JOURNAL OF HARD MATERIALS, VOL. 3, NO.

2, 1992

143

ICSHM4-PAPER 39

Finite Element Modelling of the Thermal Residual Stress Distribution in a WC-IOwt%Co Alloy

R. SPIEGLER,

S. SCHMADDER

& H. E. EXNER

ABSTRACT The different thermal contraction of the hard phase and of the binder phase results in residual stresses in hard metals after cooling from sintering temperature. The spatial distribution of residual stresses is computed using a two-dimensional finite element model for a realistic microstructure of a WC-] Owt%Co aIloy. Distributions of the deviatoric and the hydrostatic stress components in the individual phases are given. They are compared with other theoretically derived or measured stress distributions. The finite element results emphasize the importance of the local residual stress distributions: while the mean equivalent stress in the cobalt phase is calculated to be below the yield limit, the maxima are weIl above the yield limit. Furthermore, these maxima are found at interfaces in the cobalt phase and are relaxed by local plastic deformation. Stress triaxialities reach local peak values leading to the formation of sintering voids in the binder phase during cooling.

1. INTRODUCTION
In the process of manufacturing hard metals, the difference in thermal expansion of the carbide and binder causes residual stresses when cooling down from sintering to room temperature [1,2]. Residual stresses originating for other reasons, e.g. by surface grinding [3, 4], will not be discussed in this paper. The local tensor of residual stresses, (Jij> can be separated into a hydrostatic and a deviatoric part. The hydrostatic part is frequently characterized by the hydrostatic stress (JH:

(JH

= 1/3

k~l

I
3

(Jkk

and the deviatoric part by the equivalent stress according to:

(Jv

= (3/2 i=l

II
3 3

(Jij -

j=l

c5,PH)2) 1/2

In general, hydrostatic and equivalent stresses inftuence the mechanical properties of hard metals [5-8]: depending on their sign, hydrostatic stresses favour or retard void
R. SpiegIer, Th. Goldschmidt AG, Goldschmidtstr. 100, D-4300 Essen, Germany; S. Schmauder, MaxPlanck-Institut fr Metallforschung, Institut fr Werkstoffwissenschaft, Seestr. 92, D-7000 Stuttgart, Germany; H. E. Exner, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, Petersenstr. 30, D-6100 Darmstadt, Germany.

144

R. SPIEGLER, S. SCHMADDER & H. E. EXNER stresses lead to elastic or plastic

formation in the ductile binder phase, while equivalent deformation.

In general, the hydrostatic residual stresses are in tension in the binder phase and in compression in the carbide [1]. In technical WC-Co alloys with cobalt contents between 5 and 15 wt%, the mean hydrostatic stresses "H the phases lie within the in following ranges:
O"H(CO): 1000 to 1300 MPa "H(WC): -100 to -400 MPa

These values are quoted from an earlier review article [1], where hydrostatic stresses calculated theoretically or obtained experimentally from X-ray strain measurements are compared for the individual phases. Only little is known about the magnitude of mean equivalent stresses in hard metals and the spatial distribution of hydrostatic and equivalent stresses in the individual phases [2,9, 10]. In the present work a finite element approach is presented which yields estimates for such stress distributions.

2. FINITE ELEMENT CALCULATIONS

Figure 1 shows the microstructure surrounding a crack tip in a WC-10wt%Co alloy. This microstructure was chosen because of the presence of a variety of large and sm all binder regions. Finite element (FE) modelling of this microstructure was also part of a study dealing with the simulation of the binder crack path [11]. The FE nets used in that study were the basis of the present calculations. Figure 2 shows the FE model consisting of two subnets. The subnets were connected by means of the subnet technique [12]. Subnet 1 represents the two-phase region shown in Figure 1 and consists of 1117 nodes and 2170 triangular elastic plane strain elements. Subnet 2 represents the extended surrounding of this two-phase region taken as a continuum with the elastic properties of the composite: it consists of 286 nodes and 472 triangular elastic plane strain elements. The FE mesh was designed with the mesh generator PATRAN [13]. The computations were performed with the commercial FE program PERMAS [14]. The fOllowing elastic constants (Young's modulus E and Poisson's number v) and thermal expansion coefficients a were used [10, 15]:
Ewc
Eco Ecomp

