T324: Keeping ahead in information and communication technologies Tutorial 1 Block1, Part 1: The radio spectrum 1 Introduction Radio

dio waves are the principal means by which wireless communications can be achieved what they are, how they behave, what they are used for and what their limitations are Need to keep information up to date since the technologies that are the focus of this course are all changing rapidly

2 Radio waves Most forms of wireless communication involve radio waves, and the words wireless and radio are often synonymous. Radio waves are a particular form of electromagnetic radiation; other forms include light, X-rays and gamma rays. The term electromagnetic is used because all these waves involve the physics of electricity and magnetism

2.1 Frequency and wavelength The time between successive oscillations is called the period of the wave, and is measured in seconds. The number of complete oscillations (or cycles) which take place in a second is called the frequency, and is measured in hertz (1 Hz = 1 cycle per second). There is a simple relationship between the frequency f and period T: f=1/T.

Wavelength and speed of light relation: Wavelength is the distance between cycles, and is usually measured in metres or fractions of a metre Where c is speed of light ( m/s).

Activity 2 (self-assessment/revision) ................................ Calculate the period of a radio wave whose frequency is 2 GHz. Calculate the frequency of a radio wave whose period is 4 ms.

The electromagnetic spectrum: spectrum represents a spread (or range) of frequencies. Complete spectrum of electromagnetic waves is shown in Figure 3 in block 1. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves with wavelengths above 1 mm. In this range, Waves are suitable for communications. At shorter wavelengths are infrared radiation, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays and gamma rays 2

The radio spectrum: Figure 5 in block 1. All electromagnetic waves at frequencies less than 300 GHz. It is a part (from VLF to EHF) of the bigger electromagnetic spectrum. It only deals with the RF (radio frequency) portion of the spectrum. Used by radio transmitters etc. Each decade in Figure 5 is a defined frequency band, often referred to by name, from very low frequency (VLF) at the bottom up to extremely high frequency (EHF) at the top. The region above 1 GHz, which includes the EHF, SHF and part of the UHF bands, is also commonly called the microwave spectrum. Terminology is not completely consistent, however, and some authors regard microwaves as beginning at 3 GHz. These wavelengths range from 100 km for 3 kHz, down to 1 mm for 300 GHz.

Usage of bands: Each frequency band in Figure 5 includes some typical wireless application areas, from military and navigation applications at the lowest frequencies up to satellite communications and radar at the top. But these are just a few examples of use. In the UK the spectrum is coordinated by the National Frequency Planning Group, who issue a Frequency Allocation Table (FAT) from time to time. Interference Concept: If two radio stations are transmitting on the same frequency or on two frequencies that are very close then their signals get mixed up -- there is interference between them which can be heard as whistles, distortion or mixed-up sounds. Hence Spectrum management is required.

Log Scale: Commonly used radio frequencies range from 3 kHz up to 300 GHz, which is a large factor of higher. Because of this large range it is useful to represent frequencies graphically on a logarithmic (or log) scale. The main characteristic of a log scale is that equal distances along it correspond to a multiplication by a constant factor. The intervals which represent a factor-of-10 change, such as between 3 and 30, and between 30 and 300, are called decades.

4 Bandwidth and channels 4.1 Bandwidth 4

Bandwidth (BW): Spread over a range of radio frequencies is called the bandwidth. In Figure 6(a) the box drawn between f1 and f2 on the frequency axis represents BW. Generally speaking, the more data that is conveyed by a signal, the larger is its bandwidth. Video signals generally require a much greater bandwidth than speech signals.

4.2 Channels Interference is avoided by ensuring that the bandwidth of a signal does not overlap with an adjacent one. Therefore each frequency band can only cope with a certain number of signals. To provide an adequate bandwidth for each signal and to avoid overlap, many application bands are structured into specified channels, as shown in Figure 7. A specific example is broadcast TV, which in the UK takes place in the frequency range of 470--854 MHz, part of the UHF band. This frequency range is shared out equally into 48 channels. These are numbered from channel 21 at the lowest frequency up to channel 68 at the highest. (Channels 36 and 38 are not used for broadcasting.)

