Near-optimal operation of LNG liquefaction processes by means of regulation

vorgelegt von Diplom-Ingenieur Steen Heldt aus Berlin

von der Fakultt III - Prozesswissenschaften der Technischen Universitt Berlin zur Erlangung des akademischen Grades Doktor der Ingenieurwissenschaften - Dr.-Ing. genehmigte Dissertation

romotionsusshuss orsitzenderX ferihterX ferihterX rofF hrFEsngF hilF udiert uing rofF rofF hrFEsngF qnter ozny rofF hrFEsngF rrld ulein PRF tuni PHII

g der wissenshftlihen eussprheX

Berlin 2011 D 83

Abstract
ith more thn RHHH ompleted plnt projetsD the ingineering hivision of the vinde eq rnks mong the leding interntionl plnt ontrtorsD with fous on the key mrket segments ole(n plntsD nturl gs plntsD ir seprtion plntsD s well s hydrogen nd synthesis gs plntsF snresed demnd nd ompetition for nturl resoures fore the ustomers of the vinde ingineering hivision to improve their e0ieny in energy nd mteril utiliztionF hue to the need of e0ient produtionD most stteEofEtheErt plnts re highly integrted ompoundsD optimized for ertin design onditionsF es the onditions during opertion vry from design onditionsD djustments of indeE pendent input vriles re neessry in order to keep the plnts t optimumF his is referred to s optiml disturne ompenstionF sn highly utomted plntsD model sed ontroller tehniques suh s relEtime optimiztion re used to lulte input djustments for optiml disturne ompenstionF roweverD these tehniques su'er from severl disdvntges nd re thus no stndrd feture of severl plnt types suh s lique(ed nturl gs @vxqA liqueftion plntsF sn order to nevertheless provide optiml opertionD regultory ontrol tehE nique ws onsidered in this workF e key onept thereof is tht for prtiulr liqueftion proessD there my exist proess vrile omintions whih re lmost invrint with respet to optiml disturne ompenstionF husD the strtegy of seleting these proess vriles s ontrolled vriles nd keeping them t (xed setpoints inherently leds to lmost optiml opertionF ets of ontrolled vriles whih provide inherent optiml opertion re ommonly referred to s selfEoptimizing ontrol struturesF hey n e determined o1ine using rigorous proess models nd n then e instlled s simple ontrol loops in the regultory lyerF elfEoptimizing ontrol o'ers severl dvntges over model sed ontrol suh s simpliityD high opertor eptneD reusilityD mong othersF sn generlD model sed ontrol my hieve etter optimizE tion ury thn selfEoptimizing ontrol whih mkes omintion of oth tehnologies ene(ilF his work ims to develop selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures for vxq liqueE ftion proesses suh s the simple w yleD the vinde proprietry vsww

efeg yle nd the vindeGttoil proprietry wpg proessF por ske of high qulE ity proess modelsD the model of spirl wound het exhngerD the mjor equipment of vxq liqueftion proessesD ws further developed s prt of the vinde inEhouse simultor yssw F he improvement to predeessor models is the onsidertion of mss nd energy holdEup of strems nd the use of highly sophistited empiril orreltionsF he model ws stisftorily tested ginst historil mesurement dtF

he pulily ville methods for the identi(tion of selfEoptimizing onE trol strutures were onsidered too restritive s they re only ple of lE ulting ertin struturlly limited solutionsF hue to this shortomingD new identi(tion method ws developedF he method mnges to (nd ontrol strutures in whih eh ontrolled vrile n onsist of liner ominE tion of n individul proess vrile suset with individul set sizeF feside the oneptul superiority of the new methodD its dvne in optimlity ws proven y numeril study with rndomly generted plnt modelsF xew ontrol strutures for the three vxq liqueftion proesses mentioned ove were lulted y the use of the new identi(tion methodF he results were stisftorily veri(ed y nonliner stedyEstte investigtionsF por othD the vsww yle nd the wpg proessD the new ontrol strutures turned out to e eonomilly ene(il ompred to onventionl ontrol struturesF por the ske of integrityD the tehnil relizility of the new ontrol struture ws investigted y dynmil onsidertionsF

ii

Acknowledgements
he present work is the produt of my three yer work s development engineer t the deprtment of snformtion ehnology for roess hesign nd gontrol of the vinde eqD ingineering hivisionF huring this timeD s me in ontt with mny people whih s m grteful for ssisting me in some form or nother during my studiesF s just wnt to nme fewD knowing tht there will lwys e someone left out or forgottenF peil thnks go to hrF endres urner for the motivting nd inspiring disussionsD hrF sngo homs for giving me deeper insight in )uid dynmisD hrF tohnnEqnter imon for his support in mteril property lultionD hrF wrtin rfele for his ssistne in setting up of simultion )owsheetsD hrF wrtin ottmnn for proof redingD wrtin umnn for his guide to ompressor tehnologyD wrtin rerrmnn for shring his knowledge in ontrol engineeringD prnk qiese for his hints on softwre engineering nd hrF ursten hulze for his orgniztionl support nd for mking this work possileF ell of my ollegues s like to thnk for the good working tmosphere nd their helpfulness nd ptieneF s would like to espeilly thnk my supervisor hrF qriele ingl for her support nd on(dene throughout the ourse of my hFhF thesisF rer purE posefulness nd persistne kept me on my trk of reserh nd enourged me to outgrow myselfF rofF hrFEsngF hilF rofF hFF hrF hFF qnter oznyD ghir of roess hynmis nd ypertionD ferlin snstitute of ehnologyD s like to thnk for his externl supervision of my hFhF thesis nd for his vlule dvie during our tlksF por his interest in my workD s like to thnk the oEreferentD rofF hrFE sngF rrld uleinD ghir of enlgen und rozesstehnikD ehnil niversity wunihF vstD ut not lestD s thnk my eloved vind for her ptiene throughout the seemingly endless evenings nd weekends in whih s turned my k on her for writing this thesisF s m espeilly grteful for her support nd onvinement to trust in myself during times when reserh went not strightforwrdF veipzigD eugust PHII te'en reldt

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Contents
Abstract Acknowledgements Contents List of Figures List of Tables Nomenclature Disclaimer 1 Introduction
IFI wotivtion F F F F F IFP fkground of vxq IFQ revious work F F F F IFR gontriutions F F F F IFS hesis struture F F filiogrphy F F F F F F F PFI PFP PFQ PFR F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

i iii iv ix xi xiii xix 1

I T U V W W

2 Modeling

elted work F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F wteril properties F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F nit opertions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F pirlEwound het exhnger F F F F F F F F F PFRFI sntrodution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFRFP ixperimentl investigtion F F F F F F PFRFQ hynmi modeling F F F F F F F F F F F PFRFR wodeling issues F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFRFRFI glssi(tion of )ow models PFRFRFP igni(ne for vxq servie PFRFS gonservtion equtions F F F F F F F F PFRFSFI qoverning )uid equtions F F

13

IQ IQ IR IS IT IU PH PI PP PR PS PT

gontents PFRFSFP ustntition of model redutions PFRFSFQ edued hei model F F F F F F F PFRFSFR rnsformtion into heis F F F F PFRFT henomenology F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFRFU hynmil vlidtion F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFRFUFI est plnt setEup F F F F F F F F F F PFRFUFP wodeling nd dt mnipultion F PFRFUFQ imultion runs F F F F F F F F F F PFRFV gonlusions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFS efrigertion yles F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFSFI tedyEstte models F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFSFP hynmi models F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFe tility nlysis of the )uid model F F F F F F F F F PFf impiril orreltions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F filiogrphy F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PU PV QH QP QQ QQ QR QU RH RI RI RP RQ RT SH

