APPLICATION OF UPFC FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF ATC

1. Introduction:

Electricity markets throughout the world continue to be opened to competitive forces. Several countries have accepted the reasoning that deregulation will lead to cheaper electricity and better quality of service to customers and have proceeded with vast transformations of their electricity industries. Competition provides an incentive and an opportunity for transmitting power over long distances. The compulsory accommodation of the contracted (usually the least expensive) power by the transmission network will likely aggravate parallel and loop flow problems, causing unpredictable line loading, voltage variations, and stability problems. The effect of these on the reliability and security of the overall power system could be devastating.

The aim of electric industry restructuring is to promote competitive markets for electric power trading. Under new environment, the main consequence of the nondiscriminatory open-access requirement is the substantial increase in power transfers. The Available Transfer Capability (ATC) of a transmission network is the unutilized transfer capabilities of a transmission network for the transfer of power for further commercial activity, over and above already committed usage. Adequate available transfer capacity (AATC) is needed to ensure all economic transactions, while sufficient ATC is needed to facilitate electricity market liquidity. It is necessary to maintain economical and secure operation over a wide range of system operating conditions and constraints. However, tight restrictions in the construction of new facilities due to the economic, environmental, and social problems, reduces the operational alternatives. It may sometimes lead to a situation that the existing transmission facilities are intensively used. On the other hand it can be said that power suppliers will benefit from more market opportunities with reduced possibility of congestion incorporating power systems security enhancement. Maximum use of existing transmission assets will be more profitable for transmission system owners; and customers will receive better services with reduced prices. Various ATC boosting approaches have been experienced via adjusting generators terminal voltages, under load tap changers (ULTCs) and rescheduling generator outputs. Based upon the NERCs definition of ATC and its determination , transmission network can be restricted by thermal, voltage and stability limits. A variety of new technologies are becoming available that will help utilities maintain power system reliability while handling large volume of energy transactions. A flexible ac transmission system (FACTS) is the application of power electronics devices to the control of flows and other quantities in power systems. FACTS controllers can be effectively used to improve the utilization of the power system and improve its stability. FACTS provide the needed corrections of transmission functionality in order to fully utilize existing transmission systems.
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Static Var Compensator (SVC) and thyristor controlled series capacitor (TCSC) are some of the commonly used FACTS controllers. The improvements on the field of power electronics, particularly on gate turn-off (GTO) thyristor ratings have made possible a new family of versatile FACTS controllers namely static synchronous compensator (STATOM), static synchronous series compensator (SSSC) and the unified power flow controller (UPFC). To operate the power system safely and to gain benefits of the bulk power transfer, the transfer capabilities must be calculated and the power system operated so that the power transfers do not exceed the transfer capability. ATC is significantly limited by heavily loaded circuits or buses with relatively low voltages. FACTS technology makes it possible to redistribute line flow and regulate bus voltages. It can be used effectively for the enhancement of ATC. As Unified Power Flow Controller can control both the active and reactive powers, I preferred it to enhance ATC.

1.1 Aim
The main aim is to enhance the Available Transfer Capability (ATC) from Generating/Source area to Sink area in a De-regulated environment system using Continuous Power Flow method during normal and contingency cases with optimal location and control parameter of FACTs Devices such as TCSC or SVC on IEEE 14-bus system and IEEE 24 reliability test system. Real-code Genetic Algorithm is used to determine location and control parameter of TCSC or SVC. ATC is dependent on many factors, such as the base case of system operation, system operation limits, network configuration, specification of contingencies etc,. FACTs technology has a severe impact to the transmission system utilization with regards to those constraints on ATC. Hence, maximum use of existing transmission assets will be more profitable for Transmission System Operators (TSO) and customers will receive better services with reduced prices.