Activity 4 (self-assessment/revision) ................................ If each UHF TV channel occupies the same bandwidth in the 470--854 MHz frequency range, what is the bandwidth available to each channel? Which frequencies are occupied by channel 21? Which frequencies are occupied by channel 68? 4.3 Spread spectrum 5

Instead of using individual channels, the separate signals all share the whole of the allocated band of frequencies. There are two main ways of achieving this.

First is frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), such as Bluetooth. Each signal rapidly hops between a large number of narrow channels in a predetermined and unique sequence. Each signal is sharing the same channels, but is hopping in a different sequence. As long as the receiver knows this sequence, then each signal can be recovered individually. The second form of spread spectrum is direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS). Here each data bit in a signal is modulated by a unique and very fast binary code, which causes every signal to occupy a wide frequency bandwidth. If the receiver knows the code that has been used to spread a signal, then this signal can be picked out from all the others, even though they all occupy the same wide frequency channel.

UWB: Spread spectrum technologies for short range, very high data rate applications such as distributing high definition (HD) video signals within a home. These are generally known as ultra wideband (UWB). In the USA, low power UWB devices are at present allowed to occupy the entire range from 3.1 GHz to 10.6 GHz. This is possible because the energy of each UWB signal is spread so thinly over this range that any conventional transmissions within it are relatively unaffected. However, various technical approaches to UWB have been put forward by rival commercial interests, and a standard has yet to emerge. 5 Some common radio applications The early days of radio broadcasting and communications were centred around the LF and MF bands. Most of the current applications relevant to this course are in the VHF, UHF and SHF bands. This trend to higher frequencies is expected to continue.

licensed and unlicensed bands: There is also a distinction between licensed and unlicensed bands. Unlicensed bands are a bit of a free-for-all, in which finding an unused channel cannot be guaranteed. However, there are regulations which specify maximum transmitted power, so that any interference effects are local. This is appropriate for short range equipment such as Wi-Fi networks, cordless headphones and DECT digital phones. The use of licensed bands involves paying a fee for the legal right to use certain frequencies, and these are controlled much more closely. Mobile phone systems and broadcasting fall within this category

6 The propagation of radio signals We shall briefly describe some of the main factors which contribute to the characteristics of radio propagation and some of the differences between the various frequency bands. 6.1 The inverse square law 7

As you move further away from a transmitter, the power you receive becomes smaller. We will discuss factors which cause the radio signal to decrease. How the received power varies with distance in what is perhaps the simplest situation -- in free space when there is no other matter nearby to affect propagation between the transmitter and receiver. Also assume that the transmitting and receiving antennas transmit or receive equally in all directions. These are called isotropic antennas. In free space, a radio signal spreads out in three dimensions, so rather than a circle, the ripples spread out as a spherical surface. This is illustrated in Figure 8 The inverse square law of radio propagation: the received power decreases with 1/d2. So in free space with an isotropic transmitting antenna, power received by a fixed size of antenna varies according to the inverse square law.

Non-free space i.e on the surface of the earth: Communications on the surface of the earth are not always as simple as above. Although the inverse square law must operate, in addition there is the ground to consider, the atmosphere, the weather, mountains, valleys, buildings, furniture, people, vehicles and trees. These can all alter the propagation of radio waves, sometimes dramatically, and the effects are described in the following sections. Activity 6 (self-assessment) ................................ If an antenna in free space receives 16 mW of power at a distance of 2 km from an isotropic transmitter, how much will it receive at 4 km? How much at 8 km? 6.2 Absorption Absorption causes attenuation. Gases of the atmosphere or the walls can cause wave energy to reduce even more quickly than under the inverse square law alone. 8

The absorption through the atmosphere is due to the presence of water vapour and oxygen, and the way these effects vary with frequency is shown in Figure 9. The horizontal scale is frequency, from 10 GHz to 400 GHz on a logarithmic scale. The vertical scale represents attenuation of a signal, and runs from zero to 50 dB/km, on a linear scale. An attenuation value per unit distance is often called an attenuation coefficient. To find the total loss of a path in dB, you simply multiply this attenuation coefficient in dB/km by the path length (in km). Form the fig. 9 it is clear as the frequency increases towards 400 GHz, the amount of absorption rises steadily, with a number of peaks. The peak at 60 GHz and the small blip at about 120 GHz are caused by oxygen in the atmosphere. The two higher peaks are caused by water vapour. Because of the high attenuation at these peaks, the maximum propagation distance for radio frequencies in these regions is greatly limited. For radio waves above 300 GHz the losses are so great in practice that they are of no value for terrestrial communications. Absorption and other losses by building materials such as brick or wood are also significant, and increase as the frequency goes into the gigahertz range. The overall picture of these materials is very complicated.