= = =

714 GPa 211 GPa 595 GPa

vwc
vCo

= = VComp =

0.19 0.31 0.22

awc
aco aComp

= = =

5.8 12 6.4

X 10-6
X

KK-l

10-6 K-J

X 10-6

The thermal expansion coefficient of the composite [10]:

aComp

was calculated using the relation

= L aiKi V/ L Ki Vi

where Ki are the bulk moduli and Vi are the volume fractions of the individual phases (i = Co, WC; VCo = 0.164). To calculate residual stress and strain distributions, initial strains a 6 T were imposed on the structure. The temperature difference 6 T was chosen to be 800 K [1]. 3. RESULTS Results of the residual stress calculations are given in Figures 3-6. The distributions of four quantities have been examined: Figures 3(a) and 3(b) show the spatial distribu-

FE MODELLING OF THERMAL RESIDUAL STRESS

145

Figure 1. Microstructure surrounding a crack tip in a WC-lOwt%Co alloy (dark phase, cobalt; grey phase, WC). tions of the hydrostatic stresses distribution of stress triaxiality
y/

O"B

y/,

and of the equivalent stresses which is defined as:

O"y,

respectively. The

= O"H/O"y

is shown in Figure 4(a). The S-value is an important quantity with wh ich a criterion for the nucleation of voids under stress [11, 16] can be formulated and is defined as:

S=

O"H"/7IK

The distribution of the S-value is shown in Figure 4(b). Figures 5 and 6 depict the frequency distributions of hydrostatic and deviatoric stresses in the individual phases. Hydrostatic stresses in the cobalt phase are rather uniformly distributed and tensile in character (Figure 3(a)). Their values range between 900 and 1800 MPa with a me an value of 1330 150 MPa (the values denote mean value and standard deviation). As can be seen in Figure 3(a), the highest values are reached in the neighbourhood of acute dihedral angles, when pockets of cobalt are surrounded by Wc. Since the standard deviation of the distribution is small compared with the mean value (Figure 5(a)), the hydrostatic stress state of the cobalt phase may be characterized satisfactorily by its mean value. The situation is different for the hydrostatic stresses in the WC phase (Figure 5(b)). They are mainly in compression with values up to -600 MPa. A comparison with the local distribution of Figure 3(a) shows that the maximum compressive stresses in the WC phase are found on shortest connections between cobalt domains. However, next to the WC-Co interfaces there exist small WC regions wh ich are under hydrostatic tension (Figure 5(b)). The me an hydrostatic stress amounts to -210 110 MPa. Thus, the width of the distribution is comparable with that of the cobalt phase, while the mean value is much smaller. As a result, the stress situation in the WC phase should be described by both the mean value and its standard deviation. In contrast to the narrow distribution of hydrostatic stresses, the frequency distribution of equivalent stresses in the cobalt phase shows a rather broad distribution (Figure 6(a)). The me an equivalent stress is 950 480 MPa. The calculated maxi-

146

R. SPIEGLER, S. SCHMADDER & H. E. EXNER

Figure 2. Finite element model of the microstructure of Fig. 1: subnet 1 with the phase arrangement of an actua1 microstructure is embedded in subnet 2 with the e1astic properties of the composite. The cobalt phase in the two-phase region (subnet 1) is shaded. mum values in the cobalt phase are reached near WC corners (Figure 3(b)). The equivalent stresses in the WC phase are smaller with a me an value of 700 320 MPa. The distribution shows an asymmetrie peak at about 600 MPa (Figure 6(b)). High equivalent stresses are less frequent than in the cobalt phase, as can be seen by comparison of Figures 6a and 6b. Stress triaxiality and S-value are irregularly distributed and reach locally peak values (Figures 4(a) and 4(b)): the maximum values of stress triaxiality and S-value in the cobalt phase are 2.6 and 0.02, respectively.

