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CHAPTER
25
FIBER-REINFORCED PLASTIC PRESSURE VESSELS AND ASME RTP-1REINFORCED THERMOSET PLASTIC CORROSION-RESISTANCE EQUIPMENT
Peter Conlisk
25.1 INTRODUCTION 25.2 FRP TECHNOLOGY
This chapter is intended primarily for engineers and designers whose experience with vessels is primarily with metal equipment. Those having experience with berglass equipment but not with Section X [1] or RTP-1 [2] will also nd this chapter useful, but they may want to skim over the following sections on FRP1 technology. Section X is part of the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel (B&PV) Code and has been enacted into law in 37 jurisdictions in the United States and Canada. Although the authors of RTP-1 wrote it so that it could be used as a Code, RTP-1 has not been enacted into law anywhere; therefore, it is at present a voluntary standard. Both standards govern vessels constructed of thermosetting resin reinforced with glass bers. In addition to glass bers, Section X also provides for vessels reinforced with carbon or aramid bers. The pressure scope of Section X is 15 psig internal pressure and above, of which the upper limit depends on the size and construction of the vessel. RTP-1 covers tanks and vessels with design pressures 015 psig. Both standards have provisions for vessels with external pressure from 015 psig. Neither RTP-1 nor Section X makes a good handbook or textbook on FRP vessel design. This chapter is intended to serve as a manual on the use of the documents. An engineer who species an FRP vessel does not need to have the under-standing of FRP that the vessel designer possesses. However, in specifying the vessel, the engineer necessarily makes many design choices, for which reason he or she should understand the rudiments of FRP technology. Section 25.2 discusses the basics of FRP technology, particularly aspects that might be foreign to metal-vessel engineers.
The purpose of this section is to discuss technology used in Section X and RTP-1 that may not be familiar to engineers and designers of metal vessels. This section describes the resins and reinforcing bers included in RTP-1 and Section X. The documents govern vessels built of epoxy, vinyl ester, polyester, furan and phenolic resins reinforced with glass, and carbon and aramid bers. It also describes the following processes used to manufacture RTP-1 and Section X vessels: contact molding, bag molding, centrifugal casting, and lament winding. The joining of vessel parts made by these methods is also discussed. Stress analysis of FRP equipment involves lamination theory and plate-and-shell theory. Plate-and-shell theory is widely used by metal-vessel designers and is therefore not discussed except where it forms part of the bases for design examples. Lamination theory is a branch of mechanics concerned with plates and shells made of layered material, where the layers are bonded together, but have different elastic properties. Lamination theory is essential to the engineering of FRP tanks and vessels but is not needed to design and analyze metal equipment. Engineers familiar with metal-vessel design are usually unacquainted with lamination theory; therefore its rudiments are discussed. This chapter presents the physical, intuitive basis for lamination theory and examples of its application, but not its mathematical development. Lamination theory is used in both RTP-1 and Section X. Acoustic-emission (AE) examination is another technology widely applied to both new and in-service FRP tanks and vessels, although not as widely to metal equipment. It is required for some Section X vessels and is optional for RTP-1.
FRP is an acronym that stands for ber-reinforced plastic; RTP is an acronym that stands for reinforced -thermoset resin. Herein, FRP, RTP, and berglass are all used as synonyms.
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25.2.1
FRP-Composite Materials
FRP-composite materials governed by Section X and RTP-1 consist of thermosetting plastic that is reinforced by glass, aramid, or carbon bers. The vast majority of FRP-composite tanks and vessels use glass bers. Thermosetting resins are viscous liquids that can be cured to form rigid solids. The curing process is initiated by the addition of a hardening agent, the use of catalysts and initiators, the use of heat, or the use of a combination of chemical agents and heat. Once cured, the now-rigid plastic cannot be melted and rehardened, for which reason the vessel parts built of composites made with thermosetting resins cannot be welded together but must instead be assembled by adhesive joints. Vessel parts are built up layer by layer with glass bers bound together with the thermosetting resin. The layers are applied to molds or mandrels by many processes that are described in this chapter. The ber reinforcement contributes structural performance required of the vessel or tank. The bers are the primary contributor of strength and stiffness of the vessel parts. Section X covers FRP reinforced by E-glass, S-glass, or aramid and carbon bers, whereas RTP-1 covers FRP reinforced by either E-glass or Sglass. The average diameter of a glass ber is approximately 0.0005 in.; the diameter varies from 0.00025 in. to 0.00075 in. Table 25.1 summarizes ber properties. Section X provides for ve kinds of resin, each described as follows: Isophthalic Polyester This is the lowest cost system governed by the ASME standards. Isophthalic polyester has good strength and corrosion resistance and is therefore widely used for FRP chemical-process equipment. It is cured at room temperature. Vinyl Ester These resins combine both epoxy and polyester technology. They have excellent corrosion resistance, strength, and toughness, but they are more expensive than isophthalic polyesters. They can be cured at room temperature. Chlorendic Bisphenol-A Fumerate These resins are used for more exotic systems to improve corrosion resistance and hightemperature service and are therefore more expensive than vinyl ester. They are cured at room temperature. Phenolic These resins have better ammability properties (e.g., higher ame retardance and lower smoke emissivity) than the other four families of resin. Phenolic composites are more brittle than composites built with the other resins, and phenolic resins are harder to process than the others. Phenolics are cured at room temperature.
FIG. 25.1 FIBERGLASS-REINFORCING MAT
Epoxy There is wide range of epoxy resins available. Epoxy composites typically are stronger than composites made with the other resins and have good chemical resistance. They are usually cured with heat. RTP-1 governs FRP made with isophthalic polyester, vinyl ester, and chlorendic Bisphenol-A Fumerate resins; it does not cover phenolic or epoxy laminates. The resin and glass are combined and applied to the vessel-part mold in thin layers called laminae. Many laminae combine to form the full-part thickness, and this stack-up or sequence of laminae is called a laminate. Laminae can be classied by the form of reinforcing glass they contain. The common lamina types are as follows: Mat Lamina Figure 25.1 shows a magnied view of this product form. The mat commonly used in tanks and vessels weighs either 0.75 oz/ft2 or 1.5 oz/ft2 and is supplied in rolls of various widths. When it is combined with resin, applied to a mold, and cured, a 1.5 oz/ft2 mat ply is typically 0.43 in. thick and is by weight about 35% glass ber. Woven-Roving Lamina Figure 25.2 shows woven-roving reinforcing glass. There are ve ber bundles per inch in the vertical direction and four in the horizontal direction. The woven-roving lamina weighs 24 oz/yd2 (2.7 oz/ft2).2 A typical specimen is 0.33 in. thick and is by weight 50%60% glass ber.
For reasons unknown to the author, it is an industry practice to quote mat weight in oz/ft2 and woven-roving weight in oz/yd2.
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FIG. 25.2 WOVEN-ROVING REINFORCING GLASS
Filament-Wound Lamina The following brief description of lament winding is taken from an article on the Composite Fabricators Association Web site [3]. What is lament winding? Filament winding has been compared to wrapping a whole bunch of string around a spool and then taking the spool out late. Thats a fairly simple analogy, but its close to the mark. The spool essentially is the internal part, referred to as the mandrel that forms the shape of the lament wound structure. The string is the reinforcing ber that is systematically wound around the mandrel until it totally covers the surface area to a depth desired by the designer. In order to keep the string in the place, the ber reinforcement is saturated with the glue, or resin, which eventually cures and binds the bers in place. A lament-wound lamina has all the bers running in the same direction. The bers are continuous and are precisely placed by the winding process. Therefore, they are more tightly packed than the bers in mat and woven-roving laminae. Filament-wound laminae have a higher glass content than the other types 60%70% by weight. Figure 25.3 shows spools of glass-roving laminae (bundles of individual bers) that are used for lament winding. About 5,000 individual bers make up a strand that is wound on the spool. The bers are about 0.005 in. in diameter. The roving bundles are applied at various wind angles, which are the angles between the ber and a line on the surface of the part that is parallel to the axis of the cylinder being constructed. C-veil, Carbon-Fiber Veil, and Nexus Lamina The corrosion resistance of the process surface of a laminate is often enhanced by applying a corrosion barrier. Typically, the innermost surface consists of a C-veil, carbon-ber veil, or nexus ply followed by two or three mat plies. A C-veil ply is a resin-rich layer about 0.01 in. thick and reinforced with a C-glass veil. Veil is a gauzy sheet of randomly oriented C-glass bers weighing about 0.1 oz/yd3.
FIG. 25.3 SPOOLS OF CONTINUOUS ROVING
The glass content is approximately 10% by weight. In a nexus lamina, the C-glass veil is replaced by a thin, feltlike sheet made from polyester bers. Veil made from carbon ber is also used, and occasionally double C-veil or nexus layers are used. Mat and veil-reinforced laminae are isotropic in the plane of the laminate, whereas woven-roving and lament-wound piles are orthotropic in both stiffness and strength. Tables 25.2, 25.3, and 25.4 each summarize the properties of the laminae discussed pre-viously. Table 25.2 provides reinforcement weight, lamina thick-ness, and glass content by weight of the six types. Table 25.3 lists the elastic properties of the laminae; Table 25.4, the strength properties. The principal direction of a lamina is the direction of the bers. For woven-roving laminae, the principal direction is either
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ber direction; in isotropic laminae, the principal direction is arbitrary. In Tables 25.3 and 25.4, X refers to the principal direction and Y refers to the direction in the plane of the lamina perpendicular to X. Tables 25.3 and 25.4 provide room-temperature properties for laminae made with Derakane 470 resin and with the glass contents listed. Properties of laminae made with other resins or glass content vary somewhat from those listed. At rst glance, it would seem that the woven-roving lamina is only slightly anisotropic, as the moduli in the X and Y directions are not too different. However, in isotropic material the shear modulus G is related to Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio v by the following equation: G = E 2(1 + v) (25.1)
45 deg. to the principal direction than the assumed isotropic model. Some woven-roving laminae have the same Youngs modulus in the principal directions; however, because of their low shear modulus, they should be treated as orthotropic materials in the stress analysis. A common example of this kind of behavior is a cloth handkerchief. It is much stiffer in the thread directions than in the bias direction. Even though the tensile moduli in the thread directions are roughly equal, the cloth is highly anisotropic. The values in Table 25.4 are for the same laminae as in Table 25.3; laminae made with other resins and glass contents have somewhat different strength properties. However, most other features of Table 25.4, including mat lamina having higher tensilestrength than compressive-strength properties, are common to all the laminae allowed by Section X and RTP-1. Nonetheless, the strength behavior is very different and more complicated than that of ductile metals used in tanks and vessels. Strengths may or may not be different in different directions. For example, the tensile strength of mat laminae is the same in both directions, whereas the tensile strength of lament-wound laminae is 32 times greater in the ber direction than it is in the cross-ber direction. In some laminae (such as mat or woven-roving), the compressive strength in a given direction is less than the tensile strength. In lamentwound plies, the compressive strength is less than the tensile strength in the ber direction, but it is greater than the tensile strength in the cross-ber direction. There is no obvious general relationship between shear strength and the other strength values.
Suppose for simplicity that we wished to treat the wovenroving lamina as an isotropic material and decided to set E as the average of the two Youngs moduli in the table and use the listed value of Poissons ratio. Then, G = 2.71 * 106 = 1.18 * 106 psi 2(1 + 0.15) (25.2)
This value for G is 3.06 times the actual value. The actual woven-roving lamina is much more compliant for tensile strain at
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Complicated elastic and strength properties make stress analysis of FRP equipment more difcult and time-consuming than analysis of metal equipment of similar complexity. Finite-element methods make such stress analysis practical. Many commercially available nite-element codes have layered composite-plate elements that employ lamination theory (to be described in Section 25.9.1) to form the stiffness matrices of the elements and also provide lamina-by-lamina stress- and strain-eld output. The codes usually include failure criteria suitable for use with FRP laminates, one of whichthe Tsai-Wu Tensor Interaction Criterion (to be discussed)is used by both RTP-1 and Section X. If an FRP tank or vessel can be validly modeled by plate elements, nite-element analysis is somewhat more expensive than analysis of a comparable metal vessel, but not prohibitively so. 25.2.1.1 Notation for Laminate Sequences As stated previously, a laminate is composed of a sequence of laminae. This paragraph explains the common notations used for specifying a laminate sequence or stack-up. V designates a corrosion-veil lamina; M, a mat lamina; WR, a woven-roving lamina; and FW a, or FW a, a lament-wound lamina in which a is the wind angle. A stack-up is described by combining these symbols; for example, a laminate consisting of a veil ply, two mat plies, and three sets of alternate mat and woven-roving plies nished by a mat plyis designated by V, MM, 3(M, WR), M. A lament-wound laminate 0.46 in. thick, with a wind angle of 55 deg. and a standard corrosion barrier, is designated by V, 2M, 9(FW 55 deg.). The laminate has a veil and two mat plies for a corrosion barrier, followed by eighteen plies of 0.02 in. thick lament-wound layers with alternate plies at 55 deg. and 55 deg. Table 25.5 lists the lamination sequences commonly used for matwoven-roving laminates, and Table 25.6 gives the drafting
symbols that specify the sequences. The assumptions made in these tables are that veil plies are 0.01 in. thick, mat plies are 0.043 in. thick, and woven-roving plies are 0.033 in. thick. The glass ber in the mat plies weighs 1.5 oz/ft2, whereas the ber in the woven-roving plies weighs 24 oz/yd2. The E plies in Table 25.5 are exotherm plies. Resin curing is an exothermic reaction that generates enough heat to damage the laminate if the laminate thickness is built too fast. To prevent this occurrence, the laminator pauses after the corrosion barrier is laid down until the peak of the exothermic reaction occurs, after which the laminate begins to cool. The laminator resumes activity until the rst E ply is reached; then waits again for the peak exotherm. (The E plies are ordinary mat plies.) Fabrication continues in this manner, with a pause at each exotherm ply. To build thicker matwoven-roving parts, the laminator simply adds more 3(MR), M sequences, giving proper attention to the exotherm plies. The ply thicknesses assumed in the foregoing paragraph are typical of industry practice, but Fabricators may not use precisely
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FIG. 25.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CHOPPER GUN
these values. Instead, they may use the values that their shops actually produce. Because of these minor variations among Fabricators, it is better to specify the laminate in a vessel part by drafting symbols such as those in Table 25.6 rather than simply giving the thickness and type of laminate. For example, an engineer who wants to specify a matwoven-roving laminate 3 in. 8 thick would specify a V, 2M, 3(MR)M stack-up in addition to specifying the reinforcing glass weights.
25.3
FABRICATION METHODS3
Pressure-containing parts for RTP-1 and Section X, Class II vessels are made by contact molding and lament winding. Parts for Section X, Class I vessels are made by those two processes as well, but also by bag molding and centrifugal casting. Each of these methods is discussed in the following paragraphs.
25.3.1
Contact Molding
The following denition is from the glossary of Section X [1]: Contact moldinga process for molding reinforced plastic in which reinforcement and resin are placed on a moldcure is either at room temperature using a catalystpromoter system or by heat in an oven, and no additional pressure is used. Contact molding includes two processes: the hand lay-up and the spray-up. In the hand lay-up method, the mold is rst prepared with a parting agent so that the resin does not adhere to the mold as it cures. On head molds, wax-parting agents or a liquid such as polyvinyl alcohol is used; on cylindrical mold, Mylar lm is usually used. A sheet of reinforcing material, such as a C-glass veil, is then placed on the mold and wetted with catalyzed and promoted resin. (Catalyst and promoter are added to all resins except epoxy so that they will cure and become solids. A hardener may be added to the
3
epoxy, or it may be heat-cured.) The resin-wetted reinforcing material is compacted and pressed to the mold by hand with a roller to squeeze out excess resin and to remove air bubbles. Rollers resemble paint rollers, except that the type used in this application is 1 1 metal with deep grooves about 1 in. wide and 4 in. deep, with a 4 in. 8 3 pitch. Rollers vary from 2 or 3 in. to 4 in. in diameter and from 3 in. to 12 in. in width. After the rst lamina is applied, the second and subsequent plies are added the same way. Veil, mat, and wovenroving plies are all applied by the hand lay-up method. In the spray-up method, resin and reinforcing glass are applied to the mold with a chopper gun. Figure 25.4 shows a schematic depiction of a chopper gun. Four hoses carry uids to the gun: an air hose that powers the chopper and provides a stream of air for carrying the chopped glass and resin to the mold; a resin hose; a hose that conveys the catalyst and promoter to the gun; and a solvent hose. A glass strand, which (as mentioned previously) contains about 5,000 individual glass bers, also enters the gun. In the gun, the resin, promoter, and catalyst are mixed and then sprayed onto the mold surface. At the same time, the roving strand enters the gun and is chopped into lengths that vary from 3 to 2 in., and the 4 chopped glass is also sprayed onto the mold at the same place as the resin. The result is that a layer of resin-wetted glass bers is deposited on the mold. The mass of chopped glass ber and catalyzed and promoted resin is compacted with a roller, as in the hand lay-up process. A lamina made this way is generally considered equivalent to a mat ply of the same thickness. When the operator pauses, even for a short time, he or she pumps solvent through the gun to remove the resin. If this is not done, the resinbeing catalyzed and promotedwould rapidly solidify and clog the gun. Contact molding is used to make all pressure-containing parts, including nozzles with anges. It is versatile and requires only inexpensive, simple tooling. However, it is also labor-intensive, involving so much handwork that quality control is more difcult than with more automatic processes.
In the FRP tank and vessel industry, the term Fabricator is used the same way as Manufacturer is in the metal vessel industry. The term Manufacturer is usually reserved for those who manufacture resin, reinforcing glass, and other components supplied to the Fabricator.
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FIG. 25.5 FILAMENT WINDING
25.3.2
Filament Winding
Figure 25.5 is a schematic diagram of lament winding. A band of glass or other ber roving is pulled from the creel through a resin bath and wound onto the mandrel. For winding a cylindrical shell, Mylar lm is ordinarily used as the parting agent. The roving band is 26 in. or more wide, depending on the diameter of the part being wound. Consider winding an 8 ft diameter vessel shell with a 55 deg. wind angle. The roving band would be about 5 in. wide and consist of 45 strands. (Nine strands per in. of width is typical.) Each strand has about 5,000 individual bers; thus the 5 in. band consists of 225,000 bers. The creel would hold 45 spools of roving. The carriage feeding the band onto the mandrel moves axially along the mandrel to maintain the proper wind angle. When the carriage reaches the end of the mandrel, it reverses direction, laying down a band with the opposite slope of the band put down on the rst pass. With a 55 deg. wind angle, the bands would form a helix on the shell, with a pitch of 211.2 in.; therefore, the bands are widely spaced. The carriage is carefully controlled so that on the third pass (the second pass in the original direction), the band is next to the band made on the rst pass. Eventually this process results in the covering of the mandrel with two plies of material: one with a wind angle of 55 deg.; the other, 55 deg. The process continues until the desired thickness is built up. Laminate thickness increases quickly enough during winding so that the process must be paused to let the peak exotherm occur, just as in contact molding. After the exotherm but before the winding is resumed, the laminator usually applies a mat bedding ply, either by using the hand lay-up method or by using a chopper gun. The laminate laid down at the ends while the carriage is reversing has a variable wind angle (from 55 deg. to 0 deg.) as well as variable thickness, for which reason the laminate is called the turnaround zone. This portion is usually cut off and scrapped. Filament-wound laminates have of a 60%70% glass content by weight, considerably higher than mat or matwoven-roving laminates. Consequently, lament-wound laminates are stronger and stiffer than the others. Because the process is more automated than contact molding, the quality is more predictable. Once a winding setup is working properly, the quality is more repeatable and the quality control is easier than with contact molding. Cylinders as small as 1 in. and as large as 80 ft are lamentwound. Mandrels with either horizontal or vertical axes are used,
as are winders on which the mandrel is mounted so that it can be rotated about more than one axis. These winders can produce vessels complete with heads.
25.3.3
Bag Molding
Only Section X, Class I provides for bag molding. Qualication of a Class I design is by destructive testing of a prototype. If the prototype satises Section X requirements, vessels identical to the prototype may be built and receive an ASME RP Stamp. Design qualication of Class II vessels is by mandatory design rules and nondestructive acceptance testing. Class I rules are suitable for mass-produced vessels, whereas Class II rules are used for one-ofa-kind or limited-production equipment. The two classes are discussed more thoroughly later in this chapter. Figure 25.6 sketches the bag-molding concept. The catalyzed resinglass mixture is applied to the inside of the mold, the bag is inserted and pressurized, and the resin is cured either at room
FIG. 25.6 BAG-MOLDING CONCEPT
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FIG. 25.7 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
temperature or by the application of heat. The resinglass mixture may be applied by contact molding; otherwise, the reinforcing bers may be a preform, a reinforcement that is preshaped to the general geometry of the intended molded part, usually by light pressing or by distribution of chopped bers of a perforated former. It is used on more complex or deep-draw moldings to optimize the distribution and orientation of the bers [4]. The Fabricator may also apply the resin and glass onto the bag and then insert the bag into the mold. Bag molding can produce parts with a higher glass content than contact molding, as the reinforcementresin mass is compacted more during bag molding than during the rolling step of contact molding. Thus bag-molded parts are stronger and stiffer than contact-molded parts. In addition, bag molding can produce vessels with integral heads.
girth joints. Bonders apply the structural overlayalso called strap-pingto the outside of the vessel, which is usually covered with a lm of wax. Air inhibits the cure of most resins used for vessels, so the common practice is to coat the outside surface of a part with resin that contains a small fraction of wax. The wax oats to the surface, preventing the contact of air with the curing resin and producing a wax lm on the outside of the vessel. This lm would interfere with bonding to the surface, so it is therefore removed before a structural joint is applied. The bonder rst sands the surface to which the joint is to be applied with a coarse abrasive until the wax is removed and the glass ber is exposed. The joint plies are then applied by the use of hand lay-up methods.
25.3.4
CENTRIFUGAL CASTING
Figure 25.7 is a schematic depiction of centrifugal casting. Resin, resin catalyst and promoter, and glass ber are all conveyed to a device that chops the glass and blends the ingredients; sprays them onto the inside of the mold. The mold rotates at a high enough speed for the centrifugal force to press the resinglass mass against the mold. Either room- or elevatedtemperature curing may be used. Centrifugal casting produces hollow cylindrical parts, such as vessel shells.
25.3.5
Joining Vessel Parts
The aforementioned processes produce vessel parts: shells, heads, nozzles, and so on. Because the resins governed by the ASME documents are all thermosets, once cured they will not melt and solidify into good material. Thus vessel parts cannot be joined by welding. The industry has developed adhesive-joint techniques for assembling parts; these are discussed in this section. Figure 25.8 shows the steps for making the type of butt joint required by RTP-1 for making head-to-shell or shell-to-shell
FIG. 25.8 RTP-1STYLE BUTT JOINT
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The joint may be of all-mat-ply construction or of alternate plies of mat and woven-roving. If the joint is all mat, each ply overlaps 5 the preceding ply by 16 in. If the joint is alternating mat and wovenroving, the woven-roving plies are of the same width as the mat ply 1 underneath them, and each mat ply extends 2 in. beyond the ply beneath it. Steps (2) and (3) in Fig. 25.8 illustrate the application of the structural strapping. Peak exotherms are accommodated the same way as in making laminates, as discussed previously. The design rules in RTP-1 govern the thickness of the joint overlay; their intention is for the joint laminate to be at least as strong as the stronger of the laminates in the parts being joined and for the overlay to be wide enough to provide adequate shear strength to carry the load from the part to the joint overlay to the second part. The nal step (4) of Fig. 25.8 is to make a corrosion seal for the joint. This seal is made on the inner (process) surface, as shown in Fig. 25.8, and the seal is a minimum of two plies of 11 mat with an 2 additional C-veil or nexus veil on the inside. The innermost mat play 1 is at least 3 in. wide, the next ply extends at least 2 in. beyond the 1 rst, and the veil ply extends at least 2 in. beyond the mat plies. The joint is applied to cured FRP parts. Therefore, the bond between the joint and the parts is adhesive; it is not the molecular bond that forms when the parts are cured. Adhesive bonds are not as strong as molecular bonds, but they are strong enough to provide safe joints as long as the requirements of the applicable ASME Standard are satised. Figure 25.9 illustrates the bell-and-spigot joint, another design detail provided by RTP-1. This joint is used to assemble shell segments or to join the head and shell. The rst step in making the joint is to t and hold the parts, which is ordinarily done with xtures. The next step is to apply the resin putty as shown in Fig. 25.9. The resin putty is made of the same resin as the parts being joined and is thickened with particulate-mineral ller. Recall that the strapping is put in place and then compacted with a roller. The resin putty serves as a foundation for the application of the structural strappingthat is, something to press the roller against. Finally, the corrosion seal is installed.
FIG. 25.10 SECTION XSTYLE BUTT JOINT
Figure 25.10 illustrates a Section X, Class II butt jointa variation on the RTP-1 butt joint shown in Fig. 25.8 that constitutes a head-to-shell joint, although the detail also applies to shell-girth joints. The difference between the RTP-1 joint and the Section X joint is that the parts to be joined are scarfed rst, as in steel welding, and then the structural overlay is applied. Rules for dimensions of the joint are given in Section X, Article RD-1175 [1]. Both RTP-1 and Section X use the same styles of joints for attaching nozzles to shells or heads. Figure 25.11 shows one type of joint a penetrating nozzle in which the nozzle neck protrudes inside the shell or head to which it is attached. The nozzle neckange assembly is rst attached to the head or shell with xtures or with a few dabs of hot-melt adhesive to hold the nozzle in place while the attachment laminate is applied. Next, the resin putty is placed as shown in Fig. 25.11 to provide a base for the structural attachment layers. Finally, the structural overlay is installed. Either RTP-1 or Section X, whichever applies, governs the dimensions of the overlay. Flanges are attached to nozzle necks by similar joints, and the reinforcing pad is added to minimize stress intensication caused by cutting the hole in the shell or head on which the nozzle in installed. Reinforcing-pad dimensions are given in Section X or RTP-1, as applicable.
25.4
STRESS ANALYSIS OF FRP VESSELS
Simpler RTP-1 or Section X, Class II vessels can be designed by using design rules found in the ASME Standards, although many congurations are not governed by these rules. Both Section X and RTP-1 provide for design-by-stress analysis, which covers such congurations. Two factors complicate the stress analysis of FRP vessels compared to metal vessels: (1) Vessel parts are made of layered composites, in which the layers have different elastic and strength properties, causing each layer to have its own stress distribution. (2) Each type of layer has ve distinct strength properties, which complicates the failure criterion. This section discusses how these complications are treated. Lamination analysis provides a way of dealing with the rst complication of the preceding list. Most tanks and vessels have
FIG. 25.9 BELL-AND-SPIGOT JOINT
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FIG. 25.11 PENETRATING-NOZZLE-INSTALLATION-LAMINATE OVERLAYS
FIG. 25.12 PLANE SECTIONS REMAINING PLANE
geometries that allow for valid analysis by the plate-and-shell theory, which is true of both FRP and metal equipment. A fundamental assumption in the theory is that the variation of strain through the thickness of a part is linear, or that the plane sections remain planean idea that Fig. 25.12 illustrates. Sketch (1) of Fig. 25.12 depicts an undeformed cross section of a laminate with eight laminae. The vertical lines represent the edge view of planes in the laminate. If an in-plane force were applied to the laminate, it would deform as shown in sketch (2): stretching in the load direction and contracting in the other two directions. The vertical planes would move apart but still remain parallel. If pure bending were applied, the situation would be as shown in sketch (3): the vertical planes would rotate, but remain in plane. Strain in the cross section therefore varies linearly in the direction normal to the plane of the laminate. The same two kinds of deformation can occur simultaneously from loading normal to the page and also as a result of twisting; however, the variation of the strain is still linear in the normal direction. The foregoing assumption about strain is called the Kirchoff hypothesis and is fundamental to plate-and-shell theory. It is as true when applied to FRP laminates as when it is applied to plates made of homogeneous, isotropic material. In an FRP laminate,
each lamina has a linear stressstrain law, but each type of lamina has different elastic properties and therefore a different linear stressstrain law, although the lamina stresses can be computed from the strain. Lamination theory, a branch of mechanics that treats this situation, is used to formulate the relationship between the strain in a plate or shell and the force and moment resultants in the solid. As an example of the results of lamination theory, consider the stress distribution in a 7-ply matwoven-roving laminate 0.271 in. thick subjected to a tensile force resultant of 500 lb/in. in the principal direction of the woven-roving plies. The laminate construction is given in Table 25.7. In a homogeneous plate, the stress would be 500/0.271 1,845 psi, but because the two types of ply in the laminate have different elastic properties, the stress is not constant through the thickness. (Note: please see Table 25.3 for the lamina properties used in this example.) Figure 25.13 plots the normal stress in the load direction. Figure 25.14 graphs normal stress in the direction perpendicular to the load. The strain constitutes the uniform extension in the load direction and the Poissons ratio contractions in the perpendicular direction. Figure 25.13 shows that the stress in the 4-mat plies is the same (1,235 psi) and that the stresses in the woven-roving plies are equal at 2,904 psi but higher than the
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FIG. 25.13 NORMAL STRESS IN LOAD DIRECTION FOR EXTENSIONAL STRAIN
FIG. 25.14 NORMAL STRESS PERPENDICULAR TO LOAD DIRECTION FOR EXTENSIONAL STRAIN
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FIG. 25.15 NORMAL STRESS FROM BENDING LOAD IN BENDING DIRECTION
stress in the mat plies. Stress in the woven-roving plies, although higher because they are stiffer than the mat plies, are under the same strain. Both stresses are considerably different from the stress that would occur in a homogeneous laminate1,845 psi. In a homogeneous laminate, stress would vanish in the crossload direction. However, again because of different elastic properties, the Poissons contraction induces stress in the cross-ber direction, as shown in Fig. 25.14. Stress in the mat plies is 175 psi tension; in the woven-roving plies, it is 303.4 psi compression. The force resultant from these stresses is 0. As a second example, consider the same laminate subjected to a 22.58 in.-lb/in. bending moment. In a homogeneous laminate, the maximum bending stress is given by the following familiar equation: s = 6M t2 = 6 * 22.58 0.2712 = 1,845 (25.3)
Figure 25.15 shows that the stresses for laminae 1, 2, and 3 are 1171.4 psi, 1860.2 psi, and 391.5, respectively, all in compression.
The stress in lamina 4 vanishes, whereas the stress in laminae 5, 6, and 7 are symmetric to laminae 3, 2, and 1, respectively, but are tensile instead of compressive. Note that the maximum bending stress is not in the extreme ber. Figure 25.16 gives the ply stresses in the cross-load direction. In this case, the neutral bending plane is at the middle plane, but that is only because this laminate is symmetric about the middle plane. If a veil and 2-mat corrosion barrier were added, the laminate would no longer be symmetric and the neutral bending surface would not coincide with the middle surface. Furthermore, there are laminates where the neutral plane for bending in one direction does not coincide with the neutral bending plane for bending in the perpendicular direction. Fortunately, modern engineering software provides practical ways of treating these complexities. Engineers analyzing structures built of ductile metals often use either the von Mises or the Tresca criterion to decide whether a state of stress is excessive. But in general, an FRP lamina has ve independent strength properites, as discussed in Section 25.2.1. The Tsai-Wu quadratic interaction criterion is in general use for
FIG. 25.16 NORMAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN DIRECTION PERPENDICULAR TO BENDING
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layered-composite materials; it represents a generalization of the von Mises criterion [5] and provides a strength criterion for FRP. Both RTP-1 (in paragraph M5-530) and Section X (in paragraph RD-188.5) use the same form of the Tsai-Wu quadratic interaction criterion. The purpose of the criterion is to distinguish between stress states that overload any lamina and stress states that are acceptable. Both standards employ strength ratios for this purpose. The equations that state the quadratic interaction criterion in terms of a strength ratio may be written as follows: R2(FxxS 2 + 2FxySxxSyy + FyyS 2 + FssS 2 ) xx yy xy + R(FxSxx + FySyy) - 1 = 0 where Sxx Syy Sxy R (25.4)
the normal stress in a principal direction of the lamina in question the normal stress in the other principal direction the shear stress in the plane of the lamina the strength ratio
The other parameters are dened in terms of the ve lamina ultimate strengths, as follows: Fxx = Fxy 1 1 1 F = F = 2 XXc yy YYc ss Su 1 1 1 = - 2FxxFyy Fx = 2 X Xc 1 1 Y Yc
Fy =
(25.5)
where X and Xc Y, Yc Su
through the stress distribution in each lamina. For example, if a vessel shell consists of twelve plies of material, the analyst must check the stress distribution in every ply instead of one bending and one membrane stress distribution for the entire part. Modern nite-element software makes stress-distribution checking a practical task. The analyst can set up a set of material constants for each lamina type in the vessel and then refer to the property set when he or she inputs data that denes the lamination sequence. Many software systems that have a capability for layered-composite plate elements provide efcient ways for specifying stack-ups and also provide ways of nding the most highly stressed lamina without the analyst having to view the stress distribution in every lamina. The Algor post-processor, for example, produces a worst-ply plot. The program makes color-contour plots of the reciprocal of the strength ratio, where the value plotted is the worst 1/R for any lamina at that point on the vessel. Using this plot, the analyst can quickly isolate areas (if there are any) where the strength criterion is violated; then, he or she looks at individual ply plots in those areas to isolate the locations and plies where stress is excessive. Other software systems have other ways of ltering the voluminous stress output produced by composite-element calculations. A simpler strength criterion is being introduced into the current edition of RTP-1, ASME RTP-1-2007. The criterion is intended for details of design and construction for which no rule is provided in Subpart 3A, but for which other recognized engineering formulas exist. They may be accepted by comparing calculated stress with ultimate laminate strength to establish a minimum design factor. Other recognized formulas include stress calculations presented in various sections of the ASME pressure vessel codes, formulas included in the non-mandatory appendices of RTP-1, and well documented formulas presented elsewhere. Combined exural and membrane stress must comply with the following inequalities: smc
St
the tensile and compressive strengths in the x direction, respectively the tensile and compressive strengths in the y direction, respectively the shear strength
sfc
Sf
1 F10
(25.6)
and smi
St
Given the ve strength values and a stress state, that is, a set of values for Sx, Sy, and Sxy, equation (25.4) can be solved for R. This equation is quadratic in R and therefore has two roots for R: one positive, the other negative. If the positive root is greater than a value stipulated in Section X or RTP-1 for the layer in question, the stress state in the layer is acceptable; however, if the positive root is less than the stipulated value, the stress state is excessive and not allowed. The physical meaning of R is that if all three stresses are multiplied by R, the ply is just at the point of failure. Thus R is like a safety factor; the greater R, the farther from failure the lamina is. Because the ve lamina strength values are different for different lamina types, and also because the stress varies from lamina to lamina, the criterion is applied to each layer separately. Finite-element stress analysis of FRP tanks and vessels take more time than analysis of metal equipment of comparable conguration. Instead of inputting one or two sets of isotropic material property values for the entire vessel, the analyst must input a set of orthotropic values for each type of laminate in the vessel. Furthermore, instead of simply inputting a plate thickness for each vessel part of different thickness, the analyst must input an entire lamination sequence for each part and must also sift
sfi
Sf
1 F5
(25.7)
Where smc
sfi St Sf F10 F5
calculated maximum sustained membrane stress sfc calculated maximum sustained exural stress smi calculated maximum combined intermittent and sustained membrane stress calculated maximum combined intermittent and sustained exural stress ultimate tensile strength ultimate exural strength design factor for sustained loads 10 design factor for sustained loads 5
Examples of sustained stress are hydrostatic stress and design pressure stress. Examples of loads that induce intermittent stress are wind, earthquake and loads from personnel standing on a vessel. In the two inequalities, maximum stress means the stress with the largest absolute value. Absolute values of stress are used in the inequalities.
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Quadratic Interaction Damage Criterion Section X, in the current edition, I introduced a new strength criterion based on acoustic emission measurements of FRP samples which dene the lowest stress at which signicant damage occurs. The required tests are dened by Article RT-8 in Section X. For contact molded laminates, exural and shear tests are required. For lament wound laminates, a sample lament wound cylinder must be tested. The values upon which the criterion is based are: damage criterion stress ratio 1.25 damaged based design value with respect to shear stress in the plane of the laminate. Xd tensile and compressive damage based design value in the x (strong) direction Yd tensile and compressive damaged based design value in the y (weak) direction damage criterion design factor 0.75 sx stress in the lamina material direction x at the point and lamina under investigation sy stress in the lamina material direction y at the point and lamina under investigation ss in-plane shear stress at the point and lamina under investigation Rd Sd The Quadratic Interaction Design Criterion is: R2 d
2
Table 25.8 gives the pressure scope for Class I vessels. Vessels with only polar-boss openings must satisfy the following requirements to be eligible for the higher pressure scope: (1) openings shall be centered on the axis of rotation; (2) openings shall be of the polar-boss type wound in place on the axis of revolution; (3) the boss diameter shall not exceed half the vessel inside diameter; and (4) the laments shall not be cut. The pressure scope for Class II vessels is more complicated, depending on the size of the vessel. As is discussed below, Section X vessels must be between 6 in. and 192 in. in diameter. There are two methods for design calculations: Method A that uses design rules like Section VIII, Division 1, and Method B that provides for design by stress analysis. Vessels designed by Method A are limited to 100 psi internal design pressure and 144 in. diameter. Vessels designed by Method B rules shall have pressure and diameter restrictions as follows: 1. The algebraic product of the internal pressure in psig and the diameter in inches shall not exceed 14,400 lb/in (Equation 25.9) 2. The maximum internal pressure shall not exceed 250 psig. 3. The maximum inside diameter shall not exceed 192 in. Vessels may be designed using a combination of Methods A and B. For such vessels the maximum design pressure is limited to 100 psig with a maximum inside diameter of 144 in. Vessels designed by either Methods A or B are limited to a maximum external pressure of 15 psig. P = 14400 D (25.9)
ca
sxsy sy 2 sx 2 ss 2 b + a b + a b d 1 Xd XdYd Yd Sd
(25.8)
This criterion is scientically better than the others in the two standards, but it is just now being introduced into use.
25.5
SCOPES OF SECTION X AND RTP-1
This section discusses the scope of both Section X and RTP-1. The scope of Section X is discussed rst, followed by that of RTP-1.
25.5.1
Scope of Section X
Section X has two classes of vessels: I and II, both of which differ in scope. In brief, the classes are distinguished as follows: (1) Class I vessel designs are qualified through possibly destructive fatigue and pressure testing of a prototype. Vessels similar to the prototype may then be built and the ASME Code Symbol RP applied, but the prototype itself, however, may not receive the Code Symbol RP. (2) Class II vessel design is qualied through mandatory design rules and nondestructive acceptance testing, which includes an acoustic-emission (AE) examination.
where P is the design pressure in psi and D is the diameter in in. These rules are expressed by Figure 25.17 The maximum external design pressure for Class II vessels is 15 psig. The design temperature of Section X vessels must not exceed 250F or 35F less than the maximum-use temperature of the resin, whichever is less. The maximum-use temperature of a resin is either the glass-transition temperature (TG) or the heatdeection (also called heat-distortion) temperature, whichever the Fabricator and resin supplier prefer. When a polymer is cooler than its TG, it is rigid and hard; when it is hotter than TG, it is
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FIG. 25.17 INTERNAL PRESSURE SCOPE FOR SECTION X VESSELS
rubbery. The Section X resins are used below the TG, whereas other resins (such as tire rubber) are used above it. The elastic modulus of Section X resins drops orders of magnitude at and above the TG [6]. The heat-deection temperature is the temperature at which a specied bar specimen deects 0.01 in. when loaded as a simple beam to a constant 264 psi (see ASTM D 648, Test Method for Deection Temperature of Plastics under Flexural Load, for details). It is usually measured for resin castings, not laminates [7]. For the resin used in Section X, the TG and heat-deection temperatures are approximately equal. The temperature scope applies to both Class I and Class II vessels. Vessels fabricated under Section X intended for Section IV potable-water use are limited to applications permitted herein. The vessels are limited to internal pressure only with a maximum allowable working pressure (MAWP) of 160 psig. The maximum allowable temperature used shall be 210F [8]. The following classes of vessels are exempted from the scope of Section X [9]. (1) Pressure containers, which are integral parts of rotating or reciprocating mechanical devices (e.g., pumps, compressors, turbines, generators, engines, and hydraulic or pneumatic cylinders) where the primary design considerations andor the stresses are derived from the functional requirements of the device. (2) Piping systems in which the primary function is to transport uids from one location to another within a system of which it is an integral part. (3) Piping components, such as pipe, anges, bolting, gaskets, valves, expansion joints, ttings, and pressure-containing parts of other components (e.g., strainers) and devices that are used for mixing, separating, snubbing, distributing and metering, or controlling the ow, provided the pressurecontaining parts are generally recognized as piping components or accessories.
(4) Vessels that have any part of their shells, heads, nozzles, ttings, or support laminates heated above the aforementioned maximum temperature allowable. (5) Vessels having an inside diameter or maximum internal cross-sectional dimension not exceeding 6 in. without any limitation of the length of the vessel or pressure. (6) Pressure vessels for human occupancy. (7) Vessels intended to store, handle, transport, or process lethal uids. The jurisdiction of Section X vessels includes only the vessel and integral communication chambers; it terminates where (1) the external piping is connected to the vessel at the threaded rst joint, the rst circumferential adhesive-bonded joint, and the face of the rst ange in bolted anged connections; or where (2) the lugs, skirts, and other supporting structures are joined directly to a vessel at the rst joint or connection beyond the vessel, but the attachment of the supporting structure to the vessel is included in the scope. Section X vessels are limited to those constructed of thermosetting epoxy, polyestervinyl ester, furan or phenolic resins reinforced by glass, or carbon or aramid bers.
25.5.2
Scope of RTP-1
The pressure scope of RTP-1 is simpler than that of Section X and applies to stationary vessels used for the storage, accumulation, or processing of corrosive and other substances at pressures not exceeding 15 psig external and/or 15 psig internal above any hydrostatic head. The maximum temperature within the scope of RTP-1 is not dened. RTP-1, Article 1-130 states only that applications above 180F require that the designer recognizes and accounts for possible reduced mechanical properties at
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the elevated temperature and possibly decreasing mechanical properties with time as a consequence of thermal and chemical exposure. Such elevated temperature applications require special design attention, and consultation with the Resin Manufacturer is essential. In this connection, it should be noted that RTP-1 requires a Registered Professional Engineer experienced in the design of RTP1 vessels to certify the design, including the design temperature(s). Certain types of FRP equipment are excluded from the scope of RTP-1. They are as follows: (1) (2) (3) (4) vessels with an internal design pressure in excess of 15 psig; hoods, ducts, and stacks; fans and blowers; vessel internals, such as entrainment separators and packing-support plates; (5) pumps; (6) piping; and (7) underground, fully buried closed vessels The geometric jurisdiction is similar to Section X. RTP-1 includes the following: (1) Where external piping is to be connected to the vessel, (a) the rst threaded joint for screwed connections; (b) the face of the rst ange for bolted connections; and (c) the vessel side sealing surface for proprietary connections or ttings. (2) The vessel attachment joint when an attachment is made to either the external or the internal surface of the vessel. (3) Covers for vessel openings such as manholes and handholes. (4) The vessel side sealing surface for proprietary ttings attached to the vessels for which rules are not provided by RTP-1, such as gages and instruments.
RTP-1 vessels are limited to those constructed of thermosetting polyester or vinyl ester, each reinforced by glass bers.
25.6
DESIGN QUALIFICATIONS OF SECTION X AND RTP-1 VESSELS
This section discusses design qualication of Section X and RTP-1 vessels. Design qualication of Section X, Class I vessels is by destructive testing. Qualication for Class II vessels requires design calculations and a successful AE examination. RTP-1 vessel designs are qualied by design computations and, in some cases, by proof testing.
25.6.1
Section X, Class I Design Qualications
