CDMA is a spread spectrum multiple access technique.

A spread spectrum technique spreads thebandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. Spreading code is a pseudo-random code that has a narrowAmbiguity function, unlike other narrow pulse codes. In CDMAa locally generated code runs at a much higher rate than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined via bitwiseXOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figureshows how spread spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of
T
b

isXORed with the code signal with pulse duration of

T
c

. (Note:bandwidthis proportional to 1 /
T

where
T

= bit time) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal is 1 /

T
b

and the bandwidth of thespread spectrum signal is 1 /

T
c

. Since
T
c

is much smaller than

T
b

, the bandwidth of the spreadspectrum signal is much larger than the bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio
T
b

/
T
c

iscalled spreading factor or processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of users supported simultaneously by a base station.Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal. Choosing the codesused to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of CDMA systems. The bestperformance will occur when there is good separation between the signal of a desired user andthe signals of other users. The separation of the signals is made bycorrelatingthe received signalwith the locally generated code of the desired user. If the signal matches the desired user's codethen the correlation function will be high and the system can extract that signal. If the desireduser's code has nothing in common with the signal the correlation should be as close to zero aspossible (thus eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross correlation. If the code is

Maxim > Design Support > Technical Documents > Tutorials > Wireless and RF > APP 1890 Keywords: rf, rfic, dsss, fhss, direct sequency, frequency hopping, spread spectrum, wireless, jammer, code sequence, rf ics, tutorial, rfics

TUTORIAL 1890

An Introduction to Spread-Spectrum

Communications
Feb 18, 2003 Abstract: This application note is a tutorial overview of spread-spectrum principles. The discussion covers both direct-sequence and fast-hopping methods. Theoretical equations are given to allow performance estimates. Relation to CDMA and TDMA is provided. A schematic of a code sequence generator is shown. Spectral plots illustrate direct-sequence spreadspectrum (DSSS) and frequency-hopping spread-spectrum (FHSS) methods.

Introduction
As spread-spectrum techniques become increasingly popular, electrical engineers outside the field are eager for understandable explanations of the technology. There are Click here for an overview of books and websites on the subject, but many are hard to the wireless components used understand or describe some aspects while ignoring others (e.g., the DSSS technique with extensive focus on PRN-code in a typical radio transceiver. generation). The following discussion covers the full spectrum (pun intended).

A Short History
Spread-spectrum communications technology was first described on paper by an actress and a musician! In 1941 Hollywood actress Hedy Lamarr and pianist George Antheil described a secure radio link to control torpedos. They received U.S. Patent #2.292.387. The technology was not taken seriously at that time by the U.S. Army and was forgotten until the 1980s, when it became active. Since then the technology has become increasingly popular for applications that involve radio links in hostile environments. Typical applications for the resulting short-range data transceivers include satellitepositioning systems (GPS), 3G mobile telecommunications, W-LAN (IEEE 802.11a, IEEE 802.11b, IEEE 802.11g), and Bluetooth. Spread-spectrum techniques also aid in the endless race between communication needs and radio-frequency availabilitysituations where the radio spectrum is limited and is, therefore, an expensive resource.

Theoretical Justification for Spread Spectrum

Spread-spectrum is apparent in the Shannon and Hartley channel-capacity theorem: C = B log2 (1 + S/N) (Eq. 1)

In this equation, C is the channel capacity in bits per second (bps), which is the maximum data rate for a theoretical bit-error rate (BER). B is the required channel bandwidth in Hz, and S/N is the signal-to-noise power ratio. To be more explicit, one assumes that C, which represents the amount of information allowed by the communication channel, also represents the desired performance. Bandwidth (B) is the price to be paid, because frequency is a limited resource. The S/N ratio expresses the environmental conditions or the physical characteristics (i.e., obstacles, presence of jammers, interferences, etc.). There is an elegant interpretation of this equation, applicable for difficult environments, for example, when a low S/N ratio is caused by noise and interference. This approach says that one can maintain or even increase communication performance (high C) by allowing or injecting more bandwidth (high B), even when signal power is below the noise floor. (The equation does not forbid that condition!) Modify Equation 1 by changing the log base from 2 to e (the Napierian number) and by noting that ln = loge. Therefore: C/B = (1/ln2) ln(1 + S/N) = 1.443 ln(1 + S/N) Applying the MacLaurin series development for ln(1 + x) = x - x/2 + x/3 - x4/4 + ... + (-1)k+1xk/k + ...: C/B = 1.443 (S/N - 1/2 (S/N) + 1/3 (S/N) - ...) (Eq. 3) (Eq. 2)

S/N is usually low for spread-spectrum applications. (As just mentioned, the signal power density can even be below the noise level.) Assuming a noise level such that S/N << 1, Shannon's expression becomes simply: C/B 1.433 S/N Very roughly: C/B S/N Or: N/S B/C (Eq. 6) (Eq. 5) (Eq. 4)

To send error-free information for a given noise-to-signal ratio in the channel, therefore, one need only perform the fundamental spread-spectrum signal-spreading operation: increase the transmitted bandwidth. That principle seems simple and evident. Nonetheless, implementation is complex, mainly because spreading the baseband (by a factor that can be several orders of magnitude) forces the electronics to act and react accordingly, which, in turn, makes the spreading and despreading operations necessary.

