. Compare graphs your

r I.8 A NOTE MATHEMATICAT ON PROOF; MATHEMATICAT INDUCTION Mqthemqticol Proof

Thenotionofproof goesbackto Etrclid'sElements,andtherules ofproofhave changed little sincethey were formulatedby Aristotle. We work in a deductivesystemwhere truth is arguedon the basisof assumptions, definitions,and previouslyprovedresults. Wecannotclaim that suchand suchis true without clearly statingthe basison which wemakethat claim. A theoremis an implication; it consists a hypothesis a conclusion: of and if (hypothesis). then(conclusion).. . . ., . Hereis an example: If a andb arepositivenumbers,thenab is positive. A commonmistakeis to ignorethe hypothesis persistwith the conclusion: insist, and to for example,that ab > 0 just because andb arenumbers. a Anothercornmonmistakeis to confusea theorem if A, thenB with its converse if B, thenA. Thefact that a theoremis true doesnot meanthat its converse true: While it is true is that if a andb arepositivenumbers,thenab is positive,

48

cHAPTER PREcALcULUS I REVTEW it is not true that if ab is positive,then a andb arepositivenumbers; but l(-2X-3) is positive -2 and -3 arenot positivel. A third, more subtlemistakeis to assume that the hypothesis a theoremrepreof sentsthe only condition underwhich the conclusionis true. Theremay well be other conditions underwhichtheconclusion true.Thus,for example, only is it truethat is not if a andb arepositivenumbers,thenab is positive but it is alsotrue that if a and b arenegative numbers,thenab is positive. In the eventthat a theorem if A, thenB and its converse if B, thenA areboth true, then we can write ,4 if and only if B We knoq for example, that if we alsoknow that if lxl : r, thenx Z 0. x > 0, thenlxl : y; or more briefly ,4 iff B.

We can summarize by writing this x>0 itr lxl :x.

Remark We'll use"iff" frequentlyin this text but not in definitions.As statedearlier in a footnote,definitionsare by their very natureif statements. example,we can For saythat"a number is calleda zeroof P if P(r) : 0;" we don't haveto say"a number r r is calledazero of P iff P(r):0." In this situation, "only if" part is takenfor the granted. tr A final point. One way of proving if A, thenB is to assume that (l) I holdsand .Bdoesnot hold

and then arriveat a contradiction. contradiction takento indicatethat (1) is a The is falsestatement therefore and if I holds,thenB musthold. Someof the theorems calculus proved this method. of are by provides procedures solvinga wide rangeof problems thephysical Calculus for in and social sciences. The fact that theseprocedures give us answers that seemto make sense comforting,but it is only because canproveour theorems is we that we can have confidence themathematics is beingapplied. in that Accordingly, studyof calculus the shouldincludethe studyof someproofs.

1.8A NOTE MATHEMATICAL ON PROOF: MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION I

49

Mqthemoticol lnducfion
Mathematical induction is a method of proof which can be used to show that certain propositionsare true for all positive integersn. The method is basedon the following axiom:

I.8.I AXIOMOFINDUCTION Let S be a setof positiveintegers. If (A) le S,and (B) ft e S impliesthat/.+ I .t, thenall the positiveintegers in S. are

You can think of the axiom of induction as a kind of "domino theory." If the first domino falls (Figure 1.8.1),and if each domino that falls causes the next one to fall, then,accordingto the axiom of induction,eachdomino will fall.

ffiilqH
F i g u reI.8 .1 While we cannot prove that this axiom is valid (axioms are by their very nature assumptions and therefore not subject to proof), we can arguethat tt is plausible. Let's assumethat we have a set S that satisfiesconditions (A) and (B). Now let's choosea positive integer rr and "argue" that ln e ^S. F r om ( A ) wek n o w th a t I e S. S i n c e I e S ,w eknow that l + I S ,andthusthat (l + 1) * I e S , an d s o o n . Si n c em c a n b e o b ta i nedfrom l byaddi ng l successi vel y (m - l) times, it seemscleur that n e S. To prove that a given proposition is true for all positive integers n, we let S be the set of positive integers for which the proposition is true. We prove first that I e S; that is, that the proposition is true for n : l. Next we assumethat the proposition is true for some positive integer t, and show that it is true for t * l; that is, we show that t e S implies that /r * I e S. Then by the axiom of induction, we conclude that S containsthe set ofpositive integersand thereforethe proposition is true for all positive integers.

Exomple I

We'll showthat
n (n * l ) for all positiveintegers r.

l+2+3-r...-rn:

50

REVIEW I CHAPTERPRECALCULUS SOLUTION Let,Sbe the setof positiveintegersn for which t+2+3+...*n:n(n-ll). Then I e .Ssince l(l+l) . '-___'-. that lhat k e S; that is, we assume Next, we assume

r+2+3...+ o:k(o:t).
2 we Adding up the first k + 1 integers, have

| +2 +3 +... + k + ( k+ l) : ll +2+ 3 + ' " + kl+( k+ 1)

:ry+!+(r+r)
k( k+ r ) +2( k+t) :- - - z
:-

hypothesis) 1bythe induction

( k+ r ) ( k+ 2)

2 | e S. Thus,by the axiom of induction,we can concludethat all positive and so k * integersare in S; that is, we can concludethat | +2+3 +." I n:n(n't l)
z

integersn. tr forallpositive

if that, x > - 1,then Exomple 2 We'llshow n. integers (l * x)' > | + nx for all positive r integers for which ])LUTION Wetakex > - I andlet s bethesetof positive
(l*x)'allnx. Since (l*x)t-l*1.x, wehaveleS. that We now assume k e S. By the definition of 'S,

(l+ x )r> l+ k x .
Since (1 * x)r+r : (1 + r;k1t + r) : (1 + k.rxl + r) and

(explain)

(l + frxXl+,r) : I +(f + l)x I kxz > I + (f * 1)x,

we can concludethat

(l + x )f t + r> I + (/ r+ l). r
andthusthatk* I e S. We have shownthat le,S andthat keS imPlies f+1S.