No design calculations are required for Section X, Class I vessels. Section X does contain Nonmandatory Appendix AA (Suggested Methods of Preliminary Design for Class I Vessels), but the Fabricator is not obligated to use it. The Fabricator must build a prototype of a new design and subject it to a cyclic and a qualication pressure test. Table 25.9 summarizes these requirements. The pressure qualication test is a type of hydrostatic pressure test. Filament-wound vessels and pipes tend to weep at pressures considerably less than their burst pressures, that is, test liquid oozes through the laminate and beads on its surface, possibly at pressures well below bursting. When this occurs, it is sometimes difcult to pump the liquid into the test piece quickly enough to attain the desired test pressure, for which reason Section X permits the use of a exible bladder inside the vessels during the pressure qualication test to attain the qualication pressure. No leakage may occur during cyclic testing, nor may a liner or bladder be used that is not part of the vessel design. When a prototype vessel satises these requirements, a vessel identical to it may be built and marked with the ASME RP Code
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Symbol. It may not, however, receive a Code Stamp. Section X provides a thorough set of quality assurance requirements to ensure that production vessels are essentially identical to the successful prototype vessel. These requirements are discussed in the forthcoming paragraphs.
25.6.2
Section X, Class II Design Qualications
Class II requirements are more similar to those of other sections of the Code. Section X, Class II requires design computations and a hydrostatic test, the latter part of an AE examination that is required for all Class II vessels. Unlike other Code sections, the Fabricator is required to develop materials data for his or her design calculations. A Registered Professional Engineer must certify that the design calculations satisfy Section X. Manufacturers of metal vessels build them of plate and other metal-product forms that are made of standardized alloys. Therefore, it is possible to make a compilation of materials data, such as from Section II, Part D of the Code, and use it as input for design calculations. However, that approach is not useful for FRP vessels. Fabricators combine resin and ber reinforcement to produce vessel components, with results that differ among them. Neither the Resin Manufacturer nor the Fiber Manufacturer has control of these differences and therefore cannot certify any particular set of properties for a cured laminate. Section X requires Fabricators to measure mechanical properties of the laminates that they produce for use in design computations. Section X provides two kinds of design calculation: method A and method B. Method A is design-by-rule analysis, in which the thicknesses of the pressure-containing parts are given by simple mathematical expressions in terms of design pressure, dimensions of the part, and elastic constants of the laminate of which the part is made. The properties used in method A are effective elastic constants of the laminate taken as a unit, not the elastic properties of the individual laminae comprising the laminate. To provide material data for a particular design, the Fabricator must measure the elastic properties of each type of lamina he or she intends to use in the vessel. The design-basis lamina must be composed of the same resin and reinforcing ber that will be used as well as the same catalyst, promoter, and other additives. Based on the lamina properties, the design engineer uses lamination theory to calculate the elastic constants of the laminate. Section X, Article RD-12 contains the lamination theory equations that are used, which are usually voluminous and possible to perform with a pencil, some paper, and a slide rule, although ordinarily commercial software is used. It is the responsibility of the Registered Professional Engineer who certies the design to establish that the software used in the design gives identical results to the equations in Section X. Figure 25.18 shows the components for which method A rules exist and indicates the article giving the rule for a particular component. Method B governs design-by-stress analysis. A set of thicknesses for vessel parts is chosen and the stress elds are calculated throughout the vessel for that choice as well as for all relevant load combinations. The strength criterion specied by Section X is applied to determine whether the computed stresses satisfy the criterion. Section X, Article RD-1188 uses a form of the Tsai-Wu criterion. Given the strain elds in a vessel for a particular load combination, Section X lays out a procedure for calculating the strength ratios, but it does not specify how the analysis to determine the strain elds should be implemented.
FIG. 25.18 SECTION X, CLASS II, METHOD B COMPONENTS
Section X, Nonmandatory Appendix AC (Discontinuity Stresses for Class II Method B Vessels) discusses discontinuity stress analysis, although very few engineers today use discontinuity analysis, for it has been largely supplanted by nite-element analysisthe way most method B calculations are done. The Code does not provide rules for deciding whether a given analysis is valid; that is the responsibility of the Registered Professional Engineer. No vessel can be designed entirely by method A; every vessel contains supports, for which method A lacks rules. (The same comment is true of Section VIII, Division 1.) Article RD-1150 requires that design calculations be provided for internal and external attachments such as supports. Using a combination of methods A and B is allowed. There is a very important paragraph in the preface that states, The Code contains mandatory requirements, specic prohibitions, and nonmandatory guidance for construction4 activities. For the Code does not address all aspects of these activities and those aspects which are not specically addressed should not be considered prohibited. The Code is not a handbook and cannot replace education, experience, and engineering judgment. The phrase engineering judgment refers to technical judgments made by knowledgeable designers experienced in the application of the Code. Engineering judgments must be consistent with Code philosophy and such judgments must never be used to overrule mandatory requirements or specic prohibitions of the Code. In the spirit of this paragraph, Article RD-1186 on attachments states that the effect of local structural discontinuities from small attachments need not be included in the stress analysis of the vessel if, in the opinion of the registered Professional Engineer, they are insignicant. Thus the engineer may design as many components as possible with the simple rules of method A and supplement these calculations with method B stress analysis, as needed. He or she may use this experience and informed judgment to accept some design details without analysis. Section X, Class II provides a practical, reliable way to design FRP vessels. The AE examination demonstrates the structural integrity of the vessel. Section 25.7 presents a design example that has all the components shown in Fig. 25.18.
4 The term construction, as used in this Foreword, is an all-inclusive term that comprises materials, design, fabrication, examination, inspection, testing, certication, and pressure relief.
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FIG. 25.19 AVAILABLE DESIGN BY SUBPART 3A COMPONENTS (CHART 1 OF 2)
25.6.3
Design Qualications of RTP-1 Vessels
Design qualications of RTP-1 vessels resemble those for Section X, Class II. The RTP nomenclature is slightly different: Subpart 3A design is analogous to the method A design in Section X and Subpart 3B is analogous to the method B design. Part 3 of RTP pertains to design; Subparts 3A and 3B are subsets of Part 3, the former covering design-by-rule analysis, the latter covering design-by-stress analysis. Figures 25.19 and 25.20 sketch the components for which Subpart 3A rules are available. The notes on the drawings refer to the articles in RTP-1 that cover the indicated detail. The NM notesfor example, the note indicating the footprint load on the top of the vessel in Fig. 25.20refer to nonmandatory provisions.
That means that RTP-1 may be satised by using the component design in the NM article, although the provision is not compulsory. RTP-1 introduced a new pressure containing component: at sandwich plates with balsa cores. Non-mandatory Appendix NM15 Flat Cored Plate Design. Mandatory Appendix M-13 Balsa Wood Receiving and Inspection Procedures provide quality assurance requirements for the balsa. RTP-1 denes the footprint load as a 250 lb vertically downward load that is distributed uniformly over a 16 in.2 compact area, an area with an aspect ratio close to 1.0 (e.g., a circle or square). The footprint-load requirement is intended to prevent damage to the vessel if someone stands on it, such as the time when the piping is connected to a nozzle on the top head. Because RTP-1 vessels may have very low design pressures, the footprintload requirement may dictate the thickness of a top head. Although the collection of components covered by Subpart 3A is more complete than the method A collection in Section X, neither has the variety available in Section VIII, Division 1. Material properties for design are treated differently in Subpart 3A than they are in Section X. RTP-1 requires the results of mechanical properties tests on samples cut from complete laminates, as opposed to tests on individual laminae. The property tests must be run on all types of laminates used. The strength criterion required by Subpart 3B rules, like method B in Section X, is based on the Tsai-Wu quadratic interaction criterion. However, there are differences in the way the criterion is applied. Sections 25.725.10 provide a series of design examples illustrating design calculation and specication of all the components shown in Figs. 25.19 and 25.20.
25.6.4
Design Qualication Overview
Design qualication in Section X Class I is empirical, based on a thorough prototype testing. Class II design is based partly on calculation, partly on testing. Material testing provides material properties, calculation establishes the part dimensions and thicknesses, and an AE examination gives an experimental verication of the design. RTP-1 design is based either entirely or largely on measured material properties and calculation, and it does not require hydrostatic testing of vessels with design pressures less than 0.5 psig and diameters not exceeding 12 ft For larger vessels or those with design pressures greater than 0.5 psig, a hydrostatic test is required. All three methods are based on long experience and produce safe, reliable vessels.
25.7
SECTION X EXAMPLE: DESIGN SPECIFICATION
FIG. 25.20 AVAILABLE DESIGN BY SUBPART 3A COMPONENTS (CHART 2 OF 2)
Section X, Article RG-310 states the requirement for a Design Specication as follows in a single paragraph: The User, or an agent acting in his behalf, requiring that a vessel be designed, fabricated, tested and certied to be a vessel complying with this Section, shall provide or cause to be provided for such a vessel information as to operating conditions, including intended use and material compatibility with the contents, in such detail as will provide the basis for design, material selection, fabrication, and inspection in accordance with this Section. This information will be designated hereinafter as the Design Specication. Figure 25.21 is a sketch of a Section X vessel suitable for use in a Design Specification. The vessel is a reactor with
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FIG. 25.21 SECTION X DESIGN EXAMPLE
internal design pressure of 40 psig that will be filled with 1.2 specific gravity liquid coincident with the internal design pressure. The empty reactor will also be subjected to 10 psig external pressure. The design temperature is 150 F for both internal and external design pressures. Acme 105 vinyl ester resin, reinforced by glass fibers, is determined to be suitable for the liquids the User intends to process in the reactor. The User desires the Fabricator to choose the brand of reinforcing glass fiber. The contents are corrosive, so the User requires a conventional-veil-ply and 2-mat-ply corrosion barrier. In addition, the User requires a visual inspection level 2. (Visual inspection and other quality control provisions are discussed later in this section.) Many FRP vessels require corrosion barriers, but Section X does not provide rules for their construction (although it does allow their use). Section VIII treats liners the same way. For example, many steel vessels have rubber liners that are required to prevent excessive corrosion. Without the proper design and installation of the liners, these vessels would not be safe and reliable. Section VIII leaves the task of design and installation to the Manufacturer, and similarly, Section X leaves the task of design and installation of corrosion barriers to the Fabricator. The nontreatment of liners and corrosion barriers is a good example of the following statement from the preface of Section X: The Code does not address all aspects of these activities and those aspects which are specically addressed should not be considered prohibited. Table 25.10 is an example of a Design Specication for a Section X vessel. The rst set of entries gives the vessel designation in addition to the names, addresses, telephone numbers, and e-mail addresses of the User, the Users Agent, and the individual who prepared the Design Specication. The nal version of the Design Specication is often a collaboration between the User and the Fabricator. However, the Design
Specication is a key part of the Users request for quotation. Thus, so that the Fabricators bids are comparable, it is wise for the User to develop a complete, thorough Design Specication. In this example, the User has chosen the resin and therefore accepts responsibility for compatibility of the resin with vessel contents. If the User had wished the Fabricator to select the resin, the User would have needed to make a complete disclosure of the vessel contents, including any changes in the contents composition during the chemical reactions occurring in the vessel. It is obvious that the person who selects the resin must understand what the vessel will contain, but sometimes Chemical Manufacturers regard such information as proprietary. If they want to keep the composition of the contents secret, they must choose the resin themselves. Because the reactor will be installed indoors, there are no snow, rain, or wind loads. Unprotected FRP is subject to damage from the ultraviolet radiation of the Sun. Therefore, if the vessel will be stored outdoors for a long period before it is installed, the User would need to inform the Fabricator. The Fabricator would then recommend an ultraviolet inhibitor for the nal coat of resin or a pigmented-gel coat on the outside of the vessel. The Users Design Specication should contain any information necessary to the Fabricator but not governed by Section X. For example, the corrosion barrier should be specied, and although tolerances on nozzle locations are important as well, they are not provided in Section X and should thus be included in the Design Specication. Scheduling, shipping, delivery, payment, and other commercial arrangements must be worked out and possibly documented in the Design Specication. Nozzle elevations are measured from the bottom of the skirt. It is tempting to reference them from the bottom tangent line, but that location is not easily located in a nished FRP vessel. Consider Fig. 25.10, which shows a head-to-shell joint. The thick, bulging joint overlay conceals the exact location of the tangent line. Section X, Class II vessels are required to satisfy visual inspection criteria, but they apply only to the structural part of the laminate. A visual inspection of defects, such as pits and bubbles, are at least as important in the corrosion barrier; however, Section X does not cover them, for which reason the Users Design Specication should provide criteria for such an inspection. Article 6-940 and Table 6-1 of RTP-1, however, do contain such criteria that are suitable for use with Section X equipment. The User could reference the RTP-1 provisions in the Design Specication. All too often, a Users Design Specication lists several national standards on FRP equipment, such as RTP-1, Section X, ASTM pipe-and-tank standards, and the now-obsolete National Bureau of Standards PS15-69 document. The Users standard imposes all of them on the same vessel and states something to the effect of in case of conicts among these standards, the most stringent shall applypractice that invites chaos. In the authors experience, RTP-1 for tanks and low-pressure vessels and Section X for higher-pressure vessels, together with a good Users Design Specication, shall sufce.
25.8
SECTION X: EXAMPLE DESIGN CALCULATIONS
Design calculations for the vessel in the Design Specication of Table 25.10 are presented in the following paragraphs. Table 25.11
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lists the design calculations and the section numbers of this chapter where they are presented. The vessel will be constructed of matwoven-roving laminate. Section X requires the use of lamina properties coupled with
lamination analysis to determine the laminate properties for use in method A design. (See Table 25.3 earlier in the chapter for a list of mat- and woven-roving lamina properties.) They were used together with the lamination theory equations in Section X, Article
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TABLE 25.12 LAMINATE PROPERTIES FOR EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN CALCULATIONS
E1 E2 E1f E2f v1 v2 v1f v2f
1.666 1.785 1.778 1.681
106 psi 106 psi 106 psi 106 psi 0.24 0.22 0.239 0.226
tangent line of the shell, to the location where the heads and shell abut for the joints, and to the deepest points in the heads. The weight density, , is the product of the specic gravity and the 0.0433 weight density of water, which is 0.0361 lb/in.3; thus lb/in.3. The external pressure is the same for all components 10 psig. Table 25.13 lists the internal pressures.
RD-12 to obtain the mechanical properties of the matwovenroving laminate listed in Table 25.12. In that table and in the design formulas that follow, the following symbols are used: E1 E2 E1f E2f v1 v2 v1f v2f the axial tensile modulus the hoop tensile modulus the axial exural modulus the hoop exural modulus Poissons ratio for stress in x direction and contraction in y direction Poissons ratio for stress in y direction and contraction in x direction Poissons ratio for bending stress in x direction and contraction/expansion in y direction Poissons ratio for bending stress in y direction and contraction/expansion in x direction
25.8.2
Top and Bottom Heads
To safely resist internal pressure, Section X requires that the thickness of a 2:1 ellipsoidal head be at least equal to t as given by (RD-1173.1): t1 = PD 2(0.001E - 0.6P) (25.11)
where E the lesser of E1 and E2 from Table 25.12 1.666 106 psi P the component pressure given in Table 25.13 41.34 psig (top head) D the inside diameter of the head 96 in. When these values are inserted in the equation (25.11), the result is t 1.209 in., which is similar to an equation in Section VIII, Division 1. In this case, however, the allowable stress has been replaced by 0.001E, which is 1,666 psi. The head must also resist an external pressure of 10 psig. Article RD-1173.2 gives the following equation for the maximum allowable external pressure, PA, for an elliptical head of thickness, t. 33(1 - v1v2)(K 0D0)2 E 0.41a b t 2 F
Section X, Class II does not allow the thickness of the corrosion barrier to be considered as contributing to structural strength. Therefore, even though the vessel would have a corrosion barrier, it is not included in the forthcoming calculations.
25.8.1
Component Pressures
PA =
The internal pressure used in design computations for each component is the sum of the design pressure and the hydrostatic pressure at the component. This pressure is given by the following P Pd h (25.10) Where K0 F D0
1, 2
(25.12)
where Pd the design pressure y the weight density h the vertical distance of the component to the surface of the liquid contents The distance of h is measured to the centerline of nozzles in the shell, to the deepest point on nozzles in the heads, to the bottom
a numerical factor from Table 1173.2 in Section X that is a function of the ratio of major to minor axes of the head (for the ratio 2, K0 0.9) the design factor 10 D 2t 98.412 in., using the thickness required for internal pressure Poissons ratio given in Table 25.12
When inserted into equation (25.12), these values yield PA 7.739 psig, which is less than design external pressure of 10 psig.
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Equation (25.12) cannot readily be solved for t, because D0 depends implicitly on t. D0 D t could be substituted into the equation, which could then be solved for t. The result would be a rather messy quadratic equation for t. It is easier to have a program such as Mathcad solve the equation, or else to use a cut-andtry method. A Mathcad solution for t with PA 10 psig gives t 1.377 in. Thus the minimum thickness for the top head, governed by external pressure, is 1.377 in. Equation (25.11) also applies to the bottom head, but in this case P 48.61 psig. All the other values that go into equation (25.11) are the same. The result is t 1.425 in. As far as external pressure is concerned, the top and bottom heads have the same load, geometry, and material properties, so the required thickness is the same at 1.377 in. However, because this is less than the thickness required for internal pressure, it is the internal pressure that governs the thickness of the bottom head. Thicknesses given by design formulas can usually not be built exactly, because they do not correspond to a real laminate sequence. A real laminate must have an integral number of plies. In the notation of Table 25.6, the next practical laminate closest to, but not thinner than, 1.377 in. is the one with a sequence of ve sets of 3(MR) followed by one M, which comes out to 1.40 in. if mat plies are assumed to be 0.043 in. thick and woven roving plies are assumed to be 0.033 in. thick. Similarly, the actual laminate for the bottom head-calculated thickness of 1.425 in. is 1.474 in., which has a laminate sequence of ve sets of 3(MR), M followed by MRM. This could also be written 5[3(MR), M], MRM.
equations use more material properties. Previously, hoop and axial tensile modulii and hoop and axial Poissons ratios were needed. Now, the equations use all the properties in Table 25.12 except hoop tensile modulus, E2. The four elastic modulii may be obtained by testing or by lamination theory calculations. The four Poissons ratios are ordinarily calculated. In addition to the dimensions used in the example above, the design length for external pressure design and the shell thickness are required. The design length is dened the same way by RD1172.1 of Section X and 3A-310 of RTP-1, and it is taken as the greatest of the following: 1. The distance between head tangent lines plus one-third the depth of each formed head, if there are no stiffening rings (excluding conical heads and sections). 2. The distance between cone-to-cylinder junctions for vessels with cone or conical heads if there are no stiffening rings. 3. The greatest center-to-center distance between any two adjacent stiffening rings. 4. The distance from the center of the rst stiffening ring to the formed head tangent line plus one-third the depth of the formed head (excluding conical heads and sections), all measured parallel to the axis of the vessel. 5. The distance from the rst stiffening in the cylinder to the cone-cylinder junction. To continue the example, let L 144 in. The above calculation gives a thickness of 1.3 in. Then the OD of the cylinder is 96 2(1.3) 98.6 in. The equations in RD-1172.1 for calculating the allowable external pressure, PA, are: KD 0.8531 g E 4 E 4 t 2 2f 1 D0 2 (1 - v1fv2f) L a b F 2
3 4 3 3 1 5
25.8.3
Shell-Design Computations
Article RD-1171.1 gives the following rule for the minimum thickness of a cylindrical shell subjected to internal pressure: The minimum shell thickness shall be the greater of t1 or t2, where t2 = PR 0.001E 2 - 0.6P (25.13)
PA =
(25.15)
PR t1 = 2(0.001E 1 - 0.6P)
(25.14)
where: D0 KD F
the outside diameter of the shell 0.84, a knockdown factor design factor 5 is
Equation (25.13) is based on the membrane stress in the axial direction; equation (25.14), on the hoop membrane stress. The allowable stress is 0.001 times the relevant modulus, discounted by 0.6P. The symbols are as dened previously, except for R, which is the inside radius of the shell. The numerical values are as follows: P E1 E2 R 47.58 psig from Table 25.13 1.666 106 psi (from Table 25.12) 1.785 106 (also from Table 25.12) 48 in
and the other symbols are dened above. The parameter dened by: g = 1 - 0.001 Zp g = 0.9 Zp is given by: Zp = E2 E2 2f 1 E2 1f
3 1
if Zp 100 if Zp 7 100
(25.16)
(1 - v1f v2f)2
For this choice of values: t1 t2 0.689 in. 1.300 in.
L2 D0 a tb 2
(25.17)
Thus the internal-pressure hoop stress governs, and the minimum allowed is t 1.3 in. Both Section X and RTP-1 have adopted new and more complicated rules for computing the allowable external pressure on a cylindrical part, and both standards adopted the same rules. The new treatment is simplied version of the rigorous NASA SP8007 solution for lateral and longitudinal external pressure. The
353.4, When inserted in (25.17) the values above give Zp which is greater than 100 and thus 0.9. Then the value of PA from (25.15) is 9.3 psi, which is less than the required 10 psi (Table 25.10). Using ply thicknesses from Table 25.2, the thinnest laminate with an integral number of plies that is at least 1.3 in thick is 5[3(MR),M], or 1.355 in thick. With t 1.355 in, Z p 338.9, 0.9 and PA 10.3 psi, which satises the requirement. The internal pressure requires t 1.3 in. But the closest practical stack-up is 5[3(MR),M] which has nominal thickness 1.355 in, and which satises the external pressure requirement.
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25.8.5
Nozzle, Nozzle Attachment, and Reinforcing Pad Design
FIG. 25.22 HEAD-TO-SHELL JOINT DIMENSIONS
Section X included a new Non-mandatory Appendix AI Rigorous NASA SP-8007 Solution for Lateral and Longitudinal Pressure which gives an example of the use of the rigorous solution. RTP-1 introduced Non-mandatory Appendix NM-16, External Pressure Design Example for Cylindrical Shells. It has the same example as the Section X appendix.
25.8.4
Shell-to-Head Joints
Figure 25.22 indicates the two dimensions of the joint: t0 is the overlay thickness and Lo is the length of overlay on each side of the joint. RD-1175.2 provides the following simple formulas for t0 and L 0: t0 = L0 = where P t F E2 Ss P(R + t) 0.001E 2 PR 2(Ss>F) (25.18)
Table 25.14 is a reproduction of Table RD-620.1 from Section X; it gives the dimensions of nozzles and their anges constructed of contact-molded and pressure-molded FRP. Nozzles and anges of these dimensions satisfy the design requirements of Section X. Flanges or nozzle designs not listed in this table can be designed by using Article RD-1176, a method that represents an adaptation of Mandatory Appendix 2 of Section VIII, Division 1 (Rules for Bolted Flange Connections with Ring-Type Gaskets) to full-faced gasket anges. In the Section X version of the method, many of the methods stress factors are given by graphs; in the Section VIII version, the same factors are used, but they are provided here in both graphical and equational forms. For anybody considering computerizing the method, the equational forms of the stress factors are much more convenient to use than the graphical forms. Table 25.15 lists the nozzle and ange dimensions for the example vessel, which are taken from Table 25.14 and are for 50 psig. Table 25.16 lists practical and minimum allowable thicknesses for the nozzles. The columns labeled minimum represent the minimum allowable dimensions for 50 psig; those labeled actual represent the dimensions corresponding to laminates with practical stack-ups. Each nozzle has attachment overlays and a reinforcing pad. Figure 25.23 shows these dimensions. The dimensions to be calculated are Lb, the length of the secondary overlay on the nozzle neck; tb, the thickness of the secondary overlay; Lp, the length the pad will extend from the nozzle neck; and tp, the thickness of the reinforcing pad. RD-1174.2 has an algorithm for obtaining these dimensions. The calculated attachment laminate length, Lbc, is given by L bc = where F P r Ss FPr 2Ss (25.20)
(25.19)
the design factor 10 the internal pressure at the nozzle the inside radius of the nozzle the secondary shear bond strength in shear (1,000 psi maximum)
the pressure at the center of the joint the shell thickness the design factor 10 the tensile hoop modulus the secondary bond strength in shear mum
If Lbc < 3 in., then Lb 3 in.; otherwise, Lb Lbc. The calculated overlay thickness, tbc, is given by the following equation: 1,000 psi maxit bc = Pr Ss - 0.6P (25.21)
1.786 At the bottom joint, P 47.58 psi, R 48in., E2 106 psi, and t 1.3 in.; we will take Ss 1,000 psi. Given these values, L0 11.42 in. and t0 1.314 in. The same practical laminate schedules used for the shell can be used here, so the actual overlay thickness is 1.355 in. with a stack-up of 5[3(MR), M]. The top-joint overlay dimensions are calculated the same way and with the same numbers except that P 41.34 psi. The resulting dimensions are L0 9.92 in. and t0 1.138 in. The practical laminate has a stack-up of 4[3(MR), M], MM and is 1.17 in. thick. After laying down each 3(MR), M, the laminator must wait for the peak exotherm and then resume with an M ply. Therefore, nishing the overlay with three M plies was a good choice for the most economical acceptable overlay.
0.25 in.; otherwise, tb tbc, As an If tbc < 0.25 in., then tb example, consider the manway opening. Here, P 46.02 psig 1,000 psi. In this case, Lbc 2.761 in.; and r 12 in.; let Ss thus, Lb 3 in. The tbc 0.333 in., which is greater than 0.25 in.; therefore, tb 0.333 in. The thickness of the reinforcing pad shall be the greater of the following: (1) A thickness of secondary overlay with strength equivalent to the tensile strength in the circumferential direction of the shell thickness removed, tp1. (2) A thickness of secondary overlay, tp2, that when added to the shell thickness reduces the bending stress at the opening to an allowable level. The allowable bending stress is
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dened as 0.1% of the exural modulus of the reinforcing laminate in its circumferential direction. Thickness tp1 is given by the following equation: t p1 = PR 0.001E 2 (25.22)
Step (2) Using from step (1), obtain a Kt factor from Fig. 25.24, which is the relevant curve from Fig. RD-1174.3 in Section X. Step (3) Compute the maximum stress at the opening, Smax: Smax = S2K t. where S2 0.001E2 E2 the circumferential tensile modulus of the shell (Note: There are a lot of E2s oating around in the nozzle design; please do not be confused.) Step (4) Determine from the following equation the moment, M, associated with Smax being applied at the edge of the opening: M = Smax t 2 6 (25.25) (25.24)
Section X denes E2 as the tensile modulus of the secondary overlay in the circumferential direction. Because the direction of the woven-roving laminae in secondary overlays is usually not controlled, E2 in this equation shall be taken as the lesser of the two tensile moduli. Therefore, to compute the reinforcing pad dimensions, E2 1.686 10 psi. Section X gives the following procedure for computing tp2: Step (1) Compute the factor: 23(1 - v1v2) r b = a b 2 2Rt
4
(25.23) where t the vessel thickness
The symbols in equation (25.23) are as dened previously.
FIG. 25.23 NOZZLE-ATTACHMENT-LAMINATE AND REINFORCING-PAD DIMENSIONS
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FIG. 25.24 Kt AS A FUNCTION OF B
Step (5) Determine the thickness of reinforcement, tpb, that will reduce the stress imposed by M to the allowable Sf, dened as 0.001Ef (where Ef is the exural modulus of the reinforcing laminate in the circumferential direction). Assume an equivalent moment to be M/ 2. Q 6a M b 2 - t Sf
t t2 =
(25.26) Recall that Lc is the maximum chord length of the opening. Hillside nozzles and those nozzles installed in the shell so that the nozzle axis does not intersect the shell axis have Lc greater than the nozzle diameter. The manway centerline intersects the vessel centerline and is normal to it so that Lc 24 in. From the foregoing values, Lpc 8.674 in., but the minimum value in Table 25.17 is 1 Lc or 12 in. 2 Thus Lp 12 in. for the manway. In the same way, the attachment laminate and reinforcing pad dimensions were calculated for the other nozzles, the results of which are contained in Table 25.18. None of the thicknesses in Table 25.18 correspond to laminates with integral numbers of plies. Table 25.19 provides these thicknesses, together with realizable lamination schedules. This completes the part of the design example that can be done with Section X method A rules. What remains is to calculate the
The thickness of the reinforcing pad, tp, shall be the greater of tp1 or tp2. Let us return to the manway opening example. The input values are as follows: P R r E2 v1 v2 Ef t 46.02 psig 48 in. 12 in. 1.686 106 psi 0.24 0.22 1.732 106 psi 1.3 in.
1.238 in., Given these values, equation (25.22) yields tp1 0.986, and Fig. 25.24 gives Kt 8.14. equation (25.23) gives 14,520 psi, equation Equation (25.24) then provides Smax (25.25) renders M 4,091 in.-lb/in., and, nally, equation (25.26) furnishes tp2 1.362 in. The greater of tp1 and t2p is 1.362 in.; thus the minimum acceptable reinforcing pad thickness is 1.362 in. Reinforcing pad length provisions are similar to attachment overlay provisions: There is a calculated length as well as a minimum length, the latter dependent on the nozzle size. The calculated pad length, Lpc, is given by the following equation: L pc = pL cPF 4Ss (25.27)
Table 25.17 states the minimum pad length requirements. The required pad length is the greater of Lpc or the length in Table 25.17.
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required skirt thickness, which is done in the next section by using methods available to engineers familiar with the design of FRP structural components.
25.8.6
Support Skirt Design
Because the vessel will be installed indoors, and also because there are no earthquake loads, the only structural requirement on the skirt is that it supports the weight of the vessel and its contents. It must withstand direct stress and it must not buckle. In accordance with the design of the shell, the allowable stress is set at 0.001E, where E is the axial modulus. The critical buckling stress, scr , is given by the following equation: scr = 0.3Et R (25.28)
where E the axial modulus of the skirt t the thickness of the skirt R the radius of the skirt The allowable buckling stress is 1scr. Equation (25.28) is used 5 in Nonmandatory Appendix 3 of RTP-1, Article NM3-321, and is valid when the length of the skirt is more than several times Lc 1.72(Rt)0.5, the critical length. The stress in the skirt, , is simply the supported weight divided by the cross-sectional area. The supported weight W 56,500 lb, which was computed by ordinary methods; the axial modulus E 1.666 106 psi; and R 48 in. Let us take t 0.317 as a trial value for the thickness, corresponding to the lamination schedule 3(MR), MM. In addition, Lc 6.71 in., the length of the skirt60 in.is 8.9 times Lc, and equation (25.22) applies. The applied stress is computed as follows: s = W p[(R + t)2 - R2] (25.29)
For this case, equation (25.29) gives s = 589 psi. The critical buckling stress from equation (25.28) is 3,301 psi; when divided by Fb 5, the stress equals 660 psi. The allowable stress from a material strength standpoint is 0.001E 1,666 psi. The applied stress is less than either allowable stress, so therefore the skirt thickness is acceptable.
25.9
RTP-1: EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN SPECIFICATION
Figure 25.25 is a sketch of the rst RTP-1 design example: a at-bottomed storage tank with nozzles that can be designed with
Subpart 3A rules. Typical tanks have more nozzles, but the nozzles presented in Fig. 25.25 illustrate Subpart 3A design rules as well as many would. The tank is intended for outdoor service in an area with Seismic Zone 0, so therefore the tank must withstand wind but not seismic loads. In addition, it is located in an area where building codes require outdoor structures to support a 35 lb/ft2 snow load. The tank will contain liquid with a specic gravity of 1.2. RTP-1 requires the purchaser, or his or her agent, to complete a Users Basic Requirements Specication (UBRS), which is RTP-1s Design Specication. (The completed UBRS for the tank is found in Appendix 25.A.) Most entries in the UBRS are self-explanatory, but some are not, particularly to those unfamiliar with FRP. Such UBRS entries are discussed in the following paragraphs. Parts 6.00 and 7.00 in the UBRS concern the choice of construction materials. There is a set of entries appropriate for the User who selects the resin and another for the User who wants the Fabricator to select the resin. In the present example, the User selects Derakane 470, basing the decision on personal experience. Items 7.10, 7.20, 7.50, and 7.60 therefore need not be lled in. Items 7.30 and 7.40 are required for design of the tank, and if the User requires the Fabricator to choose the resin, these items must be completed because they give the Fabricator a basis for selection. The Users standard cited in 8.00 would contain technical and possibly commercial matters not covered by RTP-1. For example, RTP-1 does not give tolerances on nozzle location, for which reason a Users Design Specication should state them. In 11.00, there is an entry for man load, which provides for a person standing on the top head, but Articles 3A-340 and 3B-300 state the same requirement. A reason for including a provision for the man load in the UBRS is to remind the User that there may be a different, more demanding man-load requirement. Section 19.00 deals with the recording of the Inspectors designation. Three individuals named in RTP-1, Article 1-400 are concerned with various aspects of inspection: a Certied Individual, an Inspector, and an inspector. RTP-1, Article 1-400 delineates their roles as follows: This Standard requires that specic inspections be carried out by Inspection Personnel experienced in the fabrication of RTP vessels. In addition, other inspections may be carried out as a part of the Fabricators Quality Control Program. Throughout this Standard, Inspection Personnel are referred to as either inspector(s) (lowercase i), Inspectors (uppercase I), or Certied Individual(s) (uppercase CI). A Certied Individual is an employee of the Fabricator authorized by ASME to use its marks. The Certied Individuals principal responsibility is to protect the ASME mark by carrying out the duties described in this Standard (RTP-1). He can also be the Inspector.
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FIG. 25.25 RTP-1, EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION
An Inspector is an individual who shall be mutually acceptable to the User and Fabricator and shall carry out his duties in accord with this Standard. An Inspectors reporting relationship to management must be independent of the Fabricators production and marketing groups. He can also be the Certied Individual or the inspector, but not both. An inspector is an individual engaged in inspection activities during the course of fabrication, usually as a function of quality control. He can be the Inspector, but he cannot be the Certied Individual. The following paragraphs demonstrate the application of Subpart 3A rules to the tank. Material properties are considered rst, followed by the design of the top head, the design of the shell and at bottom, the design of the nozzles, nozzle reinforcements, and attachment overlays, and nally the design of holddown lugs to resist wind forces. Table 25.20 lists the section numbers of this chapter where component calculations are given.
a higher proportion of mat than in the previous example. Consequently, the modulus and strength will be somewhat less and the Poissons ratio will be higher. RTP-1 Fabricators are required to obtain laminate properties for design by testing laminates of the same construction, resin, and glass that they intend to use in the vessel. Table 25.21 lists a typical set of properties, which will be used in the example.
25.9.2
Top Head Design
25.9.1
Laminate Properties
The tank will be built of matoven-roving laminates as in the previous example, but the laminates will be thinner and will include the corrosion barrier in the calculation of the vessels strength RTP-1 permits. For these reasons, the laminates will have
Because the tank is vented, there is no internal pressure in the top head. It must, however, withstand two loads: the snow load of 35 psf (0.243 psi) and the man load of 250 lb on a 16 in.2 area. As it is possible that someone would want to clear snow from the top of the tank, the loads will be treated as acting simultaneously. Nonmandatory Appendix 11 of RTP-1 provides a method for calculating the stress in the center of an F&D head under the footprint load. The stress would be less if the load were applied elsewhere on the head, so the calculation sufces. The stress on the top surface is given by Gt /t2, where t is the thickness of the crown of the head and Gt is a value from a graph in Nonmandatory Appendix 11. Similarly, the stress on the undersurface is Gb/t2 . Figure 25.26 is the graph that gives Gt and Gb as a function of (Rct)1/2. Here, Rc is the crown radius of the head.
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1.25 106 psi, RTP-1 requires F for elastic stability, Ef and Pd 0.243 psi. The minimum required thickness is 0.236 in., which is less than 0.29 in.; thus the head satises the buckling requirements.
FIG. 25.26 STRESS FUNCTIONS FOR FOOTPRINT LOADING
25.9.3
Shell Design
In an F&D head, the crown radius equals the shell diameter; 144 in. The minimum pressure-containing part thickthus Rc ness allowed by RTP-1 is 0.22 in. Using this thickness, (Rct)1/2 5.63 in.; from the graph, Gt 193.2 lb. and Gb 103.9 lb. Therefore, the stress on the upper surface of the head is 193.2/0.222 3,992 psi; on the lower surface, it is 103.9/0.222 2,146 psi. The membrane stress, s, from the pressure exerted by the snow load is given as follows: ss = PRc 2t (25.30)
Hydrostatic pressures for heights in the shell needed for design were computed in the usual way. These are listed in Table 25.22. RTP-1, Article 3A-210 gives the following algorithm for determining the minimum required thickness for a contact-molded, cylindrical shell. Compute thicknesses th and ta as follows: th = ta = PDF 2Sh NaxF Sa (25.32) (25.33)
79.5 psi because the which, for the current values, yields s 0.243 psi. Thus the stress under the snow load is 35 lb/ft2 footprint load on the top surface 3,299 79.5 3,378 psi. The snow load may act for many days, but the footprint load acts only for a short time, for which reason the design factor for temporary loads, F 5, may be applied to nd the allowable for the combined stress: 16,000/5 3,200 psi, which is less than the absolute value of the applied stress. Therefore, the head must be thicker. The next thickest practical matwovenroving laminate is 0.29 in. thick 213.7 lb and with a stack-up of V, 2M, 2(MR)M. In this case, Gt 121.8 lb, and the footprint stresses on the upper and lower Gb surfaces are 2,541 psi and 1,448 psi, respectively. The membrane stress from the snow load becomes 60.3 psi; therefore, the stress under the footprint becomes 2,601 psi, which satises the allowable stress criterion. (Note: Neither the graph in this book nor the graph in RTP-1 can be read to four gures, as the text seems to imply. Appendix 11 was derived from an article by Eric Reissner that gives a solution to the problem in terms of Coulomb functions [10]. The author of this chapter wrote a Mathcad worksheet based on the paper from which the values of Gt and Gb were obtained.) Because the snow load applies an external pressure, the head must be checked for elastic stability. Article 3A-320 of RTP-1 gives the following formula for the minimum allowed thickness for an F&D head subjected to external pressure, Pd: FPd 0.5 b t = Rc a 0.36E f where Ef the exural modulus (25.31)
where P D F Nax Sh Sa
the combined hydrostatic and design pressure at the height at which the thickness is computed the shell diameter 10, the design factor on internal pressure the axial force per unit circumferential length the ultimate hoop tensile strength the ultimate axial tensile strength
The greater of th or ta is the required minimum thickness. For simplicity, the shell will be of uniform thickness. Thus P 7.8 psi, the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the shell (because the tank is vented, the design pressure is 0). Given the values of D 144 in. and Sh 16,000 psi, th 0.351 in. The weight of the head was calculated by ordinary methods as 286 lb. The projected area of the head in ft2 is as follows: A = pD 2
2
= 113.1
(25.34)
Thus the total snow load is 113.1 35 3,939 lb. The circumference of the tank is D 452.4 in.; therefore, Nax (3,939 286)/452.4 9.34 lb/in. The axial and hoop strengths are the same, so Sa 16,000 psi and 9.34 * 10 = 0.00584 16,000
ta =
(25.35)
Thus the hoop stress governs and the required minimum thickness is 0.351 in. The next thickest realizable laminate is 0.37 in. thick with a stack-up of V, 2M, 3(MR)M.
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The bending moment at the base of the shell from wind is given by the following equation: M w = Pw D H2 2 (25.36)
From the UBRS, Pw 20 psf. For computing the wind moment, the height is taken as the shell height plus the head height of 17.16 ft The diameter is 12 ft; therefore, the base wind moment Mw 35,336 ft lb. The moment produces a stress sw that can be calculated as follows from the ordinary beam formula: sw = M wc I (25.37) diameters exceeding 4 ft The minimum thickness of the radius section shall be equal to the combined thickness of the shell wall and the bottom. The reinforcement of the knuckle radius area shall taper so that it is tangent to the at bottom, and shall not extend beyond the tangent line onto the tank bottom. The knuckle reinforced area shall extend for a minimum distance of 8 in. from the inside tank bottom up the vertical wall for tanks up to and including 4 ft in diameter, and 12 in. for tanks over 4 ft in diameter. The reinforcement shall then taper into the side wall for an additional 4 in. The perimeter of the tank bottom shall be in a at plane, and the bottom shall have no projections which exceed 41 in. and which will prevent uniform contact with a at support surface when the tank is lled with liquid. Figure 25.27 shows the knuckle construction for this example. By coincidence, the shell and bottom have the same thickness, but this is not always true. The bottom has a straight ange, for which reason the knuckle radius does not contain a joint (the joint is a few in. up the side). This is not clearly stated as a requirement, although it is treated as such and is certainly good practice. On the inside of the joint, a seal overlay is applied to prevent process liquid from getting into the joint. The seal overlay has the same stack-up as the corrosion barriernamely, V, MM. On the outside of the joint, a butt-joint overlay is installed. Article 4-320 provides the rules for butt joints between the heads and the shell and between the shell courses, and also for joints in the at portion of a fully supported (as by a slab) at bottom. In this case, the rules require the joint to be constructed of matwoven-roving laminate (the same as the parts being joined) of at least the same thickness as the thicker of the parts being joined. The rst ply of the joint overlay must be a mat ply at least 3 in. wide; the next, a wovenroving ply of the same width as the mat ply; the last, a mat ply extending beyond the woven-roving ply beneath it by at least 1 2 in. on each side. The sequence continues, with alternating plies of mat and woven-roving and with each mat ply extending at least 1 2 in. on either side of the ply beneath it until the required thickness is attained. The knuckle-reinforcement overlay is then added. It would also be of a matwoven-roving laminate and would extend at least 12 in. up the shell, as measured from the inside surface of the tank bottom. The reinforcement overlay would be at least equal to the bottom thickness and would taper into the shell to a width of at least 4 in., which is in addition to the 12 in. fullthickness part of the overlay.
where I the moment of inertia of the shell cross section c D/2 The moment of inertia can be obtained from the following equation: I = pa D - t 2 b t = 4.272 * 105 in.4 2 (25.38)
With these values, sw weight is given as follows: swt =
71.5 psi. The axial stress from the
W = 11.3 p(D - t)t
(25.39)
The stresses add weight on the leeward side of the tank, where the total axial stress is 82.8 psi. This is far less than the allowable stress. To be complete, the compressive stress on the leeward side must be checked for buckling. The critical buckling stress for bending under wind moment is as follows: scr = where R the radius of the tank 2,776 psi, For the values given in equation (25.40), cr which is much greater than the applied stress. The method used in equation (25.40) for wind loading is the same as that illustrated in Nonmandatory Appendix 3, Article NM3-321 of RTP-1. 0.39Et R (25.40)
25.9.4
Design of Bottom and Bottom Knuckle
Given the shell thickness and tank diameter, RTP-1 has rules for the thickness of the bottom and design of the knuckle that require no calculation. Article 3A-250 states the minimum atbottom thicknesses given in Table 25.23. Subpart 3A rules currently apply to tanks and vessels up to 16 ft in diameter, a limit that may be increased soon by the RTP-1 Committee. For tanks 12 ft16 ft in diameter, RTP-1 requires a design analysis. There are gaps in the diameter ranges because the rule is for commonly available tooling. The rules for the knuckle are somewhat more complicated. Article 3A-350 states the following: The radius of the bottom knuckle of a at bottom vessel shall not be less than 1 in. if the diameter is 4 ft or less, and 1.5 in. for
25.9.5
Hold-Down Lug Design
Because the tank will be subjected to wind loading, it must be equipped with hold-down lugs. Although no mandatory rules govern these lugs, Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4 gives a method for designing them. The forthcoming analysis of the lugs uses this
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FIG. 25.27 KNUCKLE FOR FLAT-BOTTOM TANK
method, which applies to the type of lug sketched in Figs. 25.28, 25.29, and 25.30. Figure 25.28 shows a cross section of the holddown lug, tank wall, and overlay, where the cutting plane is vertical through the center of the lug. Note that the vessel-wall thickness under the lug is the sum of the bottom knuckle reinforcement and the shell thickness. Figure 25.29 shows an elevation view of the lug assembly, and Fig. 25.30 shows a top view of the lugs nozzle assembly.
The retainer bar keeps the lug from sliding out of the overlay that might not adhere to the steel lug. The bottom of the lug is deliberately spaced above the slab to ensure that the weight of the vessel and its contents are transmitted to the slab through the bottom of the vessel, not through the lugs. The lugs need only to resist downward forces. Anchor bolts or clips that secure the lug to the slab must not be tightened excessively; in fact, some Users Design Specications call for making these threaded fasteners only ngertight and using a jam nut to ensure that the nut stays in place. Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4 checks against the following six failure modes: (1) Peel of the overlay from the vessel. (2) Shear failure of the overlay to the vessel secondary bond. (3) Tensile failure of the overlay at the vertical edges of the lug.
FIG. 25.28 CROSS SECTION OF HOLD-DOWN LUG ASSEMBLY
FIG. 25.29 ELEVATION VIEW OF LUG ASSEMBLY
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284 Chapter 25
FIG. 25.30 TOP VIEW OF NOZZLE ASSEMBLY
(4) Yield in bending at the base of the lug. (5) Shear failure of the vessel wall. (6) Bending failure of the vessel wall. Table 25.24 lists the quantities that are input to the lug computations as well as the symbols used to represent the quantities in the forthcoming equations. We are attempting to determine the lug dimensions, but because the calculation is of the cut-and-try method, the dimensions are input. The allowable peel load and the allowable bond shear stress are values suggested in Nonmandatory Appendix NM-4. The lug yield strength is for A-36 structural steel. Lugs are often cut from steel structural shapes; thus the yield strength is realistic. The rst series of computations determines the force on the most heavily loaded lug. The lugs need to resist uplift only, for a downward force in the vicinity of a lug is resisted by the knuckle pressing into the support lab. In the present example, a wind-
overturning moment, the uplift on the dished top head from the wind, and the weight of the vessel less the bottom weight, all inuence the lug force. The wind uplift force on the top head, Uw, is given by the following equation: p 2 D PP 4 0 w g
Uw =
(25.41)
Inserting the values in the table results in the following equations: Uq = 4M q =