Definitions
Different spread-spectrum techniques are available, but all have one idea in common: the key (also called the code or sequence) attached to the communication channel. The manner of inserting this code defines precisely the spread-spectrum technique. The term "spread spectrum" refers to the expansion of signal bandwidth, by several orders of magnitude in some cases, which occurs when a key is attached to the communication channel. The formal definition of spread spectrum is more precise: an RF communications system in which the baseband signal bandwidth is intentionally spread over a larger bandwidth by injecting a higher frequency signal (Figure 1). As a direct consequence, energy used in transmitting the signal is spread over a wider bandwidth, and appears as noise. The ratio (in dB) between the spread baseband and the original signal is called processing gain. Typical spread-spectrum processing gains run from 10dB to 60dB. To apply a spread-spectrum technique, simply inject the corresponding spread-spectrum code somewhere in the transmitting chain before the antenna (receiver). (That injection is called the spreading operation.) The effect is to diffuse the information in a larger bandwidth. Conversely, you can remove the spread-spectrum code (called a despreading operation) at a point in the receive chain before data retrieval. A despreading operation reconstitutes the information into its original bandwidth. Obviously, the same code must be known in advance at both ends of the transmission channel. (In some circumstances, the code should be known only by those two parties.)

Figure 1. Spread-spectrum communication system.

Bandwidth Effects of the Spreading Operation

Figure 2 illustrates the evaluation of signal bandwidths in a communication link.

Figure 2. Spreading operation spreads the signal energy over a wider frequency bandwidth. Spread-spectrum modulation is applied on top of a conventional modulation such as BPSK or direct conversion. One can demonstrate that all other signals not receiving the spreadspectrum code will remain as they are, that is, unspread.

Bandwidth Effects of the Despreading Operation

Similarly, despreading can be seen in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The despreading operation recovers the original signal. Here a spread-spectrum demodulation has been made on top of the normal demodulation operations. One can also demonstrate that signals such as an interferer or jammer added during the transmission will be spread during the despreading operation!

Waste of Bandwidth Due to Spreading Is Offset by Multiple Users

Spreading results directly in the use of a wider frequency band by a factor that corresponds exactly to the "processing gain" mentioned earlier. Therefore spreading does not spare the limited frequency resource. That overuse is well compensated, however, by the possibility that many users will share the enlarged frequency band (Figure 4).

Figure 4. The same frequency band can be shared by multiple users with spread-spectrum techniques.

Spread Spectrum Is a Wideband Technology

In contrast to regular narrowband technology, the spread-spectrum process is a wideband technology. W-CDMA and UMTS, for example, are wideband technologies that require a relatively large frequency bandwidth, compared to narrowband radio.

Benefits of Spread Spectrum

Resistance to Interference and Antijamming Effects
There are many benefits to spread-spectrum technology. Resistance to interference is the most important advantage. Intentional or unintentional interference and jamming signals are rejected because they do not contain the spread-spectrum key. Only the desired signal, which has the key, will be seen at the receiver when the despreading operation is exercised. See Figure 5.

Figure 5. A spread-spectrum communication system. Note that the interferer's energy is spread while the data signal is despread in the receive chain. You can practically ignore the interference, narrowband or wideband, if it does not include the key used in the despreading operation. That rejection also applies to other spread-spectrum signals that do not have the right key. Thus different spread-spectrum communications can be active simultaneously in the same band, such as CDMA. Note that spread spectrum is a wideband technology, but the reverse is not true: wideband techniques need not involve spread-spectrum technology.

Resistance to Interception
Resistance to interception is the second advantage provided by spread-spectrum techniques. Because nonauthorized listeners do not have the key used to spread the original signal, those listeners cannot decode it. Without the right key, the spread-spectrum signal appears as noise or as an interferer. (Scanning methods can break the code, however, if the key is short.) Even better, signal levels can be below the noise floor, because the spreading operation reduces the spectral density. See Figure 6. (Total energy is the same, but it is widely spread in frequency.) The message is thus made invisible, an effect that is particularly strong with the directsequence spread-spectrum (DSSS) technique. (DSSS is discussed in greater detail below.) Other receivers cannot "see" the transmission; they only register a slight increase in the overall noise level!

Figure 6. Spread-spectrum signal is buried under the noise level. The receiver cannot "see" the transmission without the right spread-spectrum keys.

Resistance to Fading (Multipath Effects)

Wireless channels often include multiple-path propagation in which the signal has more than one path from the transmitter to the receiver (Figure 7). Such multipaths can be caused by atmospheric reflection or refraction, and by reflection from the ground or from objects such as buildings.

Figure 7. Illustration of how the signal can reach the receiver over multiple paths. The reflected path (R) can interfere with the direct path (D) in a phenomenon called fading. Because the despreading process synchronizes to signal D, signal R is rejected even though it contains the same key. Methods are available to use the reflected-path signals by despreading them and adding the extracted results to the main one.

Spread Spectrum Allows CDMA

Note that spread spectrum is not a modulation scheme, and should not be confused with other types of modulation. One can, for example, use spread-spectrum techniques to transmit a signal modulated by FSK or BPSK. Thanks to the coding basis, spread spectrum can also be used as another method for implementing multiple access (i.e., the real or apparent

coexistence of multiple and simultaneous communication links on the same physical media). So far, three main methods are available.

FDMAFrequency Division Multiple Access

FDMA allocates a specific carrier frequency to a communication channel. The number of different users is limited to the number of "slices" in the frequency spectrum (Figure 8). Of the three methods for enabling multiple access, FDMA is the least efficient in term of frequency-band usage. Methods of FDMA access include radio broadcasting, TV, AMPS, and TETRAPOLE.

Figure 8. Carrier-frequency allocations among different users in a FDMA system.

TDMATime Division Multiple Access

With TDMA the different users speak and listen to each other according to a defined allocation of time slots (Figure 9). Different communication channels can then be established for a unique carrier frequency. Examples of TDMA are GSM, DECT, TETRA, and IS-136.

Figure 9. Time-slot allocations among different users in a TDMA system.