2. OVERVIEW OF AVAILABLE TRANSFER CAPABILITY

2.1 Introduction

In a deregulated power system structure, power producers and customers share a common transmission network for wheeling power from the point of generation to the point of consumption. All parties in this open access environment may try to produce the energy from the cheaper source for greater profit margin, which may lead to overloading and congestion of certain corridors of the transmission network. This may result in violation of line flow, voltage and stability limits and thereby undermine the system security. Utilities therefore need to determine adequately their Available Transfer Capability (ATC) to ensure that system reliability is maintained while serving a wide range of bilateral and multilateral transactions. The electric transmission utilities in the United States are required to post the information of ATC of their transmission network through the open access same time information system (OASIS). The ATC of a transmission network has been defined as the unutilized transfer capability of the transmission network for the transfer of power for further commercial activity, over and above already committed usage. Power transactions between a specific seller bus/area can be committed only when sufficient ATC is available for that interface. Thus, such transfer capability can be used for reserving transmission services, scheduling firm and non-firm transactions and for arranging emergency transfers between seller bus/areas or buyer bus/areas of an interconnected power system network. ATC among areas of an interconnected power system network and also for critical transmission paths between areas are required to be continuously computed, updated and posted to OASIS following any change in the system conditions.

2.2 ATC Definitions:

Available Transfer Capability (ATC) is a measure of the transfer capability remaining in the physical transmission network for further commercial activity over and above already committed uses. Mathematically, ATC is defined as the Total Transfer Capability (TTC) less the Transmission Reliability Margin (TRM), less the sum of existing transmission commitments (which includes retail customer service) and the Capacity Benefit Margin (CBM), shown in Fig. 2.1. Total Transfer Capability (TTC) is defined as the amount of electric power that can be transferred over the interconnected transmission network in a reliable manner while meeting all of a specific set of defined pre- and post contingency system conditions.

Transmission Reliability Margin (TRM) Capacity Benefit Margin (CBM) Available Transfer Capability (ATC) Total Transfer Capability (TTC) Existing Transfer Commitment (ETC)

Fig. 2.1 Basic Definition of ATC

Transmission Reliability Margin (TRM) is defined as that amount of transmission transfer capability necessary to ensure that the interconnected transmission network is secure under a reasonable range of uncertainties in system conditions. Capacity Benefit Margin (CBM) is defined as that amount of transmission transfer capability reserved by load serving entities to ensure access to generation from interconnected systems to meet generation reliability requirements. Mathematically, ATC is defined as ATC= TTC-TRM-{ETC+CBM} (2.1)

2.3 Transfer Capability

Transfer capability is the measure of the ability of interconnected electric systems to reliably move or transfer power from one area to another over all transmission lines (or paths) between those areas under specified system conditions [6]. The units of transfer capability are in terms of electric power, generally expressed in megawatts (MW). In this context, area may be an individual electric system, power pool, control area, sub region, or North American Electric Reliability Council (NERC) Region, or a portion of any of these. Transfer capability is also directional in nature. That is, the transfer capability from Area A to Area B is not generally equal to the transfer capability from Area B to Area A.

2.3.1 Transfer Capability versus Transmission Capacity

Electric systems throughout NERC have agreed to use common terminology to calculate and report transmission transfer limits to maintain the reliability of the interconnected transmission networks. These transfer values are called capabilities (differentiating them from capacities) because they are highly dependent on the generation, customer demand, and transmission system conditions assumed during the time period analyzed. The electric industry generally uses the term capacity as a specific limit or rating of power system equipment. In transmission, capacity usually refers to the thermal limit or rating of a particular transmission element or component. The ability of a single transmission line to transfer electric power, when operated as part of the interconnected network, is a function of the physical relationship of that line to the other elements of the transmission network. Individual transmission line capacities or ratings cannot be added to determine the transfer capability of a transmission path or interface (transmission circuits between two or more areas within an electric system or between two or more systems). Such aggregated capacity values may be vastly different from the transmission transfer capability of the network. Often, the aggregated capacity of the individual circuits of a specific transmission interface between two areas of the network is greater than the actual transfer capability of that interface. In summary, the aggregated transmission line capacities of a path or interface do not represent the transfer capabilities between two areas.