D0
4(35,340) = 11,720 lb 144.74
(25.42)
Uw =
p 20 (144.74)2 c d(0.8) = 1,828 4 144
(25.43)
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The wind pressure is divided by 144 to convert it from psf to psi to be consistent with the other values in the equation. (The inside diameter of the tank shell is 144 in.; therefore, the outside diameter is the inside diameter plus twice the thickness or 144.74 in.) The effective uplift force from the wind moment, Uq, is obtained as follows: The net uplift force is then U = Uw + Uq - Wv = 1,828 + 11,720 - 1,879 = 11,670 lb (25.44) The force on a single lug, Flug, is then Flug 11,670 U = = = 1,945 lb N 6 (25.45)
The allowable stress is 1 the tensile strength of the laminate 5 that is, 3,200 psi, for the stress results from wind, which is a temporary load. Because the overlay hoop stress is less than that, it is therefore acceptable. Peel, overlay bond shear stress, and hoop stress in the overlay are all less than their allowables, and the lug attachment overlay is acceptable. What remains is to check the lug itself and the stresses in the vessel wall under the lug. The bending stress at the base of the lug can be computed from the following equation: 3Flugwlug L lugt 2 b = 3(1,945)(6) 4(4)(0.375)2
sb =
= 15,560 psi
(25.53)
The next step is to check resistance to peel. The maximum unit radial load on the overwrap, wmax, is given as follows: wmax = 3Fluge h
2
3(1,945)(2.5) = 11
2
= 120.54
lb in.
(25.46)
The allowable stress in the lug, which is assumed to be cut from a structural A-36steel angle, is 2 of its yield stress or 3 24,000 psi, which is greater than the bending stress in the lug. Thus the lug stress is acceptable. The shear stress in the tank wall under the lug, Tw, is approximately given as follows: tw = P 662.95 = = 149.3 psi t kwk (0.74)(6) (25.54)
The total radial load, P, is obtained from the following equation: (120.54)(2.5) wmaxh = = 662.95 lb 2 2
P =
(25.47)
The length of the tensile perimeter, Ltp, is as follows L tp = 2(h - t b) + wlug = 2(11 - 0.375) + 6 = 27.25 in. The peel load (lb/in.) is then Spl = lb P 662.95 = = 24.33 L tp 27.25 in. (25.49) (25.48)
which is a low value. Normal stress under the lugs is a combination of bending from the lugs and the membrane from pressure. The computation of these stresses begins by computing the bending parameter, b:
1/4 1/4
b=
3(1 - v ) Dk a b t2 k 2
2
3(1 - 0.26 ) 145.48 2 a b 0.742 2
= 0.1763 in..- 1
(25.55) The axial bending moment in the shell under the lug, Max, is then obtained from the following equation: M ax = a P 1 662.95 1 in.-lb b = a b = = 156.7 wlug 4b 6 4(0.1763) in. (25.56) and the hoop moment, Mh, is as follows: M h = vM ax = (0.26)(156.7) = 40.74 in.-lb in. (25.57)
which is less than the allowable peel of 50 lb/in. The next mode to check is failure of the overlay to vessel secondary bond in shear. The shear stress is as follows: Flug = 2h 1wov 1,945 = 30.87 psi 2(10.5)(3)
tov =
(25.50)
The allowable bond shear stress is 200 psi; therefore, the bond shear is acceptable. Next, the tensile stress in the overlay adjacent to the vertical edges of the lug is checked. The tension, T, is obtained from the following equation: (662.95)(145.48) PD0 = = 8,037 lb T = 2w 2(6) The tensile hoop stress in the overlay, sov, is then sov = 8,037 T = = 2,835 psi h 1t ov (10.5)(0.27) (25.52)
(25.51)
The axial normal stress in the wall under the lug results from the superposition of the axial membrane stress and the bending stress from Max, as follows: sax = 11,670 6(156.7) 6M ax U + = + 2 pDkt k p(145.48)(0.74) tk 0.742 (25.58)
= 1,752 psi
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Similarly, the hoop stress is the sum of the hoop membrane and the hoop bending stresses, as follows: s = PhydDk + 2t k 6M h t2 k = (7.8)(145.48) 6(40.74) + 2(0.74) 0.742 (25.59)
The outside diameter of the reinforcing pad, dr, shall be the greater of twice the openings largest dimension of the openings largest dimension plus 6 in. The taper at the outer periphery of the reinforcement laminate shall not be included in dr. Reinforcing pads shall not overlap. The thickness of the reinforcing pad, tr, is given by the following equation: t r = VMKTt - M(Tc - Tt) (25.60)
= 1,213 psi
As in the case of the overlay hoop stress, the allowable is 3,200 psi, which is comfortably more than the greater of the hoop and axial stresses. The lug design is adequate to resist wind loads. Table 25.25 lists the six failure modes, the allowable stress, the imposed stress, and the ratio of allowable to imposed stress. It shows that the lug and attachment overlay are well designed. The allowable stress for the vessel-wall shear is only a rough value; it is rarely measured. It is the shear stress in a plane normal to the laminate and containing the axis of the vessel. Except for gross impact (which is always the result of an accident), this kind of failure is rare; therefore, the industry has not tried to dene it. The lug design method is only approximate and is based as much on experience as science. However, the method does result in reliable lugs. Although nite-element or some other exacting stress analysis might result in smaller lugs and overlays, the engineering cost would be greater than the material and labor savings unless the Fabricator plans to build many lugs of the same design.
where V = 1 for internal pressure, 1 for external pressure 2 M = 1 for vessel parts of contact-molded laminates M = /15,000 for other laminates, such as those that are lament-wound a = the hoop design strength, psi K = 1 for nozzles of greater than 6 in. diameter K = d/6 for 6 6 d = the nozzles largest hole dimension Tc = the nominal wall thickness for construction Tt = the minimum wall thickness that satises the design conditions If tr 0.129 in., no reinforcing is required
25.9.6
Nozzle Reinforcement and Attachment Design
Now, let us consider nozzle A. The head is governed by external pressure so that V = 1 . The head is contact-molded; therefore, M = 2 1. The diameter is 12 in., which is greater than 6 in., and K = 1. From these values, Tc = 0.29 in. and T1 = 0.236 in. Then, tr = 1 * 1 * 1 * 0.236 - 1 * (0.29 - 0.236) = 0.064 in. 2 (25.61) Thus tr 6 0.129 in., and no reinforcing is required. The attachment laminate is specied in RTP-1 by Figs. 4.8 and 4.9 as well as Table 4.1 on pages 38, 39, and 42, respectively. Table 4.1 is reproduced in this chapter as Table 25.26. The shear-bond width is the width of the attachment not only on the vessel part or reinforcing pad, but up the nozzle neck as well. Nozzle attachment laminates are shown in Fig. 25.11. The attachment thickness is the greatest of 0.4 in.twice the nozzle neck thickness, or tr Assume a nozzle neck thickness of 0.29 in, in which case the attachment laminate total thickness must be at least 0.58 in. Some of it may be on the inside of the installation, may be some on the outside; this is acceptable as long as the sum of the two is at least 0.58 in. Table 25.26 gives the width of the
Only nozzle A on the top head and the manway will be considered because in both cases it illustrates the design process as well as many more examples would. External pressure from the snow load governs the design of the reinforcing pad for nozzle A. Paragraph 3A-700 of RTP-1 contains rules for the opening reinforcement. The rules apply to openings for nozzles or manways with cylindrical necks. Other restrictions are the following: (1) Only openings for circular nozzles in which the diameter does not exceed half the vessel diameter are covered by these rules. (2) Only openings in which the largest dimension along one axis is no longer than two times the largest diameter along the axis at 90 deg. to the rst axis are covered by these rules. These dimensions shall be measured from one cut edge to the opposite cut edge. (3) These rules cover only the reinforcement of cylinders and dished, elliptical, and conical heads using RTP-1 design-byrule thicknesses.
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attachment to be at least 5 in. on the shell or head to which the nozzle is attached and 5 more in. up the nozzle neck. Assume that the manway neck is 0.37 in. thick. The shell is governed by internal pressure and is contact-molded; therefore, V 1 and M 1. The manway diameter is 24 in., so K 1 and dr 48 in. In addition, Tc 0.37 in. and Tt 0.351 in. Thus the reinforcing pad thickness is as follows: t r = 1 * 1 * 1 * 0.351 - 1 * (0.37 - 0.351) = 0.332 in. (25.62) From Fig. 4.8 of RTP-1, the attachment laminate thickness is twice the neck thickness, 0.74 in.; from Table 4.1 of RTP-1, the width is 6 in. The dimensions of the reinforcing pad and attachment are found the same way for nozzle B. Table 25.27 lists the dimensions of the nozzle reinforcing pads and attachments. The thicknesses have been rounded up from the calculated values to correspond to practical laminate sequences.
which is a rolled-structural channel. The vessel will be supported by building steel in an octagonal factory-oor opening and framed by steel beams. The support ring will be connected to the building steel by lugs welded to the ring. The vessel may be lled with a liquid with a specic gravity of 1.4, but it must have a design internal pressure of 5 psig and a design external pressure of 10 psig. The vessel will require vacuum-stiffening rings, even though they are not shown in Fig. 25.31. The figure is meant to illustrate a sketch that would be part of the Design Specification, which would not usually show vacuum rings. The Fabricator would determine whether rings are needed and would also design them. Appendix 25.B provides the UBRS for the vessel. As in the previous example, many of the entries may be left blank. Table 25.28 provides a list of the sections of this chapter where the calculations for the vessel components can be found. However, manway and nozzle reinforcement and attachment designs are not included because they are the same as in the previous example. The vessel will be built of the same resin as that used in Example 1, but the Fabricator intends to build this vessel of matwoven-roving laminate as well. For this reason, the same laminate properties of Example 1 apply. For convenience, they are listed in Table 25.29. Hydrostatic pressures at various levels in the vessel are required during the design process. The hydrostatic pressure is given by the following equation: Ph = gH where Ph g H (25.63)
the hydrostatic pressure the specic weight of the contents the depth of the liquid at the level in question
25.10
RTP-1: DESIGN EXAMPLE 2
Because the design condition is with the full vessel, H is measured from the top of the top head. Table 25.30 lists the hydrostatic pressures used in design computations.
25.10.1 RTP-1 Example 2 Design Specication