CDMACode Division Multiple Access

CDMA access to the air is determined by a key or code (Figure 10). In that sense, spread spectrum is a CDMA access. The key must be defined and known in advance at the transmitter and receiver ends. Growing examples are IS-95 (DS), IS-98, Bluetooth, and WLAN.

Figure 10. CDMA systems access the same frequency band with unique keys or codes. One can, of course, combine the above access methods. GSM, for instance, combines TDMA and FDMA. GSM defines the topological areas (cells) with different carrier frequencies, and sets time slots within each cell.

Spread Spectrum and (De)coding "Keys"

At this point, it is worth restating that the main characteristic of spread spectrum is the presence of a code or key, which must be known in advance by the transmitter and receiver(s). In modern communications the codes are digital sequences that must be as long and as random as possible to appear as "noise-like" as possible. But in any case, the codes must remain reproducible, or the receiver cannot extract the message that has been sent. Thus, the sequence is "nearly random." Such a code is called a pseudo-random number (PRN) or sequence. The method most frequently used to generate pseudo-random codes is based on a feedback shift register. One example of a PRN is shown in Figure 11. The shift register contains eight data flip-flops (FF). At the rising edge of the clock, the contents of the shift register are shifted one bit to the left. The data clocked in by FF1 depends on the contents fed back from FF8 and FF7. The PRN is read out from FF8. The contents of the FFs are reset at the beginning of each sequence length.

Figure 11. Block diagram of a sample PRN generator. Many books are available on the generation of PRNs and their characteristics, but that development is outside the scope of this basic tutorial. Simply note that the construction or selection of proper sequences, or sets of sequences, is not trivial. To guarantee efficient spread-spectrum communications, the PRN sequences must respect certain rules, such as length, autocorrelation, cross-correlation, orthogonality, and bits balancing. The more popular PRN sequences have names: Barker, M-Sequence, Gold, Hadamard-Walsh, etc. Keep in mind that a more complex sequence set provides a more robust spread-spectrum link. But there is a cost to this: more complex electronics both in speed and behavior, mainly for the spreadspectrum despreading operations. Purely digital spread-spectrum despreading chips can contain more than several million equivalent 2-input NAND gates, switching at several tens of megahertz.

Different Modulation Spreading Techniques for Spread Spectrum

Different spread-spectrum techniques are distinguished according to the point in the system at which a PRN is inserted in the communication channel. This is very basically illustrated in the RF front-end schematic in Figure 12.

Figure 12. Several spreading techniques are applied at different stages of the transmit chain. If the PRN is inserted at the data level, this is the direct-sequence form of spread spectrum (DSSS). (In practice, the pseudo-random sequence is mixed or multiplied with the information signal, giving an impression that the original data flow was "hashed" by the PRN.) If the PRN acts at the carrier-frequency level, this is the frequency-hopping form of spread spectrum (FHSS). Applied at the LO stage, FHSS PRN codes force the carrier to change or "hop" according to the pseudo-random sequence. If the PRN acts as an on/off gate to the transmitted signal, this is a time-hopping spread-spectrum technique (THSS). There is also the "chirp" technique, which linearly sweeps the carrier frequency in time. One can mix all the above techniques to form a hybrid spread-spectrum technique, such as DSSS + FHSS. DSSS and FHSS are the two techniques most in use today.

Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

With the DSSS technique, the PRN is applied directly to data entering the carrier modulator. The modulator, therefore, sees a much larger bit rate, which corresponds to the chip rate of the PRN sequence. Modulating an RF carrier with such a code sequence produces a directsequence-modulated spread spectrum with ((sin x)/x) frequency spectrum, centered at the carrier frequency. The main lobe of this spectrum (null to null) has a bandwidth twice the clock rate of the modulating code, and the side lobes have null-to-null bandwidths equal to the code's clock rate. Illustrated in Figure 13 is the most common type of direct-sequence-modulated spreadspectrum signal. Direct-sequence spectra vary somewhat in spectral shape, depending on the actual carrier and data modulation used. Below is a binary phase shift keyed (BPSK) signal, which is the most common modulation type used in direct-sequence systems.

Figure 13. Spectrum-analyzer photo of a DSSS signal. Note the original signal (nonspread) would only occupy half of the central lobe.

Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS)

The FHSS method does exactly what its name impliesit causes the carrier to hop from frequency to frequency over a wide band according to a sequence defined by the PRN. The speed at which the hops are executed depends on the data rate of the original information. One can, however, distinguish between fast frequency hopping (FFHSS) and low frequency hopping (LFHSS). The latter method, the most common, allows several consecutive data bits to modulate the same frequency. FFHSS is characterized by several hops within each data bit. The transmitted spectrum of a frequency-hopping signal is quite different from that of a direct-sequence system. Instead of a ((sin x)/x)-shaped envelope, the frequency hopper's output is flat over the band of frequencies used (see Figure 14). The bandwidth of a frequency-hopping signal is simply N times the number of frequency slots available, where N is the bandwidth of each hop channel.

Figure 14. Spectrum-analyzer photo of a FHSS signal.

Time-Hopping Spread Spectrum (THSS)

Figure 15. THSS block diagram. Figure 15 illustrates THSS, a method not well developed today. Here the on and off sequences applied to the PA are dictated according to the PRN sequence.