Positive side of signal loss: The positive side of signal loss through the inverse square law, absorption and other effects. Because radio waves decay with distance of propagation, then frequencies can be reused in different places without interfering with each other. This is the principle behind cellular phone systems, which allow a far higher 9

number of simultaneous users than non-cellular systems. It makes feasible all the short range devices such as Bluetooth headsets and remote car locking. And it allows reuse of broadcast frequencies on a national or regional level, thus using the limited spectrum much more efficiently.

Decibels: A decibel is a way to express a ratio of powers, such as

Figure 10 plots the decibel values for a number of power ratios. For example, 3 dB is equivalent to a power ratio of 2. 10 dB represents a power ratio of 10. 20 dB is a ratio of 100, and so on. Similarly, a ratio of 1/2 is -3 dB, 1/10 is -10 dB and 1/100 is -20 dB. An amplifier which increases signal power by 1000 times is said to have a gain of 30 dB. If the signal power is reduced by a factor of 1000, then you can say that this is a loss of 30 dB or alternatively a gain of -30 dB. However, you may also come across sources which refer to a loss of -30dB. The bottom line is you should always know whether the signalis getting bigger or smaller and interpret the plus or minus signs.

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6.3 Line of sight (LoS) LoS require an uninterrupted path between transmitter (Tx) and receiver (Rx). But the line of sight is often limited because of two main factors. Curvature of the earth: The first is the curvature of the earth, illustrated in Figure 11(a). With a transmitter and receiver placed at certain heights above the surface, the radio horizon means that waves can only propagate directly between them up to a maximum distance. Obstacles: The second factor limiting line of sight is the presence of obstacles in the path such as mountains, forests, buildings and vehicles. If these attenuate radio waves then they will affect reception. It is no longer a line of sight when, say, a building which absorbs most of the radiation at a certain frequency is in the way. Again taking an optical analogy, the building is casting a radio shadow in which the signal will not be received.

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6.4 Reflection You are probably familiar with the reflection of light from smooth surfaces, such as polished metal, glass, glazed tiles and so on. This is described as specular reflection, with the key property that the angle at which the light is reflected from the surface (the angle of reflection) is the same as the angle at which it impinges on the surface (the angle of incidence). This is shown in Figure 12. radio waves can reflect from appropriate surfaces, including the ground, buildings (especially metal ones) and vehicles. An important point to note is that reflection is much less effective if the reflecting object is smaller than a wavelength. So reflections from buildings and vehicles are much more important for the higher frequency bands than for the lower ones. Also, even a metal mesh will reflect, as long as the gaps are smaller than a wavelength. Reflection can be beneficial. If reflective surfaces are in the right place, then radio waves can be deflected away from a blocked line of sight and be received from a different direction. However, reflection can also be a problem: there are many situations in which an antenna receives a combination of line of sight and reflected signals. Since the path length for the reflected signal is longer than the direct path, the line of sight signal combines with reflected signals that are slightly delayed in time (out of phase). This delay can cause the waves to cancel each other out. This is called destructive interference (Fig 14(b)). If these two signals arrive in phase then they reinforce to produce an even bigger combination. This is called constructive interference(Fig 14(a)). If one signal is delayed by a time that is comparable to the time between data bits that are being sent. In this case, when the signals reach the receiver, data bits from the delayed signal may overlap with later bits from the more direct one so that errors are introduced. This is termed intersymbol interference (ISI).