Figure 25.31 sketches Example 2 of RTP-1 design. The vessel has F&D top and bottom heads and is supported by a steel ring,
25.10.2 Design of the Top Head

The top head will be subjected to an internal pressure of 5 psig, an external pressure of 10 psig, and the footprint load.
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FIG. 25.31 RTP-1,SECOND DESIGN EXAMPLE
The hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the head is 1.027 psig; therefore, the head must withstand a total of 6.027 psig. Paragraph 3A-220 requires the head to have a thickness of at least tr, as follows: 0.885PRcF tr = Su where P Rc Su F (25.64) Using the thickness required for internal pressure and the exural modulus from Table 25.29: Pext = 0.36a 6.027 psi, the total pressure 120 in., the crown radius of the head 16,000 psi, the ultimate tensile strength of the laminate 10, the design factor
2 0.40 1.25 * 106 ba b = 0.9930 psi 5 120 + 0.4
(25.66)
10 psi. By trial and This is less than the required value Pext error it can be established that t 1.299 in leads to Pext 10.32 psi.
Inserting the preceding values into equation (25.64) gives tr 0.40 in., which is the minimum thickness required to resist internal pressure. The maximum allowed external pressure to thickness t is specied in paragraph 3A-320: Pext = 0.36 a Ef t 2 ba b Fv Ro (25.65)
In this equation, Ef is the exural modulus, Fv 5, the design factor on elastic stability, and Ro R t, the outside crown radius.
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That thickness corresponds to a practical lamination sequence: V,MM,4[3(MR),M],MRM. Equation 25.64 above for thickness required to resist internal pressure can be solved for the P that results from thickness of 1.299 in.: P = Sut 16000 * 1.299 = = 19.57 psi 0.885FRc 0.885 * 10 * 120 (25.67)
The MAWP for the top head is then this value of P less the hydrostatic pressure which gives 18.5 psi. It remains to verify that the head will resist the combination of footprint load and external pressure. The footprint load is considered a temporary load, and therefore by Paragraph NM11-300, a design factor of F 5 may be used while considering the combination of footprint load and stress from external pressure. Nonmandatory Appendix 11 of RTP-1 provides a method for calculating the stress in the center of an F & D head under the footprint load. The stress would be less if the load were applied elsewhere on the head, so the calculation sufces. The stress on the top surface is given by Gt /t2 where t is the thickness of the crown of the head, and Gt is a value from a graph in Nonmandatory Appendix 11. Similarly the stress on the under surface is Gb /t2. Figure 25.26 in Section 25.9.2 above is a copy of the graph that gives Gt and Gb as functions of (Rct)1/2. Here, Rc is (120 the crown radius of the head. In this case (Rct)1/2 323 lb and Gb 1.299)1/2 12.49 in. Then, from the graph, Gt 224 lb. Thus the footprint stress on the top surface is t 191 psi and the footprint stress on the lower 323/1.2992 surface is b 224/1.292 133 psi. The membrane stress at the top of the crown from external pressure is obtained from: sm = PextRc -10 * 120 = = - 461.9 psi 2t 2 * 1.299 (25.68)
the part of the shell above the stiffening ring (to be taken as the part of the shell above the upper surface of the support ring); the second will be to design the part of the shell below the upper surface of the ring. At the top of the support ring, the hydrostatic pressure is 6.99 psig; the design pressure, 5 psig. The shell must therefore withstand a combined pressure of P 11.99 psig. Paragraph 3A-210 supplies a rule for the required shell thicknessthat it must be the greater of t1 or t2, where t1 = Nax Su F (25.69)
and t2 = PR Su F (25.70)
where P Nax Su F 5
combined design pressure-hydrostatic load the axial stress resultant the tensile strength 10, the design factor
The axial stress resultant from the design pressure is Nax PdR/2 60/2 150 lb/in. For t1: t1 = 150 = 0.094 in. 16,000 10 (25.71)
For t2: t2 = (8.31)(60) = 0.312 in. 16,000 12 (25.72)
The superposition of this stress and the footprint stress on the top surface gives 191 461.9 653 psi. The allowable stress is 16000/5 3200 psi, which is much greater than the imposed stress. Since the internal design pressure is less than the external design pressure, and since the positive footprint stress on the underside of the head is less in absolute value than the footprint stress on the top, the combination of internal pressure and footprint load is also acceptable. A top head laminate with stackup V,MM,4[3(MR),M]MRM, which is 1.299 in. thick, satises RTP-1.
25.10.3 Design of the Shell and Vacuum Rings