Implementations and Conclusions

A complete spread-spectrum communication link requires various advanced and up-to-date technologies and disciplines: an RF antenna, a powerful and efficient PA, a low-noise and highly linear LNA, compact transceivers, high-resolution ADCs and DACs, rapid low-power digital signal processing (DSP), etc. Though designers and manufacturers compete, they are also joining in their effort to implement spread-spectrum systems. The most difficult area is the receiver path, especially at the despreading level for DSSS, because the receiver must be able to recognize the message and synchronize with it in real time. The operation of code recognition is also called correlation. Because correlation is performed at the digital-format level, the tasks are mainly complex arithmetic calculations including fast, highly parallel, binary additions and multiplications. The most difficult aspect of today's receiver design is synchronization. More time, effort, research, and money have gone toward developing and improving synchronization techniques than toward any other aspect of spread-spectrum communications. Several methods can solve the synchronization problem, and many of them require a large number of discrete components to implement. Perhaps the biggest breakthroughs have occurred in DSP and in application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs). DSP provides high-speed mathematical functions that analyze, synchronize, and decorrelate a spread-spectrum signal after slicing it in many small parts. ASIC chips drive down costs with VLSI technology and by the creation of generic building blocks suitable for any type of application. IEEE is a registered service mark of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. The Bluetooth word mark and logos are registered trademarks owned by Bluetooth SIG, Inc. and any use of such marks by Maxim is under license.
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the mobile industry in India is divided between the two technologies GSM and CDMA. While the earlier service providers had adopted the GSM technology, the new players have been using CDMA technology and have notched up a significant share of the Indian market. Hence any discussion on Mobile Forensics need to take into account the presence of the two technologies. It is necessary for us to understand the basic differentiation of the two technologies as they may have an impact on the Forensics. An attempt is made here to present the fundamental technical aspects about the two systems. GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communications and CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. They represent different systems of sharing of the radio spectrum for communication. Normally the radio spectrum can be shared by different users accessing the same frequency band without causing interference. The techniques used for this are TDMA (Time division multiple

access), FDMA (Frequency division multiple access) and CDMA (Code division multiple access). GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) is a form of multiplexing, which divides the available bandwidth among the different channels. GSM is a combination of Time and Frequency-Division Multiple Access (TDMA/FDMA). The FDMA part involves the division by frequency of the (maximum) 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies spaced 200 kHz apart. Each of these carrier frequencies is then divided in time, using a TDMA scheme. The fundamental unit of time in this TDMA scheme is called a burst period and it lasts 15/26 ms (or approx. 0.577 ms). Eight burst periods are grouped into a TDMA frame (120/26 ms, or approx. 4.615 ms), which forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period per TDMA frame. Thus GSM allows eight simultaneous calls on the same radio frequency. CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) is a form of multiplexing (access to the same resource will be given to more than one user),which allows the use of a particular frequency for a number of signals, optimizing the use of available bandwidth. It is a cellular technology that uses spreadspectrum techniques. In CDMA technology every channel uses the full available spectrum. Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital sequence. CDMA employs analog-to-digital conversion (ADC) in combination with spread spectrum technology. Audio input is first digitized (ADC) into binary elements. The frequency of the transmitted signal is then made to vary according to a defined pattern (code), so it can be intercepted only by a receiver whose frequency response is programmed with the same code, so it follows exactly along with the transmitter frequency. There are trillions of possible frequencysequencing codes; this enhances privacy and makes cloning difficult. The technology is used in ultra-high-frequency (UHF) cellular telephone systems in the 800-MHz and 1.9-GHz bands. GSM was first introduced in 1991 and until recently before the establishment of CDMA networks, GSM was the only mobile communication system present in the market. CDMA was first used during World War II by the English allies to foil German attempts at jamming transmissions. The allies decided to transmit over several frequencies, instead of one, making it difficult for the Germans to pick up the complete signal. Since bandwidth is the major problem in the modern times the CDMA has a very clear advantage over the GSM in these terms. The number of channels(users) that can be allocated in a given bandwidth is comparatively higher for CDMA than for GSM. The cost of setting up a CDMA network is also comparatively less than the GSM network. Due to these advantages there is high probability that CDMA technology will dominate the future of mobile communications. The technologies are normally evaluated on the following three parameters namely the data transmission capacity, security and radiation levels. Following table indicates the data transmission of different technologies.:

Cellular technology Generation Data transmission capacity GSM CDMA (IS-95B) CDMA 2000 2G 2.5G 3G 56 Kps 64 Kps - 140 Kps 2 MBps

The idea of technology with superior security is not a new one. In 1935, a Russian researcher Dmitrii Vasilevich AGEEV, published his book "The basics of linery selection theory", where he explained the concept of coding the signals. After the WWII, Soviet and American military communication systems started to use the concept very widely because of many valuable advantages of the system. The origin concept of CDMA scheme was recommended by QUALCOMM (the famous communication provider in the US and worldwide), however Korean research institute, ETRI and companies like Hyundai, LG, and Samsung performed its realization for the first time in the world in 1995. As of today many countries have accepted it as a national standard of mobile communication and worldwide number of CDMA subscribers has climbed to over 100 million. As already explained, CDMA uses a radically different approach to what GSM does. It assigns a unique "code" to put multiple users on the same wideband channel at the same time. The codes so-called "pseudo-random code sequence" is used by both the mobile station (handset) and the base station to distinguish between conversations. This gives a greater level of privacy and security to the communication. As far as radiation level concerned, CDMA is the most harmless one among all existing technologies. Of course, it transmits microwaves while on standby mode, like other technologies do. However, CDMA technology checks 800 times per second its transmission level. Therefore, radiation level is 10 times less than GSM. Another important thing to point out is that CDMA system transmits signals only when the user starts conversation. Simply saying, when you're listening the other ends conversation, you are not affected by microwave as the speaking person does. It appears that CDMA would be the dominating technology in future and Mobile Forensics has to gear itself to the requirements of the CDMA technology.
by Michael Hendry

This paper provides an introduction to Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) communications, covering a Radio Carrier Station (RCS) and a Fixed Subscriber Unit (FSU). This introduction to CDMA proceeds heuristically, we use very little mathematics in developing the theories, and do not assume a deep mathematical or engineering background. If you would like further information on the math and communication theories behind this introduction, please consult the following references: Viterbi, A. CDMA: Principles of Spread Spectrum Communication Addison-Wesley Wireless Communications Series, 1995

Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., and Milstein, L. B. Theory of Spread-Spectrum CommunicationsA Tutorial IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. COM30, no. 5, May 1982, pp 855-884. Pickholtz, R. L., Schilling, D. L., and Milstein, L. B. Revisions to Theory of Spread-Spectrum Communications A Tutorial IEEE Trans. Commun., vol. COM32, no. 2, Feb 1984, pp 211-212.

