Chris Cheng Period 3 Hajjarian 3/10/12 Evolution Study Guide Speciation can commence through two ways: Anagenesis

or Cladogenesis: -Anagenesis is straight-forward, where Species A gradually evolves to become Species B and B replaces A. -Cladogenesis is a little more complex, where Species A is living, then Species B branches out from Species A and now both are living at the same time

There are six areas of scientific study where one can deduct that evolution does occur: 1) Fossil Record: By linking fossils of the past organisms to the present organisms, one can compare the transition of the old species to the new 2) Comparative Anatomy: by further analyzing the structures of the organisms, one can conclude three structures of study. a) Homologous Structures: similar functions, common ancestral origin b) Analogous Structures: similar functions, shows similar adaptations due to similar living environments, different common origins c) Vestigial Structures: structures that have no use to an organisms body (appendix and coccyx in the human body are some parts that were used in the past, but not in the present) 3) Comparative Biochemistry: well, biochemistry is the study of chemical processes in an organism. By comparing the similar pathways, one can conclude that two organisms are similar to each other. (Mice can be used to test medicines that may be able to save humans lives because both are mammals and mice are easy test subjects to use. 4) Comparative Embryology: by comparing the embryos of similar organisms, one can see that the structures are similar and so the organisms are similar. 5) Molecular Biology: every organism on Earth that can breathe through aerobic cellular respiration contains the polypeptide cytochrome c. This is a component of the ETC chain. By taking a handful of amino acid sequences of different organisms, scientists can observe which organisms are more closely related. 6) Biogeography: through a theory called continental drift, all of the land of the earth was supposed to be one big piece. After a geographical phenomenon caused it to split into the

many pieces we have today, fossils of organisms before the phenomenon were separated. As scientists found similar fossils in Brazil that connected to fossils in Nigeria, it made sense that the Earth was very old and evolution did occur-through a gradual time.

Darwins important points on Natural Selection: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) Populations tend to grow and overpopulate Overpopulation causes competition Variation occurs to combat this competition The fittest survive (Were talking about the ones that survive and reproduce) Evolution occurs as those desirable traits increase in the population

Types of Selection:

1) Sexual Selection: variation based on competition for sexual characteristics. (some female birds have solid, uniform colors to hide themselves and the young, while the males have accentuated feathers with exotic colors to grab the females attention. 2) Directional Selection: between two extremes, one is challenged and dies off while the other one thrives and lives on. 3) Stabilizing Selection: between two extremes and one normal, where the two extremes are affected and die due to nature favoring the adaptations that the average one carries. 4) Disruptive Selection: between two extremes and one normal, where the normal one has undesirable traits and dies and the two extremes thrive and survive. 5) Artificial Selection: when humans take a wild animal and breed it to their standards by selecting the best ones with the most favorable traits.

Sources of Variation: 1) Balanced Polymorphism: two distinct, phenotypically different traits that an organism as a species carries. (Ex. A regular tiger that has yellow, black, and white dots on its fur compared to another tiger that has black and brown fur. 2) Geographic Variation: due to the fact that two organisms are separated by a geographic landmark, they develop different phenotypes. (Ex. A rabbit in the North America and one in the South would have completely different phenotypes due to the geography they live in. The Northern one would have snow white fur and short ear to keep and maintain body