3 New results on self-optimizing control

QFI QFP QFQ QFR

elted work F F F F F F F F F F F F F F wthemtil frmework F F F F F F F F he qh method F F F F F F F F F F F edvned ontrol strutures F F F F F F QFRFI riniples F F F F F F F F F F F F QFRFP wotivtion F F F F F F F F F F F QFRFQ ystles F F F F F F F F F F F F QFRFR pe trnsformtion F F F F F F QFRFS ew prolem solution F F F F F F QFS xumeril study F F F F F F F F F F F F QFT gonlusions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F QFe omintion methods F F F F F F F QFf iquivlene of ghs methods F F F F F QFg wodi(tion of fQgGfQe method QFh ws prolem solution F F F F F F F F F F filiogrphy F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFI RFP RFQ RFR elted work F F F F F F gh prtie F F F F F F RFPFI ork)ow F F F F RFPFP ht quisition ivportor se study F qenerl onsidertions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

59

SW TH TT TW TW UH UP UR US UV VI VI VS VT VV WI

4 Practical application of CSD methods

F WS F WU F WU F IHH F IHP F IHT

95

vi

gontents RFRFI vxq liqueftion proesses F F F F RFRFP heision mesures for feedk nd RFS imple w yleGgQw proess F F F F F RFSFI hegree of freedom nlysis F F F F F RFSFP wodel setup F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFSFQ gh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFSFR xonliner veri(tion F F F F F F F RFT vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFTFI hegree of freedom nlysis F F F F F RFTFP wodel setup F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFTFQ gh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFTFR xonliner veri(tion F F F F F F F RFU wpg proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFUFI hegree of freedom nlysis F F F F F RFUFP wodel setup F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFUFQ gh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFUFR xonliner veri(tion F F F F F F F RFV gonlusions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFe yjetive funtion F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFf ivportion proess model F F F F F F F F F RFg wodel redution F F F F F F F F F F F F F F filiogrphy F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F dvned ontrol F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHT IHW III IIQ IIR IIS IIU IIW IPI IPP IPS IPU IPV IQI IQP IQQ IQT IQU IQV IRH IRH IRI

5 Operability analysis of LNG liq. processes

SFI SFP SFQ SFR elted work F F F F F F F F F F wotivtion F F F F F F F F F F F F qenerl onsidertions F F F F F vsww yle F F F F F F F F F SFRFI hynmi model nlysis SFRFP gyx strtegy F F F F F SFRFQ gywf strtegy F F F F F SFRFR gomprison F F F F F F F SFRFS gonlusions F F F F F F F SFS wpg proess F F F F F F F F F SFSFI hynmi model nlysis SFSFP gyx F F F F F F F F F F SFSFQ gywf F F F F F F F F F F SFSFR gomprison F F F F F F F SFSFS gonlusions F F F F F F F SFT gonlusions F F F F F F F F F F F SFe yperility mesures F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F

147

IRU IRV ISH ISI ISP ISP ISQ ISR ISW ISW ISW ITI ITQ ITR ITT ITU ITV

vii

gontents SFeFI r F F F F F F F SFeFP gx nd hgx F F F SFeFQ xiederlinski index SFeFR qe F F F F F F F F SFeFS qeD gvhq nd SFeFT w F F F F F F F F SFf sh ontroller tuning F F F filiogrphy F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hq F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IUH IUH IUI IUI IUQ IUR IUR IUT

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List of Figures
IFI IFP IFQ PFI PFP PFQ PFR PFS PFT PFU PFV PFW PFIH PFII PFIP PFIQ PFIR QFI QFP QFQ QFR RFI RFP RFQ RFR RFS ypil ontrol hierrhy of hemil plnt F F F F F F F F F F gost of n exemplry plnt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gomprison of trnsporttion ost F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F hse digrm of hydroron system of (xed omposition F F rinipl sketh of n ri F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F qsGliquid )ow ptterns in horizontl pipes F F F F F F F F F F F tterns of liquid )ow etween two djent horizontl tues F hisretiztion sheme for stggered veloity grid F F F F F F F snstlltion of EIHH element inside n ri undle F F F F snstrumenttion of the suooling undle of the wossel fy ri F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ttionry temperture pro(les in the wossel fy suooler F F wesurement dt from wy IRth D PHHI F F F F F F F F F F F F F gomprison etween mesurement dt from wy IRth D PHHI nd simultion results F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ht from wy ISth D PHHI F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gomprison etween mesurement dt from wy ISth D PHHI nd simultion results F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F rtly losed on(gurtions of refrigertion yle models F F F F qeometri hrteriztion of the tue rrngement of n ri qenerl representtion of regultory ontrol strutures in hemE il plnts F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gost funtions of regultory ontrol strutures nd reEoptimiztion xumeril results of run e F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F xumeril results of run f F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F Q R U IS IU PI PP QI QR QS QT QU QV QW RH RI RU TI TQ UW VH

ork)ow for selfEoptimizing gh F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F WV ivportion proess sheme F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHP i'et of feedk ontrol on ost funtion nd ontriuting termsIIH he gQw proess nd the sgGpgGg ontrol strtegy F F IIP ekshving vxq plnt wossel fyD outh efri F F F F F F F F IIQ

ix

vist of pigures RFT RFU RFV RFW RFIH RFII RFIP RFIQ RFIR RFIS SFI SFP SFQ SFR SFS SFT SFU SFV SFW SFIH SFII SFIP SFIQ SFIR SFIS esults of nonliner veri(tion of ontrol strutures for the w proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F vxq py unit F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F vsww yle with regultory ontrol struture of the tE vnger plnt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ghrteristi mps of singleEstge entrifugl ompressor F F glimx of mximum vxq throughput F F F F F F F F F F F F F F esults of nonliner nlysis of ontrol strutures for the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F rmmerfest vxq plnt under onstrution t welky sslndD frents e on epril PHHS F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F wpg proess with regultory ontrol struture from rmmerE fest plnt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F esults of nonliner nlysis of ontrol strutures for the wpg proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F gonsidertion of ojetive funtions for opertion F F F F F F F

IIV IPH IPI IPQ IPR IPV IPW IQH IQT IQW

oleEzero spetrum of the redued stteEspe model of the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ISI prequeny response from ws to ndidte gs for the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ISQ yverll positive qe elements for ontrol strutures of the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ISR histurne ompenstion for the vsww yle F F F F F F F ISS qes for the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IST gvhqs for the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ISU led simultion results of losedEloop responses due to setpoint steps for the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ISV led simultion results of losedEloop responses due to disturE ne 'etion for the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ISW oleEzero spetrum of the redued stteEspe model of the wpg proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ITI higonl qe elements of the est pirings for the wpg yle ITP prequeny response from ws to ndidte gs for the wpg proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ITQ qes for the wpg proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ITR gvhqs for the wpg proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ITS led simultion results of losedEloop responses due to setpoint trking nd disturne 'etion for the wpg proess F F F ITU gontrolled plnt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F ITV