Introduction to Spread Spectrum Communications CDMA is a form of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum communications. In general, Spread Spectrum communications is distinguished by three key elements: 1. The signal occupies a bandwidth much greater than that which is necessary to send the information. This results in many benefits, such as immunity to interference and jamming and multi-user access, which well discuss later on. 2. The bandwidth is spread by means of a code which is independent of the data. The independence of the code distinguishes this from standard modulation schemes in which the data modulation will always spread the spectrum somewhat. 3. The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the data. The use of an independent code and synchronous reception allows multiple users to access the same frequency band at the same time. In order to protect the signal, the code used is pseudo-random. It appears random, but is actually deterministic, so that the receiver can reconstruct the code for synchronous detection. This pseudo-random code is also called pseudonoise (PN).

Figure 1. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System Three Types of Spread Spectrum Communications There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal:

Frequency hopping. The signal is rapidly switched between different frequencies within the hopping bandwidth pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows before hand where to find the signal at any given time. Time hopping. The signal is transmitted in short bursts pseudo-randomly, and the receiver knows beforehand when to expect the burst. Direct sequence. The digital data is directly coded at a much higher frequency. The code is generated pseudo-randomly, the receiver knows how to generate the same code, and correlates the received signal with that code to extract the data.

Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum CDMA is a Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system. The CDMA system works directly on 64 kbit/sec digital signals. These signals can be digitized voice, ISDN channels, modem data, etc. Figure 1 shows a simplified Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum system. For clarity, the figure shows one channel operating in one direction only. Signal transmission consists of the following steps: 1. A pseudo-random code is generated, different for each channel and each successive connection. 2. The Information data modulates the pseudo-random code (the Information data is spread). 3. The resulting signal modulates a carrier. 4. The modulated carrier is amplified and broadcast. Signal reception consists of the following steps: 1. The carrier is received and amplified. 2. The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the spread digital signal. 3. A pseudo-random code is generated, matching the anticipated signal. 4. The receiver acquires the received code and phase locks its own code to it. 5. The received signal is correlated with the generated code, extracting the Information data.

Implementing CDMA Technology The following sections describe how a system might implement the steps illustrated in Figure 1. Input data CDMA works on Information data from several possible sources, such as digitized voice or ISDN channels. Data rates can vary, here are some examples: Data Source Data Rate

Voice Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

64 kBits/sec

Adaptive Differential Pulse Code Modulation (ADPCM) 32 kBits/sec Low Delay Code Excited Linear Prediction (LD-CELP) 16 kBits/sec ISDN Bearer Channel (B-Channel) Data Channel (D-Channel) 64 kBits/sec 16 kBits/sec

The system works with 64 kBits/sec data, but can accept input rates of 8, 16, 32, or 64 kBits/sec. Inputs of less than 64 kBits/sec are padded with extra bits to bring them up to 64 kBits/sec. For inputs of 8, 16, 32, or 64 kBits/sec, the system applies Forward Error Correction (FEC) coding, which doubles the bit rate, up to 128 kbits/sec. The Complex Modulation scheme (which well discuss in more detail later), transmits two bits at a time, in two bit symbols. For inputs of less than 64 kbits/sec, each symbol is repeated to bring the transmission rate up to 64 kilosymbols/sec. Each component of the complex signal carries one bit of the two bit symbol, at 64 kBits/sec, as shown below.

Generating Pseudo-Random Codes For each channel the base station generates a unique code that changes for every connection. The base station adds together all the coded transmissions for every subscriber. The subscriber unit correctly generates its own matching code and uses it to extract the appropriate signals. Note that each subscriber uses several independant channels. In order for all this to occur, the pseudo-random code must have the following properties: 1. It must be deterministic. The subscriber station must be able to independently generate the code that matches the base station code. 2. It must appear random to a listener without prior knowledge of the code (i.e. it has the statistical properties of sampled white noise). 3. The cross-correlation between any two codes must be small (see below for more information on code correlation). 4. The code must have a long period (i.e. a long time before the code repeats itself). Code Correlation

In this context, correlation has a specific mathematical meaning. In general the correlation function has these properties: It equals 1 if the two codes are identical It equals 0 of the two codes have nothing in common

Intermediate values indicate how much the codes have in common. The more they have in common, the harder it is for the receiver to extract the appropriate signal. There are two correlation functions: Cross-Correlation: The correlation of two different codes. As weve said, this should be as small as possible. Auto-Correlation: The correlation of a code with a time-delayed version of itself. In order to reject multipath interference, this function should equal 0 for any time delay other than zero.

The receiver uses cross-correlation to separate the appropriate signal from signals meant for other receivers, and

auto-correlation to reject multi-path interference.