4. DISCUSSION
The calculated me an hydrostatic stresses are in agreement with results from X-ray

FE MODELLING

OF THERMAL

RESIDUAL STRESS

147

( 0 )0
4: 5: -200 -300 7: 1500 6: 1200 3: 1400 2:1: -400

0"

[MPa]

( b)

0y [MPa] 1: 1400 2: 1000

3:

600

Figure 3. Distributions of (a) hydrostatic stresses

(OH)

and (b) equivalent stresses (Oy).

measurements on hard metals of the same composition [1]. lnterestingly, the distribution of hydrostatic stress in the WC phase, as calculated in the present study, extends to tensile stresses up to 200 MPa. This is in accordance with results of neutron diffraction experiments of Krawitz et al. [10], which suggest both compressive and tensile stresses in the WC phase. However, Krawitz et al. found very broad distributions extending over several gigapascals in contrast to the present FE results. Kreher and Pampe [17] calculated the residual stresses in hard metals using the principle of 'maximum information theoretical entropy': they determined a probability distribution of the internal stresses by considering the fundamental thermamechanical equations and the boundary conditions of the measured quantities such that the

148
( 0)

R. SPIEGLER, S. SCHMADDER & H. E. EXNER

5
Tl

1: 2.4 2: 1.6

3: 0.8
4: 0 5: -0.8

( b )

s
1: 0.02 2: 0.01

1i& ..
2 .: .... .

...... ..

Figure 4. Distributions of (a) stress triaxiality (I]

= aHlav)

and (b) 5-value (5

= aH' 1]/10.

disorder of the stresses reaches a maximum. This leads to Gaussian probability distributions of the local stresses. For a hard metal alJoy with a cobalt content of 10 wt% corresponding to the alJoy composition as investigated in the present study, and for a temperature difference D.T = 500 K, Kreher and Pompe [17] calculated a mean hydrostatic stress in the cobalt phase of 860 160 MPa and a me an hydrostatic stress in the WC phase of -190 250 MPa. The corresponding values of the present FE calculations for the same temperature difference would be 830 100 MPa in the binder and -135 70 MPa in the carbide phase. While the mean values of the FE results are in reasonable agreement with the theoretical values, the widths of the distributions differ distinctly. The difference may be attributed to the three-dimensionality of the calculations in ref. [17] in contrast to our two-dimensional FE

FE MODELLING

OF THERMAL

RESIDUAL STRESS

149

(a) 25

~ ~ u c
~

20

'"

cr

15

~
.~
<l>

10

Cl:

5
o

500

1000
eTH

1500
(MPa)

2000

(b)

30 10 C u .2: 20 :;J Cl: cr ~ ~

'" ~ E
<l> <l>

<l>

o
-600 -400

-200
eT H

0
(MPa)

Figure 5. Frequency of hydrostatic stresses (a) in the cobalt phase and (b) in the WC phase. calculations. Furthermore, in ref. [17] Gaussian probability distributions of the local stresses are assumed, while our calculated distribution of hydrostatic stresses in the cobalt phase seems to be bimodal (Figure 5(a)). However, the bimodal nature of the hydrostatic stress distribution may be an artefact of the particular microstructure chosen. The advantage of the present FE calculation is the possibility to obtain stress distributions in the microstructure and to calculate local S-values. Although the me an equivalent stress in the cobalt phase is below the yield limit, the maximum stresses up to 1700 MPa would be high enough to cause local deformation in the microstructure. Therefore, local plastic f10w is assumed to have occurred during cooling in front of WC corners reducing the high peak values of equivalent stresses. Furthermore, equivalent stresses reach high values in the carbide (about 1800 MPa), which may lead to local deformation of carbide phase and damage of the carbide skeleton under additional external loading. lndeed, slip lines in WC crystals have frequently been observed in transmission electron microscopy (TEM) studies [18]. Void formation in the cobalt phase of hard metals under externalloading at room

150

R. SPIEGLER, S. SCHMAUDER

& H. E. EXNER

:J (0 .~ u ) .~ c: Ci ~ ~>- 2 E ~ w0 2
<1> Cl> ::> CT Cl:: Cl> Cl:: Cl> Cl>

8 6 u 48 c: 4
10

( b)

~ ~

1000
erv (MPo)