The shell must withstand two independent loads: external pressure and combined design pressurehydrostatic load. The usual strategy is to rst compute the shell thickness required for internal pressure and then to determine if this is sufcient for external pressure. If it is not, the design must be rechecked with one or more vacuum-stiffening rings added to the shell. If the external pressure condition can be satised with a satisfactory number of rings, the design is accepted; if not, the shell thickness is increased and the design is checked again. Eventually, by trial and error, a satisfactory design is reached. There is a trade-off between the number of rings required and shell thickness. The design engineer uses his or her judgment to determine whether a particular choice is satisfactory. Because the support ring will serve as a vacuum stiffener, the shell design will be done in two stages. The rst will be to design
Thus the required minimum thickness for resisting internal pressure is 0.312 in. In reality, the axial stress resultant would be reduced because the weight of the upper part of the vessel would partially counteract the pressure, but hoop stress governs, for which reason this conservatism has no effect on the design. Paragraph 3A-310 gives an equation for computing the allowed maximum external pressure on a given shell. It is: KD 0.8531 g E4 E 41 t 2 2f 11 - v1fv2f24 L a
3 3 1 5
PA =
D0 2 b F 2
(25.73)
where: F KD and
design factor 5 knockdown factor 0.84 1 0.001Zp if Zp 100 Zp

