(a) Physical principles

1) Mechanical: a change in temperature causes some kind of mechanical motion due to the fact that most materials expand on increasing temperature and the mechanical motion is read on a physical scale which infer to temperature and thus temperature is calculated. 2) Thermojunctive: (i) When two dissimilar metals are joined together, a small thermo junction voltage is generated at the junction (ii) If the temperature of the junction changes it causes voltage to change too which can be measured by an electronic controller and output is a voltage proportional to the temperature difference between the junction (iii) Both the above phenomena are coupled to measure the temperature with one end at a known temperature. The voltage generated is directly proportional to the temperature difference and thus temperature can be calculated. 3) Thermoresistive: the basic principle is that the electric resistance of a metal changes with change in temperature. Resistance increases with increase in temperature and thus increase in resistance is calculated which in turn gives temperature. 4) Radiative: any object emits an amount of energy that is a function of its temperature. This function shows as the temperature increases so as the energy emitted by the object.

(b) Pressure measurement

1) Hydrostatic gauges compare pressure to the hydrostatic force per unit area at the base of a column of fluid. Hydrostatic gauge measurements are independent of the type of gas being measured, and can be designed to have a very linear calibration. Hydrostatic technique is useful for control systems because of its independency on the nature of the gas and this feature makes it useful for chemical process control 2) Mechanical pressure gauges and electromechanical pressure sensors incorporate an elastic element called a force-summing device that changes shape when pressure is applied to it. The shape change is then converted to a displacement. Mechanical gauges are also independent of the type of gas being measure, more sophisticated and less likely to affect the system than the hydrostatic gauges. 3) In mechanical gauges, the motion generated by the force-summing device is converted by mechanical linkage into dial or pointer movement. The better gauges provide adjustments for zero, span, linearity, and (sometimes) temperature compensation for mechanical calibration. High-accuracy mechanical gauges take advantage of special materials, balanced movements, compensation techniques, mirror scales, knife-edge pointers, and expanded scales to improve the precision and accuracy of readings. 4) Electromechanical pressure sensors, or pressure transducers, convert motion generated by a force-summing device into an electrical signal. These sensors are much more useful and adaptable than mechanical gauges, especially when applied in data acquisition and control systems.

(c) Fluid velocity measurement

Conservation of mass: Example: bucket and stop watch, the simplest way of calculating fluid velocity by determining the time required by the fluid to fill a bucket. Conservation of energy: Bernoullis principle: states that an increase in the speed of the fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the fluid's potential energy. In a steady flow, the sum of all forms of mechanical energy in a fluid along a streamline is the same at all points on that streamline. This requires that the sum of kinetic energy and potential energy remain constant Conservation of momentum A navierStokes equation which is derived using conservation of momentum dictate not position but rather velocity. A solution of the NavierStokes equations is called a velocity field or flow field, which is a description of the velocity of the fluid at a given point in space and time.

(d) Temperature measurement types

(i) Contact Type: Contact temperature sensors measure their own temperature. One infers the temperature of the object to which the sensor is in contact by assuming or knowing that the two are in thermal equilibrium, that is, there is no heat flow between them. Advantages: (a) Contact type sensors are conventional one e.g. thermocouple, thermistor, resistance temperature detector etc. and they have various features which makes them suitable for chemical process control like sensitivity, accuracy, cost, temperature range, rugged etc. (II) Noncontact type: is the preferred technique for small, moving, or inaccessible objects; dynamic processes that require fast response; and temperatures <1000C (1832F). To select the best noncontact temperature measurement device for a particular application, it is essential to understand the basics of temperature measurement technology and temperature measurement parameters Advantages: (a) It is fast, time is saved, allowing for more measurements and accumulation of data (b) It facilitates measurement of moving targets (conveyor processes). (c) Measurements can be taken of hazardous or physically inaccessible objects (d) Measurements of high temperatures (greater than 1300C) present no problems. In (e) similar cases, contact thermometers cannot be used, or have a limited life