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temperature, while the Southern one would have a camouflaged, mottled fur and long ears to radiate excess body heat. Sexual Reproduction: the recombination of alleles during reproduction helps ensure diversity a) Independent assortment of chromosomes results in diverse genes b) Crossing-over occurs during the meiosis I, where genetic material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes c) Random fertilization: one or two sperms out a million are randomly chosen to penetrate the ovum, allowing for variation Outbreeding: the mating of organisms in a species that are not closely related. This maintains a strong and diverse gene pool. Inbreeding increases risk of recessive traits, which can lead to fatal diseases. Diploidy: this secret little 2n condition caused by the organism having 2 sets of somatic chromosomes, therefore having 2 sets of genes. One pool of alleles will be used for the time being, while the other pool will most likely be used in the future, when the conditions could make it advantageous. Heterozygote Advantage: when having the heterozygous genotype for a trait proves more desirable than the homozygous dominant or recessive. Holding heterozygous and reproducing has more variation than a homozygous dominant or recessive due to the fact that the allele is Bb, and if two are crossed using a Monohybrid Punnett Square, one will see that it is 25% for BB, 25% for bb, and 50% for Bb. Having Bb also gives one selective advantages to certain diseases. (Ex. Sickle cell anemia and malaria in West Africa) Frequency-Dependent Selection: an interesting source for variation, where the more common phenotypes in a population are exploited by a predator or parasite, and the less common phenotypes in the population are ignored. This allows the less common phenotype organisms grow in numbers and eventually reach equilibrium, and surpass the common phenotype organisms. This is when the used-to-be common organisms are allowed to reproduce and grow back, and the other phenotypes are now preyed against. This repeats and repeats, as the predator or parasite develops a search image on which one to prey on, preys, and once the population of the common phenotype drops low, switches to the other phenotype, which by now has a booming population, and starts to eat from there. Evolutionary Neutral Traits: traits that have no selective value, such as blood type and fingerprint variation. They are, in a sense, tangible things that make evident of a humans existence in the world. Different blood types and fingerprint shapses hint at the variation of one organism to develop so many phenotypes.

Causes of Evolution:

Genetic Drift: change due to the allele frequencies, like an organism from one population going to another and changing the allele ratio by reproducing there. This is caused by chance, as most things in evolution are. It also tends to limit diversity because the reproductive choices are slim. Here are two examples. a) Bottleneck Effect: An original population is cut down and dies off due to unexpected factors such as natural disasters, disease, war, famine. The result is represented as the population now diminishing into a fraction of what it originally was. Also, the genetic variation in the population is now cut down because the population diminished so badly. b) Founder Effect: the establishment of one little colony of organisms from a parent population. Due to extreme geographical isolation and the fact that the colony is so small, one may find that the allele frequency in the population is very big due if the trait acquired is advantageous. c) Gene Flow: when the alleles movement changes in a population from moving into or out of the population. Migration is an example of gene flow and it contributes to a bigger gene pool. d) Mutations: changes in the gene sequence that may or may not be advantageous to a population. This is something that you can see that exemplifies evolution. e) Nonrandom Selection: this accentuates the fact that the strongest, smartest organisms survive in the wild. An organism selects its mate to eliminate the less-fit organisms in a population. f) Natural Selection: evolution occurs through natural selection, where it is survival of the fittest in a population. Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium: these two scientists described a situation where the non-evolution is stable. Allele and genotype frequencies will be balanced and stay the same in a large population. This would be a type of genetic equilibrium. The following must be true if the population is stable.

a) b) c) d) e)

The population must be big The population must be isolated from other populations No mutations are permitted to occur It must be random mating No natural selection

Hardy-Weinberg Equation: p^2+2pq+q^2=1* *the purpose of this equation is to calculate the allelic frequencies in a population. p = dominant allele q = recessive allele p^2 = BB (homozygous dominant) 2pq = Bb (heterozygous) q^2 = bb (homozygous recessive) The equation that the scientists originally thought up was (p + q) = 1, where p is homozygous dominant, and q is homozygous recessive. 1 symbolizes the population as a whole. Since a genotype has two letters, BB, Bb, bb, (p + q) is squared and the equation is turned into (p + q)^2 = 1. After FOIL, the total equation turns out to be p^2+2pq+q^2 = 1, using simple Algebra

Gene Pool: the combined alleles of all of the individuals in a population Genetic Equilibrium: in the gene pool, the allele frequencies are the same so the population does not evolve even after many generations. Geographic Isolation: where two groups of the same organism are isolated, so they acquire adaptations from where they live.