Lectures on

RADIOPROPAGAZIONE ED IMPATTO AMBIENTALE

Lecturer: Prof. Giovanni Riccio

ARRAYS

Antenna arrays
When two or more antennas are used together, the combination is called antenna array. Although an array need not consist of similar radiating elements, most arrays usually are formed by identical elements excited by the same type of current or field distribution. The antenna elements comprising an array may be arranged in various configurations, but the most common are the linear one-dimensional configuration, wherein the elements are arranged along a straight line, and the two-dimensional lattice configuration, wherein the elements form a rectangular grid. The purpose of this section is to introduce to the basic principles of array theory and to design techniques used in shaping the antenna pattern and steering the main lobe. In the far-field region of any radiating element,
# j$ r $0% 0 e # j $0 r ' + N (! , " ) " ) = e 0 A C (! , " ) E ( r,! , " ) = # j N! (! , " )! " * 4& r ( r

where A is the feeding coefficient representing the amplitude and phase of the excitation giving rise to the radiated field and C (! , " ) is the antenna characteristic function, which accounts for the directional dependence of the elements electric field.

Linear array
A linear array of N identical radiating elements is considered. The spacing between adjacent elements is d. The radiators are fed by a common oscillator through a branching network. In each branch, an attenuator (or amplifier) and a phase shifter are inserted in series to control the amplitude and phase of the signal feeding the antenna element in that branch. For each radiator it results:
# j $0 Rn e # j $0 Rn j% n e E n ( r,! , " ) = An C n (! , " ) = an e C n (! , " ) Rn Rn

!
E ( r,! , " ) =

$
n=0

N #1

E n ( r,! , " ) = C (! , " ) Ar

$
n=0

N #1

An e # j %0 Rn Ar Rn

where Ar is the excitation of the element used as reference.

To satisfy the far-field condition for an array of length l = ( N ! 1) d , the observation point distance r should be sufficiently large that

rF =

2l = !0

N "1 d2

!0 2

Far-field (Fraunhofers) region r > rF of a linear array

Rn ! r " r # r n
E ( r,! , " ) = e
# j $0 r

phase term

Rn ! r
N #1 An j $0 r n &r e = Ar

magnitude term

C (! , " ) Ar

% % %
n=0 n=0 N #1 n=0 N #1

e # j $0 r = C (! , " ) Ar r e # j $0 r = C (! , " ) Ar r

An j $0 (zn z)&(sin ! cos " x+sin ! sin " y+cos ! z) e = Ar An j $0 nd cos ! e Ar

Pattern multiplication principle

S ( r,! , " ) = Ar
2

C (! , " )

2# 0 r 2

%
n=0

N $1

An j &0 nd cos ! e = Se ( r,! , " ) Fa Ar

The array power density is a product of two factors. The first factor Se is the power density radiated by an individual element assumed as reference, and the second is

Fa =

"
n=0

N !1

An j #0 nd cos $ e Ar

"
n=0

N !1

an j (% n !% r ) j #0 nd cos $ e e ar

array factor

The array factor is a function of the positions of the individual elements and their feeding coefficients, but not a function of the specific type of used radiators. The pattern multiplication principle allows the valutation of the array power density by first computing the power pattern with the array elements replaced with isotropic radiators, which yields the array factor, and then multiplying the result by the power density for a single element. The array factor is governed by the array amplitude distribution an , which serves to control the shape of the array radiation pattern, and the array phase distribution ! n , which can be used to steer its direction.

Two half-wave dipoles

" 0 e $ j %0 r1 E1 ( r1,! ) = j 2# r1
E 2 ( r2 ,! ) = j

&# ) cos ( cos! + '2 * I1 ! sin ! &# ) cos ( cos! + '2 * I2 ! sin ! d r2 = r $ sin ! sin , 2 I 2 = I 0 e $ j1 2

"0 e 2# r2

$ j %0 r2

d r1 = r + sin ! sin , 2 I1 = I 0 e j-

E = E1 + E 2 = j

!0 e 2" r

# j $0 r

&" ) cos ( cos% + '2 * I0 sin %

& d ) . # j & $0 d sin % sin , #- ) j ( $0 sin % sin , #- + 1 ( + * *3 0e ' 2 +e ' 2 % 0 3 / 2

! 0 e # j $0 r =j 2" r

&" ) cos ( cos% + '2 * . & d )1 I0 % 0 2 cos ( $0 sin % sin , # - + 3 ' 2 *2 sin % /

The uniform linear array

A linear array having a uniform amplitude distribution ( an a0 = 1) and a linearly progressive phase delay from element to element across the array (! n " ! 0 = n# ) is considered. Note that the element with index 0 is assumed as reference.