List of Tables
PFI PFP PFQ wodels for tueEside het trnsfer nd fritionl pressure drop F wodels for shellEside het trnsfer nd fritionl pressure drop F xturl gs nd mixed refrigernt properties of the wossel fy plnt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFR snlet nd outlet proess dt of the wossel fy suooler F F F PFS wgnitudes of terms of the dimensionless onservtion equtions PFT sndex nottion for disretiztion F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFU qeometril dt of the wossel fy ri F F F F F F F F F F F PFV ueEside pressure drop orreltions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFW ueEside het trnsfer orreltions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFIH hellEside pressure drop orreltions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F PFII hellEside het trnsfer orreltions F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F RFI RFP RFQ RFR RFS RFT RFU RFV RFW RFIH RFII RFIP RFIQ RFIR RFIS IV IW PR PU PV QP QT RV RW SH SI

roess vriles of the evportion proess F F F F F F F F F F F IHQ orstEseGverge loss of est olumn ontrol strutures for the evportion proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHR gh results for the evportion proess F F F F F F F F F F F F F IHS xominl vlues t optiml operting points of the wossel fy plnt F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IIS yperting rnge of the wossel fy plnt F F F F F F F F F F F F F IIS wesurement nd their indies in y for the w yle F F F F F IIT orstEseGverge loss of liner ontrol strutures for the w yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IIU xominl vlues t optiml operting points of the tvnger plntIPQ erturtion rnge of the tvnger plnt F F F F F F F F F F F F IPS wesurement nd their indies in y for the vsww yle F F IPT orstEseGverge loss of liner ontrol strutures for the vsww yle F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IPU xominl vlues t optiml operting points of the gigm study IQQ erturtion rnge of the gigm study F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQQ wesurement nd their indies in y for the wpg proess F F F IQR orstEseGverge loss of ontrol strutures for the wpg proE ess F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IQS

xi

vist of les SFI SFP SFQ ypertionl trgets F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F F IRW sGy vriles of the stteEspe model of the vsww yle F ISI sGy vriles of the stteEspe model of the wpg yle F F F ITH

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Nomenclature
Abbreviations

ew eugmented mtrix eg enti surge ontrol fQe fidiretionl fef lgorithm for verge loss minimiztion fQw fidiretionl fef lgorithm for w mximiztion fQg fidiretionl fef lgorithm for worstEse loss minimiztion fef frnh nd ound fg foundry ondition fgw fillion stndrd ui meters fhv fest disturne rejetion loss gQw ropne preooled mixed refrigernt gt gold t gvhq glosedEloop disturne gin gx gondition numer gyv truture with nonzero olumns gyw truture with nonzero oe0ients per g gyx gonventinl ontrol struture gy goe0ient of performne gh gontrol struture design g gontrolled vrile g elkne with numer of ronsD e.g.D gI is methne heis hi'erentilElgeri equtions hgxi histurne gx for disturne i h histurne vrile iy iqution of stte py ploting prodution storge nd o1oding qw qin mrgin qh qenerlized singulr vlue deomposition rrg revy hydroron rw revy mixed refrigernt sq snlet guid vne sxh sndividully sized ontrol struture sGy snputGoutput t touleEhomson

xiii

xywixgvei vg viqueftion yle vr vower heting vlue vsww vinde multiEstgeEmixedErefrigernt vwg viner model preditive ontrol vw vight mixed refrigernt vxq vique(ed nturl gs vq vique(ed petroleum gs wpg wixed )uid sde wrw wedium pressure hevy mixed refrigernt wse epproximte solution of mixedEinteger prolem regrding verge loss wsg epproximte solution of mixedEinteger prolem regrding worstEse loss w wixed refrigernt w winimum singulr vlue we willion tons @vxqA per nnum wH truture in whih w set equls gs set w wnipulted vrile xq xturl gs xs xiederlinski index fQe rtil idiretionl fef lgorithm for verge loss minimiztion fQgEv fQg with liner trnsformtion of ontrol struture fQg rtil idiretionl fef lgorithm for worstEse loss minimiztion g reooling yle heis rtil heis ph roess )ow digrm pri lteE(n het exhnger sh roportionlEintegrlEderivtive qe erformne reltive gin rry wesurle proess vrile hq eltive disturne gin qe eltive gin rry r ightEhlfEplneEzero w ottion per minute ting point y elEtime optimiztion g uooling yle iv seletion struture rg uperheting ontrol sy ingleEinputEsingleEoutput w ingle mixed refrigernt v et point low

xiv

xywixgvei u oveEedlihEuwong etpoint vrile ri pirlEwound het exhnger gp rillion ui feet GpGgg empertureD )ow rtio nd ompression rtio ontrol t rm t

Accents
!

wximumGminimum vlue of vrile if oveGelow symol preezed vlue of vrile t referene point xo meningY for deorting symols lredy in use xusselt rndtl eynolds vokhrdtEwrtinelli

Dimensionless numbers
Nu Pr Re Xtt i , i i i

Greek symbols

ret trnsfer oe0ient in kg s3 u1 T i ith digonl oe0ient of mtries nd T D respetively engle of tue slope pilm thikness @in mA oid frtion ekermnn orretion term gontt ngle qe vengthEspei( mss )ow rte in kg s1 m1 urfe tension in kg s2 roportionl gin prmeter of sh ontroller qeGfristol numer herml ondutivity in kg m s3 u1 ith smllestGlrgest @depending on ontextA eigenvlue iigenvetor orresponding to the th eigenvlue i hynmi visosity in kg m1 s1 gompression pressure rtio (> 1) hensity in kg m3 higonl mtrix pritionl tension in kg m1 s2 ith smllestGlrgest @depending on ontextA singulr vlue sntegrl time prmeter of sh ontroller gorretion term for mss trnsfer

xv

xywixgvei

engulr frequeny in rd s1 himensionless longitudinl oordinte

ere in m2 herml di'usivity in m2 s1 g vetor wolr density vetor in mol m3 inhnement multiplier for the e'et of liquid (lm turulene finomil oe0ient inditing numer of possiilities for seleting k mong n elements cp pei( het pity in m2 s2 u1 d h vetor D h spe D goil dimeter @in mA d himeter @in mA dc yuter tue dimeter @in mA di snner tue dimeter @in mA E orstEse expettion vlue e wss spei( internl energy in m2 s2 h wss spei( enthlpy in m2 s2 F wtrix inditing y opt /d F wolr )ow rte vetor in mol s1 F wolr )ow rte in mol s1 f impiril orreltion @dimension from ontextA f prequeny in s1 FV olumetri )ow rte in 3 s1 m G wss )ux in kg s1 m2 g iy for mss spei( enhlpy in m2 s2 Y susripts p nd c refer to prtil derivtives g qrvittionl elertion in m s2 rnsfer mtrix from w towrds v @for the ske of simple nottionD the Gv w indition of v = c or w = u is omittedA H, H xonEliner nd liner mpD representing c/y H inthlpy in kg m2 s2 h wss spei( enhlpy in m2 s2 hi ith row of H J gost funtion j plux in m s1 j smginry numer 1 L voop trnsfer funtion A a c c Cf n Ck

Latin symbols

xvi

xywixgvei

L voss L vength @in mA M voss mtrix M wolr mss vetor in kg mol1 M wss @in kgA N (1 , 2 ) xorml distriution with men 1 nd vrine 2 nc xumer of omponents c , ny smplementtion errors relting to input nd output unertinty n nr peed of rottion @in wA nv ize of vetor v nY ize of suset Y O vndu nottion @desries limiting ehvior of funtionA P osenrok mtrix p ressure in kg m1 s2 Pl , Pr vongitudinlD rdil distne of tues @in mA q olume spei( het in kg m1 s2 ret duty in kg m2 s3 S ensitivity funtion S lip rtio T gomplementry sensitivity funtion T emperture @in uA t ime @in sA U nitry mtrix u w vetor U (x1 , x2 ) gontinuous uniform distriution in the intervl [x1 , x2 ] V egulr mtrix V olume m3 in w eloity in m s1 x por frtion gomposition (in %) y vetor Y suset Yy gomplete set of s z voss vrile vetor z sq position @in A z vongitudinl oordinte @in mA z ero