3 1
0.9 otherwise
Zp =
2 E 2f E 2 1
E2 1f
11 - v1f v2f22
1
L2 D0 a tb 2
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In Equation (25.73), D0 represents the outside diameter, t the shell thickness, E1 the axial tensile modulus, E2f the hoop exural modulus, E1f the axial exural modulus, v1f Poissons ratio for bending stress in x direction and contraction/expansion in y direction, v2f Poissons ratio for bending stress in y direction and contraction/expansion in x direction and PA the allowable external pressure. The design length, L is dened as the greatest of the following: 1. The distance between head tangent lines plus one-third the depth of each formed head, if there are no stiffening rings (excluding conical heads and sections). 2. The distance between cone-to-cylinder junctions for vessels with cone or conical heads if there are no stiffening rings. 3. The greatest center-to-center distance between any two adjacent stiffening rings. 4. The distance from the center of the rst stiffening ring to the formed head tangent line plus one-third the depth of the formed head (excluding conical heads and sections), all measured parallel to the axis of the vessel. 5. The distance from the rst stiffening in the cylinder to the cone-cylinder junction. In the current example, one-third the depth of a head is 7.27 in., the distance from the bottom tangent line to the top of the support ring is 27.5 in. and the tangent line to tangent line length of the shell is 144 in. Then the design length for the upper part of the shell is 144 7.27 27.5 123.77 in. Taking the shell thick120 ness as the minimum required for internal pressure, D0 2(0.312) 120.624 in. For this design, Equation (25.73) yields PA 0.22 psi, far too low. If two evenly spaced vacuum rings are added to the shell above the support ring, then the design length is 123.77/3 41.26 in. With the thickness unchanged, Equation (25.73) gives PA 0.67 psi, still too low. By using various values of t in the equation, one 10.05 psi. The lamination nds that t 0.9 in results in PA schedule of the thinnest laminate with thickness at least 0.9 in thick is 3[3(MR)M]MRM which is 0.932 in thick. That thickness results in PA 10.97 psi, which satises the design requirement. The required moment of inertia of the vacuum rings is obtained from paragraph 3A-330: I = Pv L s D 3 Fv 0 24E h (25.74)
where I Pv Ls
Fv Eh
the moment of inertia the design vacuum pressure half the distance from the centerline of the stiffening ring to the next line of support on one side, plus half of the centerline distance to the next line of support on the other side of the stiffening ring (both measured parallel to the axis of the cylinder) 5, the design factor for elastic stability the hoop modulus of the sitffening ring laminate
A line of support, Ls, is dened as follows: (1) a stiffening ring that meets the requirements of this paragraph; (2) a circumferential line on a head at one-third the depth of the head from the tangent line; or (3) a cone-to-cylinder junction. The ring will be made of the same laminate, except for thickness, as the shell. Thus E2 1.785 106 psi. With t 0.932 in., D0 120 2(0.932) 121.846 in. The design length for use in 41.26 in., the same as the shell design Equation (25.73), Ls length. I = 10 * 41.26 * (121.846)3 * 5 24 * 1.785 * 106 = 87.113 in4
No particular ring section is required by RTP-1. Perhaps the most common section is a trapezoid, an example of which is sketched in Fig. 25.32. The dimensions shown result in a moment of inertia of 108.7 in.4 about an axis parallel to the vessel axis and through the centroid of the section. It was computed by ordinary methods. The moment of inertia includes the attachment, the shell wall under the trapezoid, and the attachment laminate. The wall thickness of the ring is 0.28 in., with a lamination sequence of MM,2(MR), M. A common way of building the ring is from a core of lowdensity rigid foam, which is attached to the vessel with an adhesive. Then, the ring is laid up over the core. The core is usually so light that it does not contribute to strength or stiffness, but it is left in the ring nevertheless. The maximum allowable design pressure for the upper part of the shell is obtained by solving the t 2 equation, which governs the
FIG. 25.32 VACUUM-STIFFENING RING SECTION
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0.909 in. The external pressure design length of the lower shell is 27.5 in., which is less than 41.26 in. (the design length of the upper shell). Thus, if the shell segments are of the same thickness, the lower shell would be adequate for the design external pressure. The MAWP of the lower shell segment is calculated as before: 16,000 * 0.909 Sut = Phyd = - 8.31 RF 60 * 10 (25.81)
MAWP = internal pressure, for P and inserting the values for this example as follows: MAWP = 16,000 * 0.932 Sut - Phyd = - 6.99 = 24.9 psi RF 60 * 10 (25.75) In the portion of the shell below the upper surface of the support ring, the axial load is the sum of the weight of the vessel contents, the weight of the vessel below the support, and the force from the internal design pressure. (Table 25.31 lists the sum of these weights.) At the bottom of the shell, the total pressure is the hydrostatic pressure of 8.31 psig (from Table 25.30) plus the design pressure of 5 psig, which sums to 13.31 psig. At the upper part of the shell, the required thickness for internal pressure and contents weight is the greater of t1 and t2, where Nax t1 = Su F and t2 = 13.31 * 60 PR = 0.499 in. = 16,000 Su F 10 (25.77)
= 15.93 psi
Thus a shell that has a lamination sequence of V, 2M, 3[3(MR), M (0.909 in. thick), as well as two vacuum rings as shown in Fig. 25.32, satises the RTP-1 requirements.
25.10.4 Design of the Bottom Head