Fa =

#
n=0

N "1

e jn! e j $0 nd cos %

#
n=0

N "1

e jn( $0 d cos % +! ) =

#
n=0

N "1

e jn&

= f (& )

where
f (! ) = 1" e jN! 1" e
j!

e jN ! e

e " jN ! 2 " e jN ! e
" j! 2

j! 2

"e

j! 2

=e

j(N "1)! 2

sin ( N ! 2 ) sin (! 2 )

sin ( N ! 2 ) Fa (! ) = sin (! 2 )

Famax (" ) = N 2

at!" = #0 d cos$ + % = 0

2 Fa (! ) Fa (! ) sin ( N ! 2 ) Fan (! ) = = = 2 2 Famax Fa ( 0 ) N sin (! 2 )

normalized array factor

cos! " 1

$ %0 d + & " ' " %0 d + &

Broadside linear array This array has the main beam of the radiation pattern always in the direction orthogonal to the array axis.

! max

% "# ( + = cos ' = & $0 d * 2 )

"1

# =0

A broadside linear array consists of in-phase elements beamwidth

# !" & 10 log Fan % = )3 ; $ 2 ( '

& " $% ) $, !0 d cos ( # = '2 2 + * 2

& $, ) $% = 2 sin #1 ( ' 2 !0 d + *

directivity
Dmax ! 2N d "0

Endfire linear array This array has the main beam of the radiation pattern along the array axis.

! max

% "# ( = cos ' =0 & $ d* )

"1

# = " $0 d

% "# ( ! max = cos "1 ' * =+ & $0 d )

beamwidth
# !" & 10 log Fan % = )3 ; $ 2 ( '

# = $0 d

"# ' "* $ !0 d & cos ! 1) = 2 2 % (

- "* 0 "# = 2 cos,1 / 12 . 2 !0 d 1

directivity
Dmax ! 4 N d "0

Linear array feeding The phase delay ! between adjacent elements can be used for steering the direction of the array beam from broadside at ! = 90 to any desired angle ! 0 . In addition to eliminating the need to mechanically steer an antenna to change its beam direction, electronic steering through the use of electronically controlled phase shifters allows beam scanning at very fast rates.

A technique known as frequency scanning can be used to provide control of the phase of all the elements simultaneously. A common feed point is connected to the radiating elements through transmission lines of varying lengths. If l0 is the path length of the zeroth element, ln = l0 + nl .

Signal propagation on a transmission line of length ln is characterized by a phase factor e ! j " ln , where ! = 2"f v p is the phase constant and v p is the phase velocity.

! n ( f ) " ! 0 ( f ) = n# ( f ) = # n ( f ) = " $ ( ln " l0 ) = "

2%f 2%f (ln " l0 ) = " nl vp vp

At a frequency f0 , if the incremental length l is choosen such that

l = n0

vp f0

n0 is a specific positive integer

so that

!1 ( f0 ) = "

2#f0 2#f0 $ v p ' l=" & n0 f ) = "2#n0 vp vp % 0(

! 2 ( f0 ) = "
! 3 ( f0 ) = "

2#f0 2l = "4#n0 vp 2#f0 3l = "6#n0 vp

All the radiating elements have equal phase and the main beam is in the broadside direction.

At a frequency f1 = f0 + !f ,

!1 ( f0 + "f ) = #

2$ ( f0 + "f ) 2$f0 "f "f l = #2$n0 # l = #2$n0 # 2$n0 = #2$n0 + ! vp v p f0 f0

! 2 ( f0 + "f ) = 2!1 ( f0 + "f ) = #4$n0 + 2!

! 3 ( f0 + "f ) = 3!1 ( f0 + "f ) = #6$n0 + 3!

The incremental phase shifts are directly proportional to the fractional frequency deviation, thus controlling !f provides a direct control of ! , which in turn controls the scan angle ! 0 .

! = "0 d cos# + $ = 0

'f "0 d cos# 0 = 2&n0 f0

'f , # 0 = cos + * " 0 d f0 . -

(1 ) 2&n0

As f is changed from f0 to f0 + !f , !0 also changes with frequency. However, if !f f0 is small, !0 can be considered constant and equal to !0 = 2"f0 c0 .