Subscripts/superscripts
P Pph sndued two norm woEphse

xvii

xywixgvei m v C eos ore s t p (lm fri g ht in in iter l ls m m out pinh Gy Gy st st t teos u w x emient everge et of ndidte gs glori eqution of stte gore of nnulr )ow gommonEsized ontrol strutures goiled tue proenius norm ennulr (lm t the inner side of the tue wll prition qsGvpor phse ret trnsfer snlet snline tue on(gurtion stertion viquid phse viquid single phse wen vlue wetl yutlet inh point eEoptimiztion eplement for either P or pD depending on onsidertion of worstEse or verge lossD respetively elfEoptimiztion tggered tue on(gurtion tright tue rtil derivtive with respet to t herml eqution of stte rnspose nion of ll susets orstEse rtil derivtive with respet to x

xviii

Disclaimer
wevef is registered trdemrk of he wthworksD xtikD wsshusettsF weriwesge is registered trdemrk of olfrm eserhD snFD ghmE pignD sllinoisF xeq is registered trdemrk of he xumeril elgorithms qroupD yxfordD nited uingdomF yssw D wpg nd vsww re registered trdemrks of the vinde eqD wunihD qermnyF sntel gore is trdemrk of the sntel gorportionD nt glrD gliforniF sxhy is registered trdemrk of the wirosoft gorportionD edmondD shingE tonF eE is trdemrk of eir roduts nd ghemilsD snFD ellentownD ennsylvniF

xix

Chapter 1 Introduction
his hpter gives n outline of the thesisF sn etion IFID tehnil solutions for optiml opertion of proess plnts re presentedF e prtiulr solution is seleted nd it is resoned why it is onsidered fvorleF fkground informE tion regrding lique(ed nturl gs @vxqA is supplied in etion IFPF revious work strongly relted to this thesis is introdued in etion IFQF etion IFR summrizes the min ontriutions of this workF he struture of the thesis is outlined in etion IFSF

1.1 Motivation
roess plnts re designed for ertin set of proess onditions suh s feed nd mient onditions where they must hieve trgets s required y the produt spei(tions @e.g.D produt purityAF huring opertionl prtieD the plnt must e mnipulted in order to stisfy the trgets irrespetive of vrying onditionsF hereforeD eh trget is relted to ontrolled vrile @gA whih is kept t its setpoint vrile @A y ontroller whih therefore ts on one or more mnipulted vriles @wsA suh s vlve positionD speed of rottionl equipmentD etc. sf there re less ws thn trgetsD then the trgets nnot e hieved simultneously due to too few ville degrees of freedomF sn se of s mny ws s trgetsD the trgets my e hieved with one possile djustment of the ws whih n e found y the ontroller@sAF sf there re more ws thn trgetsD then the trgets my e hieved y vrious djustments of the wsF rtilly spokenD the ws n e seprted into one set whih is mpped vi ontroller loops towrds the trget relted gs nd nother set lled surplus ws whose vlues n e independently setF ht the surplus ws re seldom independentD i.e.D unused y ontrollersD reltes to the ft tht most engineers use the surplus ws to keep other proess vriles @sA (xed for the ske of smoother opertionD higher reliilityD etc. st is importnt to stress tht the dditionl degrees of freedom re generlly not lost y using the surplus ws ut simply moved from the surplus ws to the s of the dditionlly introdued ontroller loops whih re referred to s

grei IF sxyhgsyx surplus sF he signi(ne of the ove stted is tht plnt with surplus wsGs n e sujet to stedyEstte optimiztion of n eonomi mesure suh s pro(t nd ostF sf the stedyEstte ehvior of the plnt is stritly linerD then liner progrmming prolem must e solved nd the optimum is loted diretly t the edge of the operting regionF sully liner model preditive ontrol @vwgA is utilized in prtie to hieve the solution to the liner progrmming prolemF xote tht vwg tkes lso plnt dynmis into E ount nd provides smooth trnsitions from one stedyEstte operting point to notherF sf the ssumption of liner stedyEstte ehvior is indequteD then nonliner progrmming prolem needs to e solved nd the optimum n e nywhere within the operting regionF elEtime optimiztion @yA is the most ommon tehnology to otin the optiml stedyEstte operting point of nonliner plntsF edvned ontrol tehnologies suh s vwg or y re not onsidered in this work for the investigtion of optiml opertion of vxq liqueftion plntsF his is due to vrious resons ut mostly relted to the ft tht this work is designted to serve the needs of plnt ontrtor suh s the ingineering hivision of the vinde eqF he vinde ingineering hivision is prtiulrly inE terested in solutions whih n e instlled in n erly phse of the life yle of plntD whih eses the ommissioning of plnts nd helps to hieve greed spei(tions during the performne testsD whih n e reused mong similr projets nd whih my e sold s speil essory to the plntF hese reE quirements re generlly not hieved y dvned ontrol tehnologies suh s vwg nd yF por instneD the model for vwg is otined y step tests of the plnt whih is timeEonsuming nd nnot e performed until ommissionE ing hs tken pleF purtherD the model is individully relted to prtiulr projetD even for ertin phse of the life yleD nd nnot e reused mong projetsF sn ontrstD y is sed on rigorous (rstEpriniple models of the plnt whih my y dpted etween projets if justi(ed y ostEene(t nlysisF roweverD tking y into opertion relies lso on lredy ommisE sioned plntF gonsequentlyD its rther timeEonsuming implementtion omes erliest into ply fter ommissioningF lene plnts where dvned proess ontrol is trditionlly pplied @eorgD IWWWY priedmnD IWWWY uno nd ygwD PHHWAD desire the implementtion of suh tehnologies s erly s possileF herefore e'orts hve een reently undertken y the vinde ingineering hivision to integrte the development of dvned ontrol projets into the erliest phse of the life yle of plnt to mke the ene(ts for the ustomer ville s soon s possile @hulzeD

Remark IFI. ome plnt opertorsD espeilly in mrket segments suh s ethyE

IFIF wysesyx
Scheduling (weeks) Site-wide optimization (day) Local optimization Local optimization (hour)

C ontrol layer

Supervisory control Local optimization (minutes)

Regulatory control Local optimization (seconds)

pigure IFIX ypil ontrol hierrhy of hemil plnt @fter kogestdD PHHHA PHHUGIIGIVEPHAF elfEoptimizing ontrol @kogestdD PHHHA is onsidered the pproh whih serves the needs of plnt ontrtor estF st hs nothing to do with online optimiztion s its nme my suggestF st refers to simple regultory ontrol where only the set of surplus gs is speilly seleted suh tht the plnt is operted ner its optiml stte despite vrying disturnes nd (xed sF egultory ontrol is utilized in the lower lyer of virtully every stteEofEtheE rt plnt s indited in pigure IFIF elfEoptimizing ontrol is therefore esy to implement nd prtilly epted y plnt operting st'F he rrows in the sketh of pigure IFI indite tht overlying lyers determine the s of underlying onesF edvned tehnologies suh s vwg nd y re lssi(ed in the lol nd siteEwide optimiztion lyerD respetivelyF st is thus ler tht selfEoptimizing ontrol does not exlude dvned tehnologies ut n e ommonly pplied with themF st is interesting to note tht s prt of his thorough survey of optiml opertion y feedk ontrolD ingell @PHHTGHRGHPE HSA proposes the reEthought of the trditionl lyer funtionlity s indited in pigure IFIF re suggests tking etter dvntge of regultory nd dvned ontrol onepts y higher integrtion of oth worldsF he ft tht eonomilly optiml opertion of plnt n e hieved y regultory ontrol nd onstnt setpoint poliy is y fr not ovious nd is therefore illustrted y n exmpleF