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All these effects are called multi-path interference (or just multipath), and have been one of the biggest problems in achieving reliable coverage with mobile phone systems, and in achieving consistent VHF radio reception in cars. However, some new techniques such as multiple input--multiple output (MIMO) (described in Section 9.2) actually exploit multi-path effects to increase the amount of data which can be sent in a particular channel. So increasingly multi-path is changing from a drawback to an essential aspect of high data rate wireless communications.

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6.5 Scattering Radio waves can be scattered from appropriately rough surfaces, from small objects such as leaves and road signs and from particles in the atmosphere. Usually the word scattering is applied to effects involving objects or features which are much smaller than a wavelength. The key feature is that waves are scattered in many directions. The good effect is that scattering from, for example, leaves or road signs can direct some radiation into places obscured from line of sight by buildings. The bad effect is that scattering along a line of sight can be a significant means of losing useful energy as some radiation will be sent off in unwanted directions. 6.6 Refraction When light passes at an angle through the boundary from one medium to another, its direction of travel is changed. This process is called refraction. It is why, for example, a straight stick that is partly underwater appears as if it is bent at the water surface. Radio waves suffer refraction in exactly the same way. In particular, since the density of the atmosphere changes according to altitude, temperature and pressure, radio propagation through the atmosphere is not always in straight lines. However, an additional factor for radio waves is refraction in the ionosphere (an upper part of the atmosphere). This can bend the path of a radio wave propagating from the ground so that it goes back down to the ground

6.7 Diffraction 14

Consider a wave heading towards an opening in a barrier. As you might expect, the part of the waves which reaches the opening passes through, while the rest is stopped by the barrier However, if you look carefully at this diagram 15, you can see that some of the emerging wave spreads very slightly into the shadow region. This spreading is caused by diffraction of the wave at the opening. The amount of spreading of the wave is determined by the size of the opening relative to the wavelength of the wave Diffraction occurs when waves pass through an opening, or past an object or even past a sharp edge This is why you can hear around corners, but not see. If radio waves pass through, for example, a gap between two buildings which is around a few wavelengths in size, then diffraction effects will be very significant. The wave will appear to bend around the corner into what should be the shadow region behind.

7 The overall effect on microwave signals -- VHF, UHF, SHF and EHF All the effects described above lead to a very complicated picture of radio wave propagation. In many typical situations, a receiver will receive a line of sight wave, together with components that arrived after reflection, refraction, scattering and diffraction from various terrestrial objects. These waves together comprise what is called the space wave. All these components of the space wave can contribute to multi-path effects. In a rural environment, ground features, trees, animals, fences and vegetation all contribute to the space wave In an urban environment there may be no line of sight to the transmitter, but instead waves are only received by reflection from buildings and from the ground, scattered from road signs or growing leaves and diffracted around corners. Figure 16 is an example of a city street, showing reflected, diffracted and scattered waves propagating round a corner. These effects change dramatically from place to place, depending on the wavelength. So, for example, reception of a mobile phone signal in a moving vehicle can vary over quite a short time scale, possibly leading to errors in the data or interrupted service.

Fading: 15

In any complex environment like this, received signal power varies for many reasons, including movement of the transmitter or receiver, or changes in other elements of the environment, such as passing vehicles, rain or trees moving in the wind. This variation of signal power in time or in space is termed fading.

Propagation models: These are simplified mathematical models of the many effects that are found in reality, including reflection, refraction, diffraction and scattering. These programs tend to be most accurate for a particular type of environment and for a particular frequency range. The complex and varying urban environment is a particular challenge to model. However, modelling and measurements show that a good rule of thumb for such a complex situation is that the overall loss of signal power with distance d follows a relationship, rather than the inverse square law of free space. MIMO systems: However, fading and multi-path are not all bad news. Techniques are being developed not only to combat the effects of fading, but also to use multi-path in a positive way to enhance the transmission. This includes the MIMO systems described in Section 9.2. These are another way to increase the quantity of data, often by large amounts, that can be carried by a limited radio bandwidth. Activity 9 (self-assessment) ................................ Assuming a 1/d4 relationship, calculate the loss of received power if the reception distance is (a) doubled and (b) tripled. Compare these figures to the corresponding results for the inverse square law.

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