The top head will be subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 9.33 psig (from Table 25.30) combined with the design pressure of 5 psig to give a total pressure of P 14.33 psig. The external design pressure is 10 psig. It will have the same geometry as the top head: torispherical, with a 120 in. crown radius, a 6% knuckle radius, and a 120 in. head diameter. The required thickness for internal pressure is as follows: 0.885 PRcF 0.885 * 14.33 * 120 * 10 = = 0.919 in. Su 16,000 (25.82) The required thickness for external pressure is the same as for the top headthat is, 1.223 in.and has a lamination sequence of V, MM, 4[3(MR), M], M. From Section 25.7, the pressure capacity of the head is 18.43 psi. Thus the MAWP is 18.43 9.33 9.10 psig.
tr = (25.76)
Nax is the axial membrane stress resultant and is given by the following equation: Nax = where Pd R Wt Thus: Nax = 98,725 5 * 60 lb + = 411.88 2 2p * 60 in. (25.79) PdR Wt + 2 2pR
25.10.5 Support Ring Design

The weight of the entire vessel and its contents are computed by ordinary methods. The total weight of 103,327 lb must be supported by the ring. The ring, in turn, is supported by eight evenly spaced lugs that mate with building steel, forming the edge of the octagonal opening that the vessel occupies. Figure 25.33 is a sketch of a cross section of the ring. In this example, the Fabricator rolls the ring from a structural channel. (The ring is usually made in two halves connected with bolted splices.) The vessel is built; then, the FRP-support and -retainer bands are installed on the vessel. The ring is assembled onto the vessel either on the site or in the Fabricators shop. RTP-1, paragraph NM5-400 provides a method for designing the ring in Nonmandatory Appendix NM-5 (Ring Support of Vessels). The bending moment, Mb, and the twisting moment, Mv, at Section A in Fig. 25.34 are given by the following equations: Mb = fe WR f cos a - 1 c sin (f - a) d 2p sin f R (25.83)
(25.78)
the design pressure the inside shell radius the total weight given in Table 25.31
Inserting this value in equation (25.76) gives 411.88 = 0.257 in. t1 = 16,000 10 (25.80)
Hoop stress therefore governs, requiring a thickness of 0.499 in. For simplicity, the entire shell will have the same thickness of
Mt = -
fe WR f sin a - a + c cos (f - a) d 2p sin f R
(25.84)
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FIG. 25.33 SUPPORT-RING CROSS SECTION
where W R
and the total supported weight a, f = the geometric quantities dened by Fig, 25.34 where Zb Zt t = Mt Zt (25.86)
Note that the angle 2f is the angular separation between lugs and that a locates a section of the ring. Given that there are N lugs, f 180/N deg. The quantity e, the eccentricity of the lug forces, is the radial distance from the line of action of the support force to the shear center of the ring section, as shown in Fig. 25.35. The bending stress, j/b, and the torsional shear stress, t, are then given as follows: sb = Mb Zb (25.85)
the bending section modulus of the ring about a radial centroidal axis the torsional section modulus
For relatively thin-walled open sections, such as a rolled channel, Zt is well approximated by the torsional stiffness constant J divided by the thickest part of the section wall. A good indicator of yield in a steel channel is the von Mises stress, svm, obtained from the bending and shear stresses by the following equation: svm = 2s2 + 3t2 b (25.87)
FIG. 25.34 GEOMETRIC QUANTITIES IN THE STRESS ANALYSIS OF THE RING
Thus, for a given ring, the von Mises stress is given as a function of a by equation (25.87). To verify the design of the ring, it is necessary to nd the section at which svm is greatest. For the present example, W 103,327 lb, R 62 in., and N 8. Then f 180/8 22.5 deg. A candidate section is a C15 50 structural channel [11]. This channel has a moment of inertia of 404 in. 4 and is 15 in. high. Then Zb 404/7.5 53.87 in.3, the torsional constant J 2.67 in.4, and the thickness for com2.67/0.65 4.108 in.3, and the puting Zt is 0.65 in. Thus Zt shear center is 0.583 in. radially inward from the back of the channel. Setting e 6 in. gives a reasonable allowance for the lug design and clearance between the ring and building steel. Figure 25.35 is a plot of svm as a function of a for this set of values. The value of a for which svm is greatest is a = 14.28 deg., where svm = 17,840 psi. The channel would be composed of A36 steel, which has a yield strength of 36,000 psi. A normal allowable stress is 2 of the yield or 24,000 psi, of which the actual 3 stress is 74.3%. Thus the ring section is acceptable. Computations for the maximum von Mises stress were done by using Mathcad. Figures NM5-8, NM5-9, and NM5-10 in RTP-1
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FIG. 25.35 VON MISES STRESS IN THE SUPPORT RING
are design charts for streamlining this process. They plot a stress function, , as a function of Zb / Zt for various e/R, and there is a separate chart for each number of lugs. The stress is then given by the following equation: svm = WR Zb (25.88)
25.11
QUALITY ASSURANCE OF SECTION X AND RTP-1 VESSELS
25.11.1 Introduction
Manufacturers of both RTP-1 and Section X vessels are governed by stringent quality assurance systems that are certied by the ASME. The shops themselves must have written quality control procedures and be accredited by the ASME. All vessel construction must be done in accordance with a detailed procedure specication; moreover, each vessel design must be qualied either by testing (in the case of Section X, Class I) or by design calculations backed by measured laminate properties (in the cases of RTP-1 and Section X, Class II). Design calculations for RTP-1 and Section X, Class II vessels must be certied by a Registered Professional Engineer. Completed vessels must be inspected by an individual certied by the ASME. Although both RTP-1 and Section X necessarily use similar quality assurance methods, ASME requirements from the two documents are not identical; although they accomplish the same purpose by very similar means, they differ in detail. In the following paragraphs, Section X requirements are considered rst, followed by those of RTP-1.
13.113 and e/R 0.968. Figure In the present case, Zb /Zt NM5-10 is the chart for eight lugs; it yields 0.15 for this choice of Zb/Zt and e/R. The maximum von Mises stress is thus: svm = 103,327 * 62 * 0.15 = 17,840 psi 53.87 (25.88)
25.10.6 Vessel MAWP

The MAWP is listed in Table 25.32 for each pressure-containing component. The MAWP for the entire vessel is 9.10 psig, the least of those listed, and the maximum allowable external pressure is 10 psig, governed by the stiffening rings. The reason why the MAWP is so much higher than the design pressure is that external pressure governs the design of all the components, requiring greater component thicknesses than the internal pressure.
25.11.2 Section X Quality Assurance