2.4 Limits to Transfer Capability

The ability of interconnected transmission networks to reliably transfer electric power may be limited by the physical and electrical characteristics of the systems including any one or more of the following. Thermal Limits Thermal limits establish the maximum amount of electrical current that a transmission line or electrical facility can conduct over a specified time period before it sustains permanent damage by overheating or before it violates public safety requirements. Voltage Limits System voltages and changes in voltages must be maintained within the range of acceptable minimum and maximum limits. For example, minimum voltage limits can establish the maximum amount of electric power that can be transferred without causing damage to the electric system or customer facilities. A widespread collapse of system voltage can result in a blackout of portions or the entire interconnected network. Stability Limits The transmission network must be capable of surviving disturbances through the transient and dynamic time periods (from milliseconds to several minutes, respectively) following the disturbance. All generators connected to ac interconnected transmission systems operate in synchronism with each other at the same frequency (nominal frequency is 50 Hertz in India). Immediately following a system disturbance, generators begin to oscillate relative to each other, causing fluctuations in system frequency, line loadings, and system voltages. For the system to be stable, the oscillations must diminish as the electric system attains a new, stable operating point. If a new, stable operating point is not quickly established, the generators will likely lose synchronismwith one another, and all or a portion of the interconnected electric systems may become unstable. The results of generator instability may damage equipment and cause uncontrolled, widespread interruption of electric supply to customers.

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3. AVAILABLE TRANSFER CAPABILITY EVALUATION

Bulk power transfer in an interconnected power system is limited by the capability of the transmission system. The maximum power that can be transferred is called the transfer capability. The total transfer capability (TTC) is the largest flow through the selected interface which causes no thermal overloads, voltage limit violations, voltage collapse and/or another system security problems such as transient stability The ATC for the selected interface is the TTC minus base case flow and appropriate transmission margins. ATC determination is a nontrivial task as it requires considera- tion of generation dispatch, system configuration, scheduled transfers, system contingencies and projected customer de- mand. The different methods available for ATC calculation are summarized below.

3.1. Single linear step ATC

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The single linear step approach is the most common ATC method and duplicates the ATC analysis done by many reliability organizations. This method of ATC analysis uses only information about the present system state and sensitivities about the present system state. These sensitivities are em- bodied in power transfer distribution factor (PTDF) calculations. A power transfer distribution factor is a measure of the sensitivity of a flow to an injection or extraction at a given location. There are two types of PTDFs: operating point dependent, which come from the load flow, and tra- ditional PTDFs, which are derived from the dc power flow model. In any case, the PTDFs take in to account at the same time injection and extraction of power at some points or at specific group of points defining the transfer. There is no need to run the power flow. The idea behind the PTDFs is to use the linear sensitivity instead of nonlinear power flow solution to arrive at the transfer limits quickly. A PTDF is measured with respect to a slack bus or a location. Consider a transmission line with a limit of 10 MW and present load- ing of 5 MW and a PTDF of 10%. The estimated maximum transfer without causing overload on line is: transfer limi- tation = (limit present loading)/ PTDF = (10 5)/ 0.1 =50 MW.

3.2. Continuation power-flow analysis

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It is well known that the Jacobian matrix of the power-flow equations becomes singular at the voltage stability limit. Conventional load flow algorithms are prone to convergence problems at operating conditions near the voltage stability limit. The continuation power-flow analysis overcomes this problem by reformulating the load flow equations so that they remain well-conditioned at all possible loading condi- tions . This approach uses an iterative process where, from a known initial solution, the solution for a specified pat- tern of load increase can be obtained. Specifically for ATC calculations, continuation power flow method can be used to specify the desired generation and load pattern increase and determine the power flow solution at the point where a thermal or voltage or voltage stability limits the transfer. Compared to applying standard load flow algorithms repeat- edly, continuation power flow method makes it possible to include voltage stability limit as well.

3.3. Optimal power flow based method

The general formulation of an optimal power flow problem is

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The most common application is the minimization of the total fuel cost. The equality constraints (Eq. (2)) ensure that the load flow equations are satisfied. Eq. (3) specifies the inequality constraints like the limit on power flow through transmission lines, bus voltage, real and reactive power lim- its of generation, etc. This formulation can be easily modified for ATC computation. The objective function will be the transfer between the source and sink areas and this will maximized subject to both equality and inequality constraints. Thermal limits and voltage limits can be easily included in the inequality constraints. However including stability and voltage collapse condition is a great challenge.