Example 1.2. uppose tht n exemplry plnt with one surplus w nd two
Q

grei IF sxyhgsyx

0.5

0.5

y2 = 4.2361 y1

1 1

0.5

0 y1

0.5

pigure IFPX gost of n exemplry plnt

T ndidte gs y = y1 y2 is present where y = 0 holds t the nominl pointF uppose further tht the ost funtion of the plnt to e minimized during opertion is given y 5 1 y. J = yT 1 0.1
fy oservtion of the ontour plot of the ost funtion presented in pigure IFPD it is firly pprent tht it is eonomilly more fvorle to keep y1 t its nominl vlue thn y2 F en even etter g seletion is the liner omintion y2 4.2361 y1 indited y the dshed lineF he exmple shows vividly tht the pproprite seletion or omintion of gs n hve n e'et on plnt eonomis if the s re intended to e (xedF ht ws not pointed out is how gs re seleted in order to otin selfEoptimizing ontrol ehviorF qenerllyD ontrol engineering of the two lowermost lyers in pigure IFI involves (ve steps @kogestdD PHHRAX IF eletion of ws PF eletion of gs to e kept t ertin s QF eletion of gs for stiliztion of the plnt RF eletion of ontrol on(gurtion SF eletion of ontroller type nd design prmeters

IFIF wysesyx ke into ount tht the (rst three steps my e interhngeleF wostly in industril prtieD ll steps re performed sed on experiene nd engineering insightD still very muh long the lines desried y fukley @epr IWTSD ghpter IQAF he seond step is referred to s ontrol struture design @ghA nd systemti pproh sed on simultion models n e ene(il in terms of eonomi mesuresF he ft tht modelEsed ontrol engineering is still rrely pplied in inE dustry is due to vrious resonsF pirstD in most ses there re simply no pproprite plnt modelsF eondD ontrol is usully multiEojetive tsk nd minimum energy onsumption imed y selfEoptimizing gh is usully not the most ritil ojetiveY the engineers often rther fous on opertionl simpliityF hirdD the frmework of selfEoptimizing gh is firly new nd is just out to rrive t industril prtieF st is worth thinking of how the steps ove 'et plnt opertionF he (rst step is responsile for plnt verstility whih refers to the ese of hnging the operting pointF por instneD it generlly holds tht the more ws plnt hsD the more verstile is itF e simple exmple of n w whih n e dded or removed is ypss round het exhngerF he seond step 'ets lso the verstility nd s pointed out ove the optimlity of the plntF he former n lso e illustrted y n exmpleF

Example 1.3.

uppose one selets g whih is lmost independent on the wsF hen the verstility of the plnt is poor s the ws hve limited rnge nd do not mnge to hieve the given due to sturtionF

wost of the timesD the third in the ove listed steps is lso very oviousF por instne the level in seprtion drum must e stilized y using either the inlet or one of the outlet )ow rtes s wsF st is interesting to stress tht therey the degrees of freedom remin invrint s the lost in ws is repled y the degrees of freedom generted y the sF roweverD in the prtiulr se of level ontrol the hs usully no stedyEstte e'etF gontrol on(gurtion in step four refers to the struture of the overll ontroller tht interonnets the gsD ws nd extr sF hereyD dynmil properties suh s stilityD integrityD response promptnessD osilltionsD w sturtion etc. re 'etedF he fourth step is somewht interonneted with the (fth step nd vie versF he ontrol lw spei(tion suh s shD deouplerD etc. 'et exlusively dynmil propertiesF his thesis dels with the systemti ontrol struture design @step I through QAD seletion of ontrol on(gurtion @step RA nd ontroller synthesis @step SA for seleted vxq liqueftion proessesF rereD the emphsis lies on the seletion of gs @step PA with speil regrd to selfEoptimizing ontrolF

grei IF sxyhgsyx

1.2 Background of LNG

vique(ed nturl gs @vxqA is fully ondensed methneErih @b WH mol7A mixture of hydrorons nd nitrogen ner tmospheri pressureF vxq is present t temperture of pproximtely 160 gF he tul vlue depends on produt pressure nd ompositionF vxq is generted from nturl gs free from tres of wter nd id gsF he resons for prodution of vxq is tht its density is inresed y ftor of THH ompred to nturl gs t sme pressure onditions yielding out RH 7 more heting vlue thn ny liquid fuel derived from the hemil onversion of nturl gs @mD wr PHHPD pF IAF hue to this inrese in densityD trnsporttion vi )eets of tnk ships nd truks eomes fesileF sn some ses nd spets it n e dvntgeous over pipeline trnsportD in others it my e the only possiilityF pigure IFQ shows the trnsporttion ost versus distne for ship nd onshoreGo'shore pipeline trnsportF vxq shipping is the only trnsporttion method whih hs nonzero ost t zero distne whih is due to distneEindependent investE ment ostF es the trnsporttion ost per unit nd distne re the smllest for vxq shippingD it eomes eonomilly fvorle over oth o'shore nd onshore pipeline trnsport t ertin distnesF st is therefore prtiulrly useful for the explortion of remote gs (eldsF enother rgument pro vxq trnsporttion is tht insted of delivering the totl vxq to one ustomerD vrious ustomers whih my e remote from the plnt nd remote from eh other n e deliveredF por exmpleD vxq produed in the widdle ist nd throughout the i( im supplies pproximtely IH 7 of tpn9s primry energy onsumption @rmmer et al.D PHHTAF purtherD vxq n e trded s spot delivery whih provides more )exiility s pipeline distriution for oth the ustomer nd the supplierF he prodution of vxq n lso e useful for pekshving purposesF por instneD storge of vxq ner urn res perE mits pek demnds for nturl gs to e stis(ed without uilding dditionl pipelines tht would e underutilized most of the timeF he (rst ommeril shipping of vxq ws relized in IWTR with the export from the v gmel vxq plnt in erzrewD elgeri to gnvey sslndsD uF ine thenD the vxq tehnology hs evolved in terms of higher e0ieny nd lrger plnt sles whih oth improved vxq projet eonomis signi(ntly @tesD PHHPGIHGIQEITY ferger et al.D PHHQAF eent tivities of the ingineering hiE vision of the vinde eq nd other plyers im to develop o'Eshore vxq produE tion plntsD so lled )oting prodution storge nd o'Elodings @pysAD for the explortion of strnded gs reserves @oskresenskyD PHHWGHQGQIEHRGHPAF vxq glol trde hs een expnding lmost stedily sine its eginning nd the esiEi( region is dominting the demnd sine the midEseventies

IFQF isy yu
Unit cost of transport

Offshore pipeline ( 900 mm) LNG shipping (onshore tech.) Onshore pipeline (1000 mm)

Distance (in km) 1000 2000 3000

pigure IFQX gomprison of trnsporttion ost @fter rmmer et al.D PHHTA @tensenD PHHRAF he urrent nnul glol demnd is out PPT illion stndrd ui meters @fgwA @f sttF revFD tun PHHWAF eording to the forest of wuy @tn PHHWAD the vxq volume will inrese to QRH fgw in PHIS nd to TVH fgw in PHQH despite the urrent (nnil meltEdownF