Figure 2a. Pseudo-Noise Spreading

Figure 2b. Frequency Spreading Pseudo-Noise Spreading The FEC coded Information data modulates the pseudo-random code, as shown in Figure 2a. Some terminology related to the pseudo-random code: Chipping Frequency (fc): the bit rate of the PN code. Information rate (fi): the bit rate of the digital data. Chip: One bit of the PN code. Epoch: The length of time before the code starts repeating itself (the period of the code). The epoch must be longer than the round trip propagation delay (The epoch is on the order of several seconds).

Figure 2b shows the process of frequency spreading. In general, the bandwidth of a digital signal is twice its bit rate. The bandwidths of the information data (fi) and the PN code are shown together. The bandwidth of the combination of the two, for fc>fi, can be approximated by the bandwidth of the PN code. Processing Gain An important concept relating to the bandwidth is the processing gain (G p). This is a theoretical system gain that reflects the relative advantage that frequency spreading provides. The processing gain is equal to the ratio of the chipping frequency to the data frequency:

There are two major benefits from high processing gain: Interference rejection: the ability of the system to reject interference is directly proportional to G p. System capacity: the capacity of the system is directly proportional to G p.

So the higher the PN code bit rate (the wider the CDMA bandwidth), the better the system performance.

Figure 3a. Complex Modulator

Figure 3b. Complex Modulation Transmitting Data The resultant coded signal next modulates an RF carrier for transmission using Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK). QPSK uses four different states to encode each symbol. The four states are phase shifts of the carrier spaced 90_ apart. By convention, the phase shifts are 45, 135, 225, and 315 degrees. Since there are four possible states used to encode binary information, each state represents two bits. This two bit word is called a symbol. Figure 3 shows in general how QPSK works. First, well discuss Complex Modulation in general, applying it to a single channel with no PN-coding (that is, well show how Complex Modulation would work directly on the symbols). Then well discuss how we apply it to a multi-channel, PN-coded, system. Complex Modulation Algebraically, a carrier wave with an applied phase shift, (t), can be expressed as a sum of two components, a Cosine wave and a Sine wave, as:

I(t) is called the real, or In-phase, component of the data, and Q(t) is called the imaginary, or Quadrature-phase, component of the data. We end up with two Binary PSK waves superimposed. These are easier to modulate and later demodulate.

This is not only an algebraic identity, but also forms the basis for the actual modulation/demodulation scheme. The transmitter generates two carrier waves of the same frequency, a sine and cosine. I(t) and Q(t) are binary, modulating each component by phase shifting it either 0 or 180 degrees. Both components are then summed together. Since I(t) and Q(t) are binary, well refer to them as simply I and Q. The receiver generates the two reference waves, and demodulates each component. It is easier to detect 180_ phase shifts than 90_ phase shifts. The following table summarizes this modulation scheme. Note that I and Q are normalized to 1. Symbol I 00 01 10 11 Q Phase shift

+1 +1 45 +1 -1 315 -1 +1 135 -1 -1 225

For Digital Signal Processing, the two-bit symbols are considered to be complex numbers, I +jQ. Working with Complex Data In order to make full use of the efficiency of Digital Signal Processing, the conversion of the Information data into complex symbols occurs before the modulation. The system generates complex PN codes made up of 2 independent components, PNi +jPNq. To spread the Information data the system performs complex multiplication between the complex PN codes and the complex data. Summing Many Channels Together Many channels are added together and transmitted simultaneously. This addition happens digitally at the chip rate. Remember, there are millions of chips in each symbol. For clarity, lets say each chip is represented by an 8 bit word (its slightly more complicated than that, but those details are beyond the scope of this discussion). At the Chip Rate Information data is converted to two bit symbols. The first bit of the symbol is placed in the I data stream, the second bit is placed in the Q data stream. The complex PN code is generated. The complex PN code has two independently generated components, an I component and a Q component. The complex Information data and complex PN code are multiplied together.

For each component (I or Q): Each chip is represented by an 8 bit word. However, since one chip is either a one or a zero, the 8 bit word equals either 1 or -1. When many channels are added together, the 8-bit word, as the sum of all the chips, can take on values from between -128 to +128. The 8-bit word then goes through a Digital to Analog Converter, resulting in an analog level proportional to the value of the 8-bit word. This value then modulates the amplitude of the carrier (the I component modulates the Cosine, the Q component modulates the Sine) The modulated carriers are added together.

Since I and Q are no longer limited to 1 or -1, the phase shift of the composite carrier is not limited to the four states, the phase and amplitude vary as A2 = I2 + Q2 Tan(() = Q/I At the Symbol Rate Since the PN-code has the statistical properties of random noise, it averages to zero over long periods of time (such as the symbol period). Therefore, fluctuations in I and Q, and hence the phase modulation of the carrier, that occur at the chip frequency, average to zero. Over the symbol period the modulation averages to one of the four states of QPSK, which determine what the symbol is. The symbol only sees the QPSK, and obeys all the statistical properties of QPSK transmission, including Bit Error Rate. Receiving Data The receiver performs the following steps to extract the Information: Demodulation Code acquisition and lock Correlation of code with signal Decoding of Information data

Demodulation The receiver generates two reference waves, a Cosine wave and a Sine wave. Separately mixing each with the received carrier, the receiver extracts I(t) and Q(t). Analog to Digital converters restore the 8-bit words representing the I and Q chips. Code Acquisition and Lock The receiver, as described earlier, generates its own complex PN code that matches the code generated by the transmitter. However, the local code must be phase-locked to the encoded data. The RCS and FSU each have different ways of acquiring and locking onto the others transmitted code. Each method will be covered in more detail in later sections. Correlation and Data Despreading Once the PN code is phase-locked to the pilot, the received signal is sent to a correlator that multiplies it with the complex PN code, extracting the I and Q data meant for that receiver. The receiver reconstructs the Information data from the I and Q data.