4. ATC ENHANCEMENT USING UPFC

One of the simplest methods of evaluating ATC is the use of repeated load flow studies. The generation and load in the desired locations are increased step by step and load flow solution is used to monitor the violation of any constraints. For systems in which the transfer capability is limited by thermal or voltage constraints this method will provide accu- rate results. For large power systems this method is compu- tationally demanding particularly when contingencies have to be considered. Since the focus of the research presented in this paper is to show how UPFC can be used to improve the ATC, a commercially available load flow program has been used to determine the desired ATCs.

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A source area (bus) and a sink area (bus) is initially se- lected for the transfer. The load at the sink is increased with corresponding increase in the generation at the source. The load/generation pair are increased till the transfer is limited by a transmission line constraint. The additional power that can be transferred form the source to the sink above the base case transfer is taken as the ATC for the studies presented in this paper. The repeated load flow studies indicate the transmission line that limits the power transfer. UPFC can be effectively used to relieve the loading of the transmission line which has reached its limit. UPFC has been placed in a suitable location and its parameter have been determined so that power flow can be redirected. This UPFC has been simulated using the injection model and a new load flow solution is determined. With the UPFC, the generation and load are increased till the transfer is limited by the constraint. The increase in the ATC achieved using the UPFC for different systems are discussed in the next section.

4.1 Unified Power Flow Controller:

The Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) concept was proposed by Gyugyi in 1991. The UPFC was devised for the real time control and dynamic compensation of transmission systems, providing multifunctional flexibility required to solve many of the problems facing the power delivery industry. Within the framework of traditional power transmission concepts, the UPFC is able to control, simultaneously or selectively all the parameters affecting power flow in the transmission line (i.e., voltage, impedance and phase angle), and this unique capability is signified by the adjective unified in its name. Alternatively, it can independently control both the real and reactive power flow in the line.
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4.1.1 Principle of UPFC

The unified power flow controller consists of two-voltage source converters using gate turn off (GTO) thyristor valves as illustrated in Fig.1.These converters labeled "converter 1" and "converter 2" are operated from a common dc link provided by a dc storage capacitor. This arrangement functions as an ideal ac to ac power converter in which real power can freely flow in either direction between the ac terminals of the two converters and each converter can independently generate or absorb reactive power at its own ac output terminal.

Fig 1: Schematic diagram of UPFC Converter 2 provides the main function of the UPFC by injecting a voltage in series with the line via an insertion transformer. This injected voltage acts essentially as a synchronous ac voltage source resulting in real and reactive power exchange between it and the ac system. The reactive power exchanged at the ac terminal (i.e. at the terminal of the series insertion transformer) is generated
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internally by the converter. The real power exchanged at the ac terminal is converted in to dc power, which appears at the dc link as a positive or negative real power demand. The basic function of converter 1 is to supply or absorb the real power demanded by converter 2 at the common dc link. This dc link power is converted back to ac and coupled to the transmission line via a shunt-connected transformer. Converter 1 can also generate or absorb controllable reactive power, if it is desired and thus provide independent shunt reactive compensation for the line. There is a closed "direct" path for the real power negotiated by the action of series voltage injection through converters and 2 back to the line. The corresponding reactive power exchanged is supplied or absorbed locally by converter 2 and therefore does not have to be transmitted by the line. By selecting suitable control modes, it is possible to control bus voltage, real power and reactive power through the transmission line. The control attributes of an UPFC are Active and Reactive power control Voltage control VAR compensation Damping oscillations Transient and Dynamic stability Voltage stability Fault current limiting

4.2 Power Injection model of UPFC

UPFC is considered as a universal tool for power flow control because it has an ability to simultaneously and independently control all the three parameters
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which affect power flow, i.e., transmission angle, terminal voltage and system reactance. According to its impact on the system it might be modeled as a combination of a series voltage source, an active and a reactive current source.