1.3 Previous work

revious nd relted work in (elds ddressed y this thesis re spei(lly referred to in the respetive hptersD i.e.D in etions PFID QFID RFI nd SFIF xeverthelessD the di'erene to the losely relted work of tensen @wy PHHVA is prtiulrly pointed out hereF tensen @wy PHHVA ws the (rst whih pE plied selfEoptimizing ontrol struture design to simple refrigertion nd het pump yles nd two vxq liqueftion proessesD the sgy yle @tensen nd kogestdD PHHTGHRGHPEHSD PHHWA nd the wpg proess @tensen nd kogestdD PHHTGHUGHWEIQAF ris im ws the identi(tion of sets of ontrolled vriles whih utomtilly led to lmost optiml opertionF sn this workD similr studies re performed for the wpg proess nd the vsww yle with some mjor di'erenesF pirstD di'erent ojetive funE tion for optiml opertion is usedF sn eppendix RFeD it is pointed out tht the vxq throughput is onsidered the most generl ojetive in terms of indepenE dene from mrket onditionsF eondD new ontrol struture design methods lled ew methods re proposed in this thesisF hey llow n engineer to (nd the est set of liner omintions of proess vriles for eh ontrolled vrile independentlyF es these methods were not ville for tensen @wy PHHVAD he restrited himself mostly to the serh of the est seletion of s rther thn their omintionF st is importnt to stress tht ominE tion strutures generlly hieve etter optimlity s seletion struturesF hirdD in ontrst to the work of tensen @wy PHHVAD the newly identi(ed

grei IF sxyhgsyx ontrol strutures re judged y mens of dynmi operility metrisF

1.4 Contributions
pirl wound het exhngers @risA re ommonly pplied s min ryoE geni het exhngers in selod vxq liqueftion plntsF sn order to proE vide urte preditions of vxq plnt ehviorD n existing si model of n ri ws further developed into highly sophistited model nd impleE mented into the vinde inEhouse simultor yssw F sn ontrst to models of prior rtD the new model llows for temporl mss umultion within the tue nd shell pssgesF purther enhnements refer to the implementtion of empiril orreltions for tue nd shellEside het trnsfer nd pressure drop in ris with speil regrd to vxq servieF his ws rther hllenging tsk s di'erent strem regimes tke ple on othD the tue nd the shell sideF fsed on linerized stedyEstte plnt model nd the seond derivtive @ressinA of the ostGpro(t funtionD oth otined t the plnt9s nominl opE erting pointD sets of ontrolled vriles n e judged in terms of loseness to optiml plnt ehvior y the worstEseGverge loss riterion @rlvorsen et al.D PHHQY uriwl et al.D PHHVAF he prolem of (nding the est set of ontrolled vriles hs een onsidered y vrious uthorsF ome onsidE ered the e0ient seletion of proess vriles s ontrolled vriles @go nd hD PHHSY uriwl nd kogestdD PHHTGHUGHWEIQY go nd uriwlD PHHVY uriwl nd goD PHHWD PHIHAF ythers derived methods in whih every onE trolled vrile is liner omintion of the sme prede(ned set of proess vriles @elstd nd kogestdD PHHUY uriwlD PHHUY uriwl et al.D PHHVY elstd et al.D PHHWAF purther enhnement of some of these methods llowed the e0ient identi(tion of the est proess vrile suset of ertin size @uriwl nd goD PHHWD PHIHAF en lternte slightly less e0ient method omplishes to tke struturl onstrints for the proess vrile suset into ount @elhuru nd kogestdD PHIHGHUGPSEPVAF prom prtil point of viewD strutures where every ontrolled vrile onsist of the sme proess vrile set hve little prtil eptneF purE thermoreD their optimlity eomes insu0ient if the proess vrile suset size is smll @in the order of the ontrolled vrile set sizeAF hue to these de(ieniesD e'orts hve een undertken in this work to develop identi(tion methods for more dvned omintion struturesF he results re methods tht re le to identify strutures in whih eh ontrolled vrile n e liner omintion of n individul suset of prede(ned suset sizeF hese methods hve een lredy mde pulily ville @reldtD PHHWD PHIHA nd re presented in this thesisF

fsfvsyqer he new ontrol struture design methods were pplied to three vxq proE essesD the simple w yleD the vsww yle nd the wpg proessF he most promising results were suessfully proven y dynmi operility nlyses nd proteted y ptents @reldtD pendingAF

1.5 Thesis structure

he struture of the thesis is outlined in the followingF ghpter P dels with the modeling of vxq plntsF he most importne lies on the model of the spiE rl wound het exhngers s they re the mjor equipment of most selod vxq plntsF sn ghpter QD the onept of selfEoptimizing ontrol is introdued nd the prolem of (nding est ontrolled vrile sets is disussedF ulily ville solution methods re reviewed nd new dvned methods re proE posedF sn order to illustrte the dvntge of the ltterD they re ompred with the former y repeted rndom testsF heir pplition to demi proess exmple nd three vxq liqueftion proesses tkes ple in ghpter RF he results re new sets of ontrolled vriles whih provide lmost opE timl opertion of the onsidered proesses when onstnt setpoint poliy is ppliedF por the most promising ontrolled vrile sets of the vsww yle nd the wpg proessesD the est pirings with the mnipulted vriE les re (gured out in ghpter S y mens of dynmil mesures of the linerized dynmi model equtionsF he dynmil performne of these new ontrol strtegies is ompred with onventionl onesF gonluding remrks nd outlook for future work re given hpterEspei( in etions PFRFVD QFTD RFVD SFTF

Bibliography
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P. S. Buckley. Techniques of process control. Krieger Publishing, Melbourne, Florida, Apr 1965. ISBN 0471116556.

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Y. Cao and V. Kariwala. Bidirectional branch and bound for controlled variable selection: Part I. Principles and minimum singular value criterion. Computers and chemical engi-

neering, 32(10):23062319, 2008.

Y. Cao and P. Saha. Improved branch and bound method for control structure screening.

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Hydrocarbon Asia, 9(Jul/Aug):114, 1999.

I. J. Halvorsen, S. Skogestad, J. C. Marud, and V. Alstad. Optimal selection of controlled variables. Industrial and engineering chemistry research, 42:32733284, 2003. G. Hammer, T. Lbcke, R. Kettner, M. R. Pillarella, H. Recknagel, A. Commichau, H. J. Neumann, and B. Paczynska-Lahme. Natural Gas. In Ullmann's encyclopedia of industrial

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S. Heldt. Verfahren zum Betrieb einer Anlage zum Verssigen eines kohlenwasserstoreichen Stroms (Patent pending). S. Heldt. On a new approach for self-optimizing control structure design. In S. Engell and Y. Arkun, editors, ADCHEM 2009: Preprints of IFAC symposium on advanced control of

chemical processes: July 12-15, 2009, Ko University, Istanbul, Turkey, volume 2, pages
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J. B. Jensen. Optimal operation of refrigeration cycles: Ph.D. thesis. Ph.D. thesis, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway, May 2008. J. B. Jensen and S. Skogestad. Optimal operation of a simple LNG process. International symposium on advanced control of chemical processes, Gramado, Brazil, 2006/04/02-05. J. B. Jensen and S. Skogestad. Optimal operation of a mixed uid cascade LNG plant.

Symposium on Process Systems Engineering/European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 2006/07/09-13. J. B. Jensen and S. Skogestad. Single-cycle mixed-uid LNG process: Part I: Optimal design. In H. E. Alfadala, G. V. R. Reklaitis, and M. M. El-Halwagi, editors, Proceedings of the

1st annual gas processing symposium: 10 - 12 January 2009, Doha, Qatar, pages 213220.
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on advanced control of chemical processes: July 12-15, 2009, Ko University, Istanbul, Turkey, volume 1, pages 1126. 2009.