Automatic Power Control The RCS gets bombarded by signals from many FSUs. Some of these FSUs are close and their signals are much stronger than FSUs farther away. This results in the Near/Far problem inherent in CDMA communications. System

Capacity is also dependant on signal power. For these reasons, both the RCS and FSU measure the received power and send signals to control the others transmit power. Near/Far Problem Because the cross-correlation between two PN codes is not exactly equal to zero, the system must overcome what we call the Near/Far problem. The output of the correlator consists of two components: The autocorrelation of the PN code with the desired coded signal The sum of the cross-correlation of the PN code with all the other coded signals.

Mathematically, if we are trying to decode the kth signal, we have:

Where: Aj is the amplitude of the jth signal, jk is the cross-correlation between the kth and jth signal, and is the sum over all the j signals (excluding k). Since the cross-correlation is small (ideally, it is zero), the sum of cross-correlation terms should be much less than the amplitude of the desired signal. However, if the desired signal is broadcast from far away, and undesired signals are broadcast from much closer, the desired signal may be so small as to be drowned out by the cross-correlation terms. Note that this problem only exists in the reverse direction. The RCS is receiving signals from many FSUs at different distances, but the FSU is receiving all signals from one RCS. The RCS controls the power of each FSU so that the signals received from all FSUs are the same strength. System Capacity The capacity of a system is approximated by:

where: is the maximum number of simultaneous calls is the processing gain is the total signal to noise ratio per bit, and is the inter-cell interference factor.

Notice, as we said earlier, the capacity is directly proportional to the processing gain. Capacity is also inversely proportional to the signal to noise ratio of the received signal. So, the smaller the transmitted signal, the larger the system capacity (as long as the receiver can detect the signal in the noise!). Both the RCS and FSU control the power transmitted by the other so that the received signal is as small as possible while maintaining a minimum signal to noise ratio. This maxi mizes syste m capac ity.

Figure 4. Multi-Path Interference Rejection

Interference Rejection CDMA technology is inherently resistant to interference and jamming. A common problem with urban communications is multi-path interference. Multi-path interference is caused by the broadcast signal traveling over different paths to reach the receiver. The receiver then has to recover the signal combined with echoes of varying amplitude and phase. This results in two types of interference: Inter-chip interference: The reflected signals are delayed long enough that successive bits (or chips, in this case) in the demodulated signals overlap, creating uncertainty in the data. Selective fading: The reflected signals are delayed long enough that they are randomly out of phase, and add destructively to the desired signal, causing it to fade.

Combating Interference Two methods are commonly used to combat multi-path interference: Rake filter: Correlators are set up at appropriate time intervals to extract all the echoes. The relative amplitude and phase of each echo is measured, and each echo signal is phase corrected and added to the signal. Adaptive Matched Filter. This filter is matched to the transfer function (i.e. the propagation characteristics) of the signal path. It phase shifts the echo signals and adds them to maximize the received signal.

System Operation The following sections describe a hypothetical implmentation of CDMA technology. A connection can be one of many types of data, but for simplicity we will refer to any connection as a call. These sections cover the following system states: System Idle: System operation when there is no call in progress. Call Setup: The steps to setup a connection. Call Processing: The processing and transmission of the digital data once a connection is established. Call Teardown: The steps taken once a call is finished to free system resources.

But first, in order to understand system operation, you must understand the Pilot codes and communication channels the system uses. Pilot Codes At each phase of operation, the system broadcasts pilot signals. These pilot signals are the unmodulated PN codes associated with each channel, used to synchronize and track the locally generated PN codes for despreading. The system uses the following pilot signals. Global Pilot: Broadcast by the RCS. All FSUs use the Global Pilot for all received channels.

Short Access Pilot: Broadcast by FSU. Monitored by the RCS for an incoming access attempt by an FSU. Alerts the RCS that an FSU is requesting access. Long Access Pilot: Broadcast by the FSU. Allows the RCS to synchronize to the FSU to setup a call. Assigned Pilot: Broadcast by FSU. Unmodulated PN code of the assigned channel. Allows RCS to synchronize to and track the PN codes of the FSU assigned channels for despreading.

Communication Channels In order to understand system operation, we need to introduce the system communication channels. The system has the following channel groups: The Broadcast Channel group: Channels continuously broadcasted by the RCS. Call Setup Channel group: Channels used to setup a call. There are four sets of these channels; up to 4 FSUs can request access at one time. Assigned Channel group: Channels used for the call.

Each logical channel in each group is realized by assigning a unique PN code to it. Channel Group Broadcast Channel Name Global Pilot Direction F Number of Channels One One Description An unmodulated PN code that the FSU can synchronize to. A single message indicating which services and access channels are available. This information may change rapidly. Paging messages and other system information that does not need to be updated rapidly. Alerts the RCS that an FSU is requesting access. Allows the RCS to synchronize to the FSU to setup a call. Used by the FSUs to access an RCS and get assigned channels. Used by the RCS to reply to access attempts from FSUs. Controls FSU power during initial access.

Fast Broadcast F Channel Slow Broadcast Channel Call Setup Short Pilot Long Pilot Access Channel Control Channel Control Channel APC Assigned R F F F

One

Four Four Four Four Four

Assigned Pilot R APC Channel Traffic Channels Order wire F R F R F R

One per FSU An unmodulated PN code that the RCS can synchronize to. One per FSU Controls FSU power during call. Controls RCS power of assigned FSU channels. Up to 3 per FSU Signal data from RCS to FSU. Signal data from FSU to RCS. One per FSU Control signals: CDMA and Telco messages.