Bus - i Vi

Ii

VT

rij + jxij

Bus - j Vj

jB/2

jB/2

Fig 2: Equivalent circuit of UPFC The equivalent circuit of UPFC placed in line-k, which is connected between bus-i, and bus-j is shown in Fig 2. According to their structure UPFC resemble PSTs, however, when active and reactive losses are neglected, their apparent power is not balanced. The active power inserted into the system via VT is balanced by the current source IT. Here Iq represents a reactive current source and is independent of VT. The control parameters of the UPFC are the voltage ( VT ), current ( Iq ) and the phase angle (T ). The two-voltage source model of UPFC is converted into two power injections in polar form for power flow studies. The advantage of power injection representation is that it does not destroy the symmetric characteristics of the admittance matrix. From basic circuit theory, the injected equivalent circuit of Fig.2 can be obtained. rij + j xij
Sis Sjs

UPFC Fig 3 : Power injection model of UPFC

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The active power injected by the UPFC at bus-i is, Pis = -VT2 Gij 2Vi VT Gij cos (T j) + Vj VT [Gij cos (T - j) + Bij sin (T j)] The active power injected by the UPFC at bus-j is, Pjs = Vj VT [Gij cos (T - j) - Bij sin (T j)] The reactive power injected by the UPFC at bus-i is, Qis = Vi Iq + ViVT (Gij sin(T i) +(Bij + B/2) cos (T i)) The reactive power injected by the UPFC at bus-i is, Qjs = VjVT (Gij sin (T j)+Bij cos (T j)) ------ ( 4 ) ------ ( 3 ) ------ ( 2 ) ------ ( 1 )

Thus, two power injections ( P is, Qis) and (Pjs, Qjs) represent all features of the steady state model of UPFC.

4.3 Representation of UPFC for power flow

4.3.1 UPFC modified jacobian matrix elements:
In power flow, the two power injections (Pis, Qis) and (Pjs, Qjs) of a UPFC can be treated as generators. However, because they vary with the connected busbar voltage amplitudes and phases, the relevant elements of the Jacobian matrix will be modified at each iteration. The formation of the Jacobian matrix is
H N L

J= M

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Based on the equations (1), (2), (3) and (4), the following additional elements of the jacobian matrix owing to the injections of the UPFC at the bus bars i and j can be derived: Hi,j = -2Vi VT Gij sin(T j) + Vj VT ( Gij sin(T - j) Bij cos(T - j)) Hj,j = Vj VT ( Gij sin(T j) + Bij cos(T j)) Ni,i = -2 Vi VT Gij cos(T j) Ni,j = Vj VT ( Gij cos(T j) + Bij sin(T j)) Nj,j = Vj VT ( Gij cos(T j) - Bij sin(T j)) Mi,i = Vi VT ( -Gij cos(T i) +(Bij +B/2)sin(T i)) Mj,j = -Vj VT ( -Gij cos(T j) + Bij sin(T j)) Li,i = Vi Iq + Vi VT ( Gij sin(T i) +(Bij +B/2) cos(T i)) Lj,j = -Vj VT ( Gij sin(T j) + Bij cos(T j))

4.3.2 Power flow procedure with UPFC:

The overall procedure for the proposed algorithm can be summarized as: Step 1: Input data needed by the conventional power flow; Form the Admittance matrix; Input the parameters of the UPFC i.e., VT, T and Iq. Step 2: Form conventional Jacobian matrix; modify the Jacobian matrix using UPFC injection elements to become the enhanced Jacobian matrix according to eqs. Step 3: Use the enhanced Jacobian matrix to solve busbar voltage until the convergence of all power injections is achieved. When the mismatch at every busbar is less than prescribed error, the power flow converges. Otherwise go to step 2. Step 4: Output system voltages and line flows.
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5. NUMERICAL RESULTS:
The proposed method has been applied to two sample power systems i.e., IEEE 24-bus system and the IEEE 30-bus (3-area) system. By placing an UPFC at appropriate location, more power can be transferred. Table-1 presents details on the location of the UPFC and the corresponding ATC. The base case ATC values are also shown in the Table-1 to observe the improvement that takes place with the placement of UPFC. Three transfers have been considered. The results in Table-1 show that a significant enhancement of ATC can be achieved using UPFC. It is possible to arrive at an optimal location of UPFC by analyzing the sensitivity of the UPFCs to the power transfer in the system. But, in this project work I have used Genetic Algorithm to get the optimal location of UPFC, which will be explained, in the next Chapter. S.No Transaction ATC before placing 1 23-15 UPFC 7.641647 Location Of UPFC 25 37 7 2 10-3 2.937173 17 16 4 3 22-9 1.043722 25 32 33 ATC after placing UPFC 7.927334 7.691054 7.786473 4.000049 3.815014 3.425038 4.396052 4.123179 4.361135