IH

fsfvsyqer
V. Kariwala. Optimal measurement combination for local self-optimizing control. Industrial

and engineering chemistry research, 46(46):36293634, 2007.

V. Kariwala and Y. Cao. Bidirectional branch and bound for controlled variable selection: Part II. Exact local method for self-optimizing control.

Computers and chemical engi-

neering, 2009.
V. Kariwala and Y. Cao. Bidirectional branch and bound for controlled variable selection: Part III. Local average loss minimization. IEEE transactions on industrial informatics, 2010a. V. Kariwala and S. Skogestad. Branch and bound methods for control structure design.

Symposium on Process Systems Engineering/European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 2006/07/09-13. V. Kariwala, Y. Cao, and S. Janardhanan. Local self-optimizing control with average loss minimization. Industrial and engineering chemistry research, 47(4):11501158, 2008. J. McKay. LNG output to surge and new projects face funding hurdles. LNG journal, pages 14, Jan 2009. K. Schulze. Modellbasierte Prozessfhrung: Erfahrungen und Herausforderungen aus der

Sicht eines Anlagenbauers. Prozess-, Apparate- und Anlagentechnik, Weimar, Germany, 2007/11/18-20. D. E. Seborg. A perspective on advanced strategies for process control. Automatisierung-

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S. Skogestad. Plantwide control: The search for the self-optimizing control structure. Journal

of process control, 10(5):487507, 2000.

S. Skogestad. Control structure design for complete chemical plants. Computers and chemical

engineering, 28(1-2):219234, 2004a.

E. Voskresenskaya. Potential application of oating LNG. Global conference on renewables and energy eciency for desert regions, Amman, Jordan, 2009/03/31-04/02. D. Yates. Thermal eciency: Design, lifecycle, and environmental considerations in LNG plant design. Gastech, Doha, Qatar, 2002/10/13-16. R. Yelchuru and S. Skogestad. MIQP formulation for optimal controlled variable selection in self-optimizing control. The international symposium on design, operation and control of chemical processes, Singapore, Republic of, 2010/07/25-28. A. Zam. Dynamic optimization of an LNG plant: Case study GL2Z LNG plant in Arzew, Al-

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Aachen, Germany, Mar 2002. ISBN 3832206647.

II

grei IF sxyhgsyx

IP

Chapter 2 Modeling
he investigtion of the opertion of vxq liqueftion proesses is sed on dynmil simultion models of these proessesF he models used throughout this thesis re uilt in the vinde inEhouse simultor yssw F his ghpter gives n overview on property lultion for mixtures of hydrorons nd governing equtions for stndrd unit opertions present in vxq liqueftion proessesF etion PFI refers to prior work in the (eld of modeling of vxq liqueftion proessesF etion PFP dels with the lultion of properties of nturl gs nd mixed refrigerntsF sn etion PFQD survey of modeling of unit opertions present in vxq liqueftion proesses is givenF he further development of spirl wound het exhnger model is presented in etion PFRF ome issues onerning the modeling of yle proesses re disussed in etion PFSF

2.1 Related work

hynmi modeling of vxq liqueftion proesses hs een disussed in vrE ious prior worksD e.g.D welen @yt IWWRAY m @wr PHHPA nd rmmerD ll of them hFhF thesesF uronseder @PHHQA onsidered the dynmi modE eling of hemil engineering plnts in yssw for the ske of dynmi optimiztionD prmeter estimtion nd online optiml ontrolF e thorough introdution into proess modeling is given y xjim @IWVWA nd rngos nd gmeron @IWWUD PHHIAF elted work regrding the modeling of spirl wound het exhngers is referred to in etions PFRFP nd PFRFQF

2.2 Material properties

por physil property lultionD vinde hs mde signi(nt investments into its inEhouse qenerl wultiphse roperty ystem @qwA pkge whih is integrted into yssw mong other tools @furr nd fei'erD IWVQY furrD IWVSY teinuer nd rehtD IWWTGHTGHQEHSAF imilr to proess simultionD

IQ

grei PF wyhivsxq there is more thn PHEyerEold history of developing own physil property methodsF ith regrd to tehnologyD spei( multiphse lultion pilE ities re still outstnding ompred to ommeril o'eringsF purther dvnE tges re given y the )exiility to rpidly ret to new requirementsD nd y the internl expert knowEhow whih llows highly relile gurnteesD e.g.D for produt purities @ingl nd urnerD PHHTGHUGHWEIQAF por lultion of properties nd phse equilirium of hydroron mixtures of omponents gI to gT nd nitrogenD proprietry form of the oveEedlihE uwong @uA eqution of stte @iyA ws used in this workF he u iy is ui iy whih is known to urtely desrie nonEioni mixturesF his ws veri(ed y reent study y terini et al. @PHHWA whih pplied popuE lr iys to nturl gs mixtures nd ompred them with respet to their predition ury of properties suh s vpor pressureD dewGoiling densityD ompressiility ftor s well s inry gsGliquid equilirium nd ondenste frtionF hey me to the onlusion tht the similr engEoinson iy is estEsuited for the predition of the ehvior of nturl gs mixturesF st is worth mentioning tht in other pulily ville works where vxq liqueE ftion proesses were modeled nd simulted @i.e.D welenD yt IWWRY mD wr PHHPY rmmerD ppF QSEQUAD exlusively the ui iys of engEoinson nd u were ppliedF e thorough desription of physil ehvior of nturl gs systems is given in the textook of utz nd vee @IWWHD ppF IIHEIVIAF yne interesting property of hydroron mixtures is the @ounterintuitiveA retrogrde ondenstion whih tkes ple in the two phse region ner the ritil point s indited y the gry re in the phse digrm in pigure PFIF

2.3 Unit operations

wodeling of hemil plnt proesses tkes ple in modulr fshion nd is ommonly referred to s )owsheetingF plowsheeting reltes to inrementlly uilding grphilGode representtion of proess y dding unit opertions from templtes nd interonneting those using mterilD energy nd informE tion stremsF sn the kgroundD system of equtions is generted whih represents the plnt modelF st my e pure lgeri system for design or stedyEstte simultion purposes orD in se of dynmi simultion modelD mix of di'erentilElgeri equtions @heisAF e survey of the tehnology of equtionEoriented )owsheeting is given y frton @wr PHHHAF e more generl overview of )owsheeting tools is given y erry @PHHVAF he vinde inEhouse development yssw 1 is n equtionEoriented )owsheeting tool for the deE
1
OPTISIM

is a registered trademark of the Linde AG.