Note on Direction: F - Forward - From RCS to FSU

R - Reverse - From FSU to RCS Pilot Ramp Up When the FSU transmits its Short and Long Access Pilots, it ramps the power up to determine what power level it should transmit. When the RCS detects the Short Access Pilot, it acknowledges over the Fast Broadcast Channel. The FSU then knows that it is being received, and switches to the Long Access Pilot code. The Long Access Pilot code ramps up more slowly, until the RCS locks and starts transmitting Automatic Power Control signals. System Idle On startup, the RCS places one of its modems in broadcast mode, in which state it broadcasts the following Global Channels continuously: Global Pilot Slow Broadcast Channel Fast Broadcast Channel

In addition, the RCS sets aside 4 modems for Call Setup channels. These modems continuously listen for access attempts by the FSUs. Well discuss the operation of the modems in more detail later. Paging Groups and Sleep Cycles The RCS divides all the FSUs associated with it into paging groups. The RCS assigns each paging group a particular time slot on its Slow Broadcast Channel (the first time slot is reserved for general Slow Broadcast information). When the RCS pages an FSU, the RCS will only page it during the time slot of that FSUs paging group. The Slow Broadcast Channel cycles through all the paging groups. The cycle takes approximately one second to complete. Each FSU remains powered down for most of the cycle. When the Slow Broadcast Channel reaches the time slot of the FSUs paging group, the FSU powers up, synchronizes to the Global Pilot, and checks for its address in the paging group. If it recognizes its paging address, it requests access; if not, it powers down. This results in a duty cycle of less than 10%, and saves considerable power at the FSU.

Figure 5. Call Setup Call Setup Two events can initiate a call: The FSU receives a page from the RCS, as explained above. This is called a terminating call.

The FSU generates an off-hook signal in response to subscriber equipment. The FSU locks on to the Global Pilot. This is called an originating call.

Once either of these events occur, call setup proceeds as follows: 1. FSU requests access. FSU transmits Short Access Pilot Code. RCS detects transmission and acknowledges. Flags Call Setup Channel as busy. FSU transmits Long Access Pilot Code. RCS synchronizes to the FSU and confirms sync over Control Channel. RCS measures received power and starts transmitting APC signal on APC Control Channel. RCS and FSU exchange messages on Access and Control Channels. Type of service and types of traffic channels are specified.

2. RCS assigns channel group to FSU. RCS designates assigned code on Control Channel FSU generates complex PN codes for all channels in its assigned group. Both FSU and RCS synchronously switch to the assigned channel groups. The call is connected. The RCS flags the Call Setup Channel as available, and assigns it to the next available modem.

Note that the RCS now tracks the Assigned Pilot; the FSU continues to track the Global Pilot. Call Processing Call processing puts together everything weve covered so far. There are slight differences in the way the RCS and FSU process calls, so we will cover both the Forward link (RCS to FSU) and Reverse link (FSU to RCS). Note that the system uses Frequency Division Duplexing for the Forward and Reverse links: they transmit over different frequencies. In the forward direction, the RCS: 1. Generates CDMA data signal for each traffic channel: FEC codes the Information data, and converts the data to two-bit symbols. Converts the symbols to I and Q data, and pads each data stream to 64 kbits/sec. Generates the Complex PN code for each channel. Multiplies the Complex Information data and the Complex PN code together. Reads APC data from FSU, digitally scales channels accordingly.

2. Generates other signal channels: Calculates APC signal Converts it to I data only Multiplies it with its own Complex PN code

3. Adds all signals together: Traffic channels

APC channel Order Wire channel Global Pilot

4. Adds together the signals for all currently active FSUs. 5. Modulates and transmits carriers I and Q data modulate Cosine and Sine carriers. Carriers are combined, amplified, and broadcast.

The FSU: 1. Extracts the I and Q data: Receives and amplifies the modulated carriers. Demodulates the signal and extracts the I and Q data.

2. Filters the I and Q data: Extracts multi-path information from the Pilot Rake filter and supplies it to the Adaptive Matched Filter. Removes multi-path interference from I and Q data using the Adaptive Matched Filter. Performs Automatic Gain Control on received signal

3. Extracts the CDMA data signal for each traffic channel: Generates the Complex PN code for each channel. Multiplies the Complex signal and the Complex PN code together. Converts the I and Q data to symbols. Decodes the symbols for error correction. Extracts the signal data.

In the reverse direction, the FSU: 1. Generates CDMA data signal for each traffic channel: FEC codes the Information data, and converts the data to two-bit symbols. Converts the symbols to I and Q data, and pads each data stream to 64 kbits/sec. Generates the Complex PN code for each channel. Multiplies the Complex signal and the Complex PN code together. Reads APC data from FSU, digitally scales channels accordingly.

2. Generates other signal channels: Calculates APC signal Converts it to I data only Multiplies it with its own Complex PN code

3. Adds all signals together: Traffic channels

APC channel Order Wire channel Global Pilot

4. Passes the signal through a pulse shaping digital filter. 5. Modulates and transmits carriers I and Q data modulate Cosine and Sine carriers. Carriers are combined, amplified, and broadcast.

The RCS: 1. Extracts the I and Q data: Receives and amplifies the modulated carriers. Demodulates the signal and extracts the I and Q data.

2. Filters the I and Q data: Extracts multi-path information from the Pilot Rake filter and supplies it to the Adaptive Matched Filter. Removes multi-path interference from I and Q data using the Adaptive Matched Filter. Performs Automatic Gain Control on the received signal

3. Extracts the CDMA data signal for each traffic channel, for each subscriber connection: Generates the Complex PN code for each channel. Multiplies the Complex signal and the Complex PN code together. Converts the I and Q data to symbols. Decodes the symbols for error correction. Extracts the Information data.