Table: ATC enhancement using UPFC for 24-bus system S.No Transaction (areas) ATC before placing
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Location Of UPFC

ATC after placing

1-2

UPFC 0.546957

1 2 21

UPFC 0.72 0.70875 0.554062 0.53125 0.56875 0.54375

1-3

0.520272

1 2 12

Table: ATC enhancement using UPFC for 30-bus system

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6. CONCLUSION:
In deregulated power systems, available transfer capability (ATC) analysis is presently a critical issue either in the operating or planning because of increased area interchanges among utilities. Sufficient ATC should be guaranteed to support free market trading and maintain an economical and secure operation over a wide range of system conditions. However, tight restrictions on the construction of new facilities due to the increasingly difficult economic, environmental, and social problems, have led to a much more intensive shared use of the existing transmission facilities by utilities and independent power producers (IPPs). Based on operating limitations of the transmission system and control capabilities of FACTS technology, technical feasibility of applying FACTS devices to boost ATCs are analyzed and identify. This thesis has explained the application of a new generation FACTS device, the UPFC in enhancing the transfer capability of a power system. In the context of the deregulated electric power industry, UPFC can be effectively used to overcome some of the limitations to electric power transfer and enable low cost energy to be supplied to the customers. Test results based on the IEEE reliability test system and IEEE 24- bus , 30 bus system illustrate the effectiveness of the UPFC.

References
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[4] M.Noroozian, G.Anderson, Power Flow Control by Use of Controllable Series Components, IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, VO1.8, No.3, July 1993, 1420-1428. [5] Vladimiro Miranda, J.V. Ranito, L. M. Proenca, Genetic Algorithms in Optimal Multistage Distribution Network Planning, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 9, o. 4, Nov. 1994, 1927-1933. [6] Transmission Transfer Capability Task Force, Available transfer capability Definitions and determination, North American Electric Reliability Council, NJ, June 1996. [7] G. C. Ejebe, J. Tong, J. G. Waight, J. G. Frame, X. Wang, and W. F. Tinney, Available transfer capability calculations, IEEE Trans. Power Systems, Vol. 13, No.4, Nov.1998, 1521-1527. [8] Richard D. Christie, Bruce F. Wollenberg and Ivar Wangensteen, Transmission Management in the Deregulated Environment, Proceedings of the IEEE, Vol.88, No.2, February 2000. [9] Y. Xiao, Y. H. Song, Y. Z. Sun, Available Transfer Capability Enhancement Using FACTS Devices, Proceedings of the 2000 IEEE/PWS Summer Meeting,, Seattle, vol.1, pp. 508-515, July 2000. [10] [11] [12] [13] [14] N.G. Hingorani, L. Gyugi, Understanding FACTS, IEEE Press, NewYork, 2000. Y.H. Song, A.T Johns, Flexible ac transmission systems (FACTS),The Institution of Electrical Engineers, UK, 1999. D. Povh, Use of HVDC and FACTS, IEEE Proc. 88 (2) (2000) 235245. North American Reliability Council (NERC), Available Transfer Definitions and Determinations, NERC Report, June 1996. L.Gyugi, Dynamic compensation of ac transmission lines by solid-state synchronous voltage sources, IEEE Trans. Power Delivery 9 (2) (1994) 904911.

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