Section X contains requirements for the Fabricators quality control system, vessel manufacturing procedure specication, and inspection and testing. These three aspects of quality control are each discussed in turn below. 25.11.2.1 Fabricators Quality Control System The Fabriators Quality Control System must be maintained to ensure that the vessels he or she builds satisfy all Section X requirements. The Fabricator must also maintain a quality control manual that describes his or her system. The manual is reviewed by the ASME team that originally accredits the Fabricators shop and must be available for review by the Authorized Inspector as a part of his or
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her vessel inspections. The manual, which may contain proprietary information, is not required to be distributed. As Section X states, It is intended that information learned about the system (The Fabricators Quality Control System) in connection with the evaluation will be treated as condential and that all loaned descriptions will be returned to the Fabricator upon completion of the evaluation. Thus the ASME team that accredits the shop may borrow the manual, but must return it and not reveal the contents. The Authorized Inspector5 has access to the manual during the visits to the Fabricators facility, but does not retain a copy. Section X does not require that the manual be available to Purchasers; therefore, if a Purchaser wishes to review the manual, the Fabricator must agree to let the Purchaser read it. The complexity of the Quality Control System and manual depend greatly on the size and complexity of the Fabricators operations and the kind of equipment that the Fabricator builds. It should be appropriate to the Fabricators circumstances. Although the Code does not have a long, detailed set of requirements for Fabricators Quality Control Systems, it does have an outline of features to be included in the manual. These are as follows: (a) Authority and Responsibility This section denes the authority and responsibility of those in charge of the Quality Control System. These individuals must have well-dened responsibilities as well as the authority and freedom to identify and remedy quality control problems. (b) Organization The manual contains an organization chart that shows the relationship among engineering, quality control, purchasing, production, testing, inspection, and management personnel. A small shop may have combined functions, such as quality control, testing, and inspection vested in one person, and therefore may have a very simple organization chart. (c) Drawings, Design Calculations, and Specications For both Class I and II vessels, the Quality Control System has procedures to ensure that the latest revisions of drawings, procedures and specications required by Section X are used for fabrication, inspection, and testing. For Class II vessels, the system also includes reference to the design documents certied by a Regis tered Professional Engineer and the need for any changes to such documents to be approved by the Registered Professional Engineer. The Fabricators Quality Control System also provides those individuals building the vessel with other information not governed by the Code. The Foreword to Section X (and all other Codebook sections) states that the Code does not address all aspects of these activities. (d) Production Flow and In-Plant Inspection and Checkoff The system includes a basic production-ow procedure, including inplant inspection procedures and checkoff points as well as a means of documenting them. The purpose of this aspect of the system is to guarantee that the Procedure Specication on the drawing is actually implemented. An example of a Procedure Specication is given below. (e) Material Receiving Control and Identity Before and during fabrication, a system of material control ensures that the material used complies with the applicable specications and procedures. The system provides documentation that the proper material is used in fabrication. (f) Nonconforming Materials, Components, and Repairs All nonconformities, including materials, components, and fabrication errors, are identied and documented. Components that fail to meet the required standards may be repaired if the proposed repair
is approved by the design engineer and by the Inspector before the repair is begun. If the repair is not approved, the component is rejected. Some repairs may be required to satisfy Purchasers requirements that are not governed by the Code. For example, excessive air bubbles in an FRP corrosion barrier would violate the Purchasers specication, not Section X. Because repairing the barrier would not affect the pressure containment, the Registered Professional Engineer and the Inspector would not be required to approve the repair. Another example is a misplaced nozzle, for which the Code does not require a repair to be made. However, the repair would affect the pressure containment, so in this case both the Registered Professional Engineer and the Inspector would need to approve the repair. If there is doubt, the prudent Fabricator would consult the Inspector to determine whether a given repair needs his or her approval in addition to the Registered Professional Engineers approval. After all, it is the Inspector who decides whether a particular vessel may be stamped. (g) Resin Control Good resin control is essential to vessel quality. The Quality Control System contains resin specication and mixing procedures; procedures for the storage, handling, and disposal of resins, catalysts, llers, pigments, and promoters; and a procedure for identifying resin during fabrication. (h) Assembly, Fit-Up, and Dimensions Control Documentation of methods for assembly, t-up, dimensional checks, and adhesive bonding of vessel components are included in the Quality Control System. The system may also contain procedures for dimensional control not required by the Code, such as tolerances on nozzle placement. (i) Calibration of Measurement and Test Equipment The Fabricator maintains a system, including documentation, for the calibration of all examination, measuring, and test equipment used to show compliance with Code requirements. A description of the system is included in the Quality Control System manual. (j) Forms The Quality Control System manual contains sample forms for documenting all system procedures that must be followed. Pages 211249 of Section X display many of these forms. The Fabricator must, however, compose his or her own forms as well, such as those for documenting resin receipt, storage, and use. (k) Authorized Inspector As stated previously, the Inspector has access to the Quality Control System manual. In addition, he or she has access to the design documents and records governed by the Code that are relevant to the vessels to be inspected. 25.11.2.2 Accreditation of a Fabricator The ASME authorizes a Fabricators shop to place the RP Section X) Symbol Stamp on vessels. The authorizing of shops is governed by the ASME Board on Conformity Assessment, not by the B&PV Code itself. The Board sends a team to a candidate Fabricator to deter mine whether his or her shop can produce vessels in conformity with Section X. The team examines the Quality Control System, the Procedure Specications, and the fabrication work in progress; then recommends to the Board whether to authorize the shop. Authorizations must be renewed every three years. 25.11.2.3 Example of a Procedure Specication The Procedure Specication for Class II vessels is dened by completing Form Q120, found on pages 225-234 of Section X. Form Q-120 has the following three parts: Part I (Fabrication): This part must be completed for each separately fabricated vessel part, including nozzle necks and
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nozzle anges. It species the materials, ply sequence, ply orientation, and procedures used to fabricate the vessel part. Part I must be accompanied by Parts II and III. Part II (Assembly) This part must be completed for every secondary lay-up process required to join vessel parts. It lists the materials, dimensions, and ply sequences of each secondary overlay, including not only head-to-shell joints between sep arate shell courses, but also overlays used to install nozzles, flange-nozzle neck connections, and opening-reinforcing pads. Part II must be accompanied by Parts I and III. Part III (Summary) This part compiles a list of procedures used to fabricate individual vessel parts and join them into a completed vessel. Part III must be accompanied by Parts I and II. Appendix 25.C shows a Form Q-120 Procedure Specication for the Section X design example presented in Section 25.7. Item I in Part I identies the vessel, the vessel part for which the procedure is to be done, and the Fabricator, User, and Registered Professional Engineer who certify the design. It also gives the procedure number, the procedure date, and the date the part was fabricated. Item II denes the essential design variables: the reinforcing ber types; the resin, catalyst, and promoter; the laminate sequence; and the method of resin cure. In the top head, there are three types of reinforcementa C-glass veil on the inner surface, a 1.5 oz/ft randomly oriented mat, and a 24 oz/yd woven roving after which the ply sequence is stated. The orientation denes the direction of the weave of the woven-roving relative to the vessel axis. The woven-roving in the example has four ber bundles per in. in one direction and ve per in. in the perpendicular direction. The direction of the four-per-in. bundle coincides with the E1 modulus direction. An orientation of 0 deg. aligns this direction with the vessel axis. Item II(B)(3) states that the resin will be cured at room temperature, without a post-cure; (B)(4) gives the design Barcol hardness as 40 5; (B)(5) is not applicable; and (B)(6) lists the designreinforcing ber content as 41.1% 1% by weight. Item III documents the test report that establishes the engineering constants used in design calculation for the vessel. Item IV documents the design qualication for the top head. The date the vessel was tested, the design and acceptance test numbers, and the version of Section X are all given. Item IV(A) lists the type and batch numbers of the reinforcing ber forms, as well as the resin and its catalyst and promoter. With this data, all materials could be traced through the Fabricators receiving reports and back to the Material Manufacturers certications and quality control data. The catalyst and promoter are chemicals mixed with the resin just before it is used that initiate the crosslinking reaction that transforms the resin from a thick liquid to a solid. In this case, the catalyst is benzoyl peroxide; the promoter, dimethylaniline. Other catalysts and promoters are used to cure vinyl ester resin. Item IV(B) gives the resin data that the Fabricator collects for each different batch of resin. The values in the example are typical of vinyl ester resins. Item IV(C), (D), and (E) each record the results of quality checks and inspections, and (F) shows the certication by a representative of the Fabricator and Inspector that the vessel part satises Section X. Part II of Form Q-120 is a similar compilation for the overlay that joins the top head to the shell. There are, however, two important differences. The rst is that Part II(B) species the surface preparation for the joint by referencing a procedure in the Fabricators Quality Control Manual. The second is that there are
two lamination sequences, for part of the overlay could be (but is not required to be) on the inside of the vessel while the rest is on the outside. Vessels with FRP corrosion barriers will always have at least the corrosion-barrier overlay part on the inside. Part III of Form Q-120 provides a list of all Procedure Specications for the parts and joint overlays in the vessel. It also contains the certication by the Authorized Inspector that the vessel satises Section X and may receive the Section X RP Symbol Stamp. An actual Form Q-120 would be much longer than the one presented in Appendix 25.C. In addition to having eighteen overlays, the example vessel has fourteen parts for which Q-120, Part I Forms would be required. Each part is four pages long, so the complete form would be 4 (14 18) 1 129 pages long. Besides the Form Q-120, there are material-receiving reports, mechanical-property test reports, resin test records, inspection records, the acoustic-emission (AE) test report, and the design report. Documentation for a Section X vessel is voluminous. Procedure Specications for the various types of Class I vessels are similar to one another.
25.11.3 RTP-1 Quality Assurance

Quality assurance and shop-accreditation requirements for RTP-1 are very similar to those for Section X, especially Section X, Class II. The similarity is not surprising because both RTP-1 and Section X use the same materials and manufacturing methods and both also require accreditation by an ASME survey team before vessels are stamped. In addition, both require a Quality Control System with a written manual, as well as thorough documentation of the design, fabrication, testing, and inspection of every vessel that receives the ASME mark. RTP-1 and Section X both result in about the same amount of documentation for vessels of similar complexity. There are, however, a few signicant differences, four of which are as follows: As part of the accreditation process, the Fabricator must build a demonstration vessel to show that his or her shop can build equipment that satises RTP-1. Though small, the vessel has challenging design details, including a tangential nozzle and a body ange. The vessel must be available to the ASME team that surveys the shop. The Fabricator must produce demonstration laminates of every type of all laminates that he or she needs to produce and must conduct tests to determine their mechanical proper ties. The test values must meet the values set by RTP-1. Inspection personnel are different, as exemplied by the RTP1, Article 1-400 passage reproduced in Section 25.9. Bonders and laminators are tested and certied. Bonders are craftspeople who join FRP parts by means of secondary bonded overlays, whereas laminators are craftspeople who build the laminates. To be certied, both must produce sample work according to written procedures. The sample work is then tested; if it is found satisfactory, the bonder or laminator may, by using the written procedures, produce parts for a stamped vessel.
24.11.4 Summary
The quality assurance provisions of both Section X and RTP-1 standards ensure that vessels that receiving the ASME markRP for Section X, RTP for RTP-1are built according to either of these standards. Such vessels have high-quality design and fabrication and provide long, reliable service.
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25.12
REFERENCES
6. Nielsen, L. E., Mechanical Properties of Polymers, Reinhold Publishing Co., New York, 1962, p. 11. 7. RTP-1, Mandatory Appendix M-11; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 8. ASME Section X, Article RG-113; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 9. ASME Section X, Article RG-121; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 10. Reissner, E., Stresses and Small Displacements of Shallow Spherical Shells, II, Journal of Mathematical Physics, Vol. 25, No. 4, 1947, pp. 279300. 11. American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC), Manual of Steel Construction, Allowable Sress Design, 9th ed., pp. 140.
1. ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code Section X, Riber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 2. ASME RTP-1, Reinforced Thermoset Plastic Corrosion-Resistant Equipment; The American Society of Mechanical Engineers. 3. Beckwith, S. W., Filament WindingThe String and the Glue, Composite Fabricators Association Web site: http://www.cfahq.org/ documents/StringandGlue.doc. 4. Murphy, J., The Reinforced Plastics Handbook, Elsevier Science Publishers, 1994, p. 356. 5. Tsai, S. W., and Hahn, H. T., Introduction to Composite Materials, Technomic Publishing Co., Westport, CT, 1980, p. 280f.
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APPENDIX
25.A
UBRS FOR RTP-1 EXAMPLE 1
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25.B
UBRS FOR RTP-1 EXAMPLE 2
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25.C
EXAMPLE PROCEDURE SPECIFICATION FOR A SECTION X VESSEL
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FIG. 25.1 FIBERGLASS-REINFORCING MAT

FIG. 25.2 WOVEN-ROVING REINFORCING GLASS

FIG. 25.3 SPOOLS OF CONTINUOUS ROVING

FIG. 25.4 SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM OF A CHOPPER GUN

FIG. 25.5 FILAMENT WINDING

FIG. 25.6 BAG-MOLDING CONCEPT

FIG. 25.7 CENTRIFUGAL CASTING

Joining Vessel Parts

FIG. 25.8 RTP-1STYLE BUTT JOINT

FIG. 25.10 SECTION XSTYLE BUTT JOINT

STRESS ANALYSIS OF FRP VESSELS

FIG. 25.9 BELL-AND-SPIGOT JOINT

FIG. 25.11 PENETRATING-NOZZLE-INSTALLATION-LAMINATE OVERLAYS

FIG. 25.12 PLANE SECTIONS REMAINING PLANE

FIG. 25.13 NORMAL STRESS IN LOAD DIRECTION FOR EXTENSIONAL STRAIN

FIG. 25.15 NORMAL STRESS FROM BENDING LOAD IN BENDING DIRECTION

FIG. 25.16 NORMAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN DIRECTION PERPENDICULAR TO BENDING

SCOPES OF SECTION X AND RTP-1

FIG. 25.17 INTERNAL PRESSURE SCOPE FOR SECTION X VESSELS

DESIGN QUALIFICATIONS OF SECTION X AND RTP-1 VESSELS

Section X, Class I Design Qualications

Section X, Class II Design Qualications

FIG. 25.18 SECTION X, CLASS II, METHOD B COMPONENTS

FIG. 25.19 AVAILABLE DESIGN BY SUBPART 3A COMPONENTS (CHART 1 OF 2)

Design Qualications of RTP-1 Vessels

Design Qualication Overview

SECTION X EXAMPLE: DESIGN SPECIFICATION

FIG. 25.20 AVAILABLE DESIGN BY SUBPART 3A COMPONENTS (CHART 2 OF 2)

FIG. 25.21 SECTION X DESIGN EXAMPLE

SECTION X: EXAMPLE DESIGN CALCULATIONS

TABLE 25.12 LAMINATE PROPERTIES FOR EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN CALCULATIONS

E1 E2 E1f E2f v1 v2 v1f v2f

1.666 1.785 1.778 1.681

Top and Bottom Heads

For this choice of values: t1 t2 0.689 in. 1.300 in.

Nozzle, Nozzle Attachment, and Reinforcing Pad Design

FIG. 25.22 HEAD-TO-SHELL JOINT DIMENSIONS

(25.23) where t the vessel thickness

The symbols in equation (25.23) are as dened previously.

FIG. 25.23 NOZZLE-ATTACHMENT-LAMINATE AND REINFORCING-PAD DIMENSIONS

FIG. 25.24 Kt AS A FUNCTION OF B

Support Skirt Design

RTP-1: EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN SPECIFICATION

FIG. 25.25 RTP-1, EXAMPLE 1 DESIGN AND SPECIFICATION

Top Head Design

FIG. 25.26 STRESS FUNCTIONS FOR FOOTPRINT LOADING

With these values, sw weight is given as follows: swt =

71.5 psi. The axial stress from the

W = 11.3 p(D - t)t

Design of Bottom and Bottom Knuckle

Hold-Down Lug Design

FIG. 25.27 KNUCKLE FOR FLAT-BOTTOM TANK

FIG. 25.28 CROSS SECTION OF HOLD-DOWN LUG ASSEMBLY

FIG. 25.29 ELEVATION VIEW OF LUG ASSEMBLY

FIG. 25.30 TOP VIEW OF NOZZLE ASSEMBLY

Inserting the values in the table results in the following equations: Uq = 4M q =

4(35,340) = 11,720 lb 144.74

p 20 (144.74)2 c d(0.8) = 1,828 4 144

3(1 - 0.26 ) 145.48 2 a b 0.742 2

Nozzle Reinforcement and Attachment Design

RTP-1: DESIGN EXAMPLE 2

25.10.1 RTP-1 Example 2 Design Specication