1500

2000

1000
erv (MPo)

2000

Figure 6. Frequency of equivalent stresses (a) in the cobalt phase and (b) in the WC phase.

temperature has been suggested at stress triaxialities >3 and S-values ofO.08 [15, 16]. These critical values are higher than the maximum values caused by residual stresses in the present microstructure (I] = 2.6 and S = 0.02); however, as the yield limit of cobalt decreases at high temperatures void nucleation during the cooling process after the sintering of hard metals is possible. Experimentally, there is evidence for the formation of such sintering voids. A detailed discussion on void formation under loading or under thermal stresses in the particular microstructure shown in Figure 2 will be given elsewhere [16]. 5. SUMMARY According to the FE results, the me an hydrostatic stresses in the Co and WC phase of the microstructure in Figure 2 are 1330 150 MPa and - 210 110 MPa, respectively. The hydrostatic stresses in the cobalt phase reach their highest values at acute

FE MODELLING OF THERMAL RESIDUAL STRESS dihedral angles between WC-Co interfaces, while the highest compressive WC are reached at shortest connections between cobalt domains.

151

stresses in

The distributions of hydrostatic stresses in the individual phases are rather narrow in contrast to the broad distributions of equivalent stresses. The mean equivalent stresses are 950 480 MPa in the cobalt phase and 700 320 MPa in the WC phase. Maximum values in the cobalt phase are found near WC corners and are high enough to cause local plastic deformation. Stress triaxiality and S-value in the binder assume locally peak values of 2.6 and 0.02, respectively. This could result in the formation of sintering voids.

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6] [7] [8] [9] [10] [11] H.E. Exner, !in. Met. Rev., 4, 149-173 (1979). A. Hara, M. Megata and S. Yazu, Powder Met. Int., 2,43-47 (1970). H.E. Exner, Trans. AlME, 245,677-683 (1969). D.N. French, Trans. AlME, 245,2351-2352 (1969). G.G. Chell, in Advanees in Elasto-Plastie Fraeture Meehanies (L.H. Larsson, Ed.), Applied Science, London, pp. 359-384 (1979). A.K. Khaund, V.D. Krstic and P.S. Nicholson,J. Mater. Sei., 12, 2269-2273 (1977). RA. Cutler and A.V. Virkar, J. Mater. Sei., 20, 3557-3573 (1985). P.A. Mataga, Aeta Metall., 37,3349-3359 (1989). Ann., 151,126-159 (1967). S. hman, E. Prnama and S. Palmqvist,Jernkontorets, A.D. Krawitz, M.L. Crapenhoft, D.G. Reichel and R. Warren, Mater. Sei. Eng., A105/l06, 275-281 (1988). R Spiegler, S. Schmauder and H.F. Fischmeister, Proeeedings of the 2nd International Finite Element Conferenee (INTES GmbH, Ed.), Steinkopf Druck Stuttgart, FRG, Strasbourg, France, pp. 21-41 (1990). }.F.RS. Argyris and H.-P. Mlejnek, Die Methode der Finiten Elemente, Friedr. Vieweg & Sohn, Braunschweig (1986). PDA Engineering, 2975 Redhill Avenue, Costa Mesa, CA 92626, USA. INTES GmbH, Nobelstrae 15, D-7000 Stuttgart 80, Germany. S. Schmauder, Die ModelIierung zhigkeitsbestimmender Prozesse in Mikrogefgen mit Hilfe der Finite-Elemente-Methode, Forlsehrittsberiehte VDI, Reihe 5: Grund- und Werkstoffe Nr. 146, VDI, Dsseldorf (1988). R Spiegler, S. Schmauder and H.F. Fischmeister, Int. J. Plastieity (in press). W. Kreher and W. Pompe, VI. Konferenz Metallkundliehe Probleme der Werkstoffentwieklung, Freiberg, GDR, 13-15 September 1989, Bergakademie Freiberg, GDR, pp. 107-117 (1990). S. Hagege, J. Vicens, G. Nouet and P. Delavignette, Phys. Status Solidi (a), 61,675-687 (1980).

[12] [13] [14] [15]

[16] [17]

[18]