IR

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi

Pressure Cricondenbar Liquid Gas

Critical point

Retrograde region

Two-phase region

Cricondentherm

Liquid content 95 % 20 % 10 % 5%

Temperature

pigure PFIX ypil phse digrm of hydroron mixture of (xed omposiE tion @from rmmer et al.D PHHTD pF UA signD simultion nd optimiztion of hemil proesses @iihEoellner et al.D IWWUA with long history of pplitions @furrD IWWIDGY oithD IWWIY pp nd endlerD IWWQY ingl nd hmidtD IWWTGHTGPTY ingl et al.D IWWWY urnerD PHHTGHUGHWEIQAF hynmi model equtions of unit opertion whih our in vxq liqueftion proessesD i.e.D mixesD splitsD gsGliquid seprtorsD throttle vlvesD ompressors nd two strem ounterGrossEurrent het exhngers re not presented here due to vrious illustrtions in prior work @welenD yt IWWRY iihEoellner et al.D IWWUY rngos nd gmeronD PHHIY mD wr PHHPY rmmerY ingh nd rovdD PHHTGHWGPVEPWAF heeper insights into the modeling of ompressors re provided in the textook of vdtke @PHHRAF ithin the sope of this thesisD the model equtions of the spirl wound het exhngers in the yssw simultor were revisedF hereforeD loser look t this unit opertion is mde in the next setionF

2.4 Spiral-wound heat exchanger

his setion dels with the development of dynmil model of spirlEwound het exhngers @risA for the vinde inEhouse simultor yssw F ropE erties of ris nd (elds of pplition re introdued in etion PFRFIF eE

IS

grei PF wyhivsxq lted work in experimentl investigtion nd dynmil modeling of ris re referred to in etions PFRFP nd PFRFQD respetivelyF wodeling issues re disussed in etion PFRFRF sn etion PFRFS nd PFRFTD governing onservtive nd phenomenology equtions re presentedF he dynmil vlidtion of the resulting ri model tkes ple in etion PFRFUF gonluding remrks re given in etion PFRFVF

2.4.1 Introduction
sn vxq liqueftion plntsD nturl gs is ooled ginst oolnt whih is usully mixture of light hydroronsF he ooling of nturl gs tkes ple in so lled min ryogeni het exhngers @wgriAF empertures of pproxF 160 g re su0ient to trnsform nturl gs into its liquid stte t stndrd pressureF sullyD spirlGoilEwound het exhngers @riGgriA re deE ployed s wgrisF

Remark PFI. por some resonsD plteE(n het exhngers @priA serve someE times s proper sustituteF st is known tht ris re ple of lrge temperture di'erenes nd grdientsF pris insted require smooth operE tionD ut re preferle when limited opertion spe is provided @see vinde pulition vooking inside . . . D PHHSAF vxq plnts uilt in the THs nd erly UHs @sed on di'erent ylesA possessed oth pri nd ri equipmentF vterD the ri eme more nd more dominntF
ris re firly omplex units s they onsist of up to 1000 km of oiled tues in shellF edzi nd holz @IWUQA stte tht they o'er unique dvnE tges whenever @iA simultneous het trnsfer etween more thn two strems is desiredD @iiA lrge numer of het trnsfer units re requiredD nd @iiiA high operting pressures of the strems re givenF ri n e used generlly for ll purposes where len servie is presentD ut re primrily used for lowE temperture proesses s feed oolers nd lique(ersF sn the sope of plnts mnE uftured y the ingineering hivision of the vinde eqD ris re predomiE nntly pplied in vxq plnts ut not exlusivelyF fh et al. @PHHIGHSGIREIUA stte tht from IWUQ until IWWP risD instlled y vinde were in opertion in n ir seprtion plnt in vudwigshfenD qermny @fepAF yther (elds of pplitions re ithylene plntsD etisol units nd gy shift onversion @listed in the vinde pulition goilEwound het exhngerD PHHTAF purther (elds of pplitions re illustrted in hier nd fkhus @IWWUD pF PTRA he geometry of ris n e vried widely to otin optiml )ow onE ditions for ll strems nd still meet het trnsfer nd pressure drop requireE mentsF pigure PFP provides simple setionl drwing of n riF ues re wound round ore ylinder @the mndrelAD whih is minly designted

IT

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi

B C D

1 2 3

4 A 5 6 7

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Nozzles Jacket/shroud Pigtail ends Tube sheet Mandrell Tube layers Spacers Coil Shell

A-A B- B C- C D-D

Shell-side flow 1. tube-side flow 2. tube-side flow 3. tube-side flow

pigure PFPX rinipl sketh of n ri @from rusen nd vindeD IWVSD pF RUPA for stility during mnufturingD nd olleted in heders t oth ends of the ylindril shellF uessive lyers of tues seprted y sping strips re wound in opposite diretionsF

2.4.2 Experimental investigation

xeers @ep IWWQA investigted the tueEside het trnsfer nd pressure drop of pure hydrorons @gQD PPA nd hydroron mixtures @gIGgPD gPGgQA in ris with designted test rig @onentri nd inlined doule tueAF re investigted two )ow ptternsD single phse nd nnulr @i.e.D sher onE trolledA )owF he grvity ontrolled slug )ow regime ws not onsideredF rE ious orreltions for single nd two phse het trnsfer nd fritionl pressure drop were vlidtedF u0iently vlidted models re listed in le PFIF por het trnsfer nd frition in single phse )owD orreltion y hittusEfoelter

IU

grei PF wyhivsxq plow regime ingle phse ennulr )ow ret trnsfer hittusEfoelter @IWQHA foyko nd uruzhilin @IWTUA @orrF y ilverD IWRU nd rdesi et al.D IWVPD IWVQA pritionl pressure drop qnielinski @IWVTA puhs @tul IWUSAG priedel @IWVHA

le PFIX wodels for tueEside het trnsfer nd fritionl pressure drop vliE dted y xeers @ep IWWQA @IWQHA2 nd qnielinski @IWVTAD respetively ws suessfully vlidtedF por pure nd mixed refrigernts t the nnulr )ow stteD good greement eE tween mesured nd predited het trnsfer nd frition ws otined for the method y foyko nd uruzhilin @IWTUA nd puhs @tul IWUSAD respetivelyF st is importnt to stress tht mjor funtionl dependeny within the model y puhs @tul IWUSA is represented y @nonEphysilA lkEox modelD i.e.D urve (t of mesurement dtF his mkes the method somewht unrelile in terms of generlityF he seond est vlidted method for fritionl pressure drop t nnulr )ow stte is the one y priedel @IWVHAF sn order to ount for seondry e'etsD xeers proposed orretion methods for these empiril orE reltionsF he method y ilver @IWRUAD independently developed y fell nd qhly @IWUPAD orrets the het trnsfer oe0ients y foyko nd uruzhilin @IWTUA y tking the (lm thikness into ountF e further enhnement of the het trnsfer oe0ients is relted to mss trnsfer e'etsD signi(nt in the presene of multiEomponent mixturesD whih n e ompensted for with the orretion of rdesi et al. @IWVPD IWVQAF iquivlently to xeers @ep IWWQAD predheim @wy IWWRA investigted the het trnsfer nd pressure drop of pure propne nd nitrogen oolntsD s well s ethneGpropne mixtures on the shellEside of n ri in test filityF re pointed out tht di'erent )ow regimes re usully present long the pth of the shell strem nd introdued susequent zones @from in)ow t the top towrds out)ow t the ottomAX

A B C
2

qrvity drined environmentD with liquid (lm on the wll nd lowEvpor veloity in the nnulr spe etween the tues rnsient environment where oth grvity fore nd vporEsher fore onE triute to the liquid )ow herEontrolled environmentD with high vpor veloityD whih enhnes the )uid )ow nd the entrinment rte

presented by Shah and Sekuli (2003, pp. 482, 484)

IV

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi plow regime uperheted ret trnsfer qnielinski @IWUWA Y edzi @IWURGIIGIUEPPA pritionl pressure drop fre et al. @IWUPAa qilli @IWTSA @lultion of )ow reA

plling (lm her

fys nd wdms @IWQUA Y fennett et al. @IWVTA wxught @IWVPA

xulete oiling
a C.

tephn nd edelslm @IWVHA

fre et al. @IWUPA orreted sed on suggestions of qrnt nd ghisholm @IWUWA

Barbe, D. Mordillat, D. Roger.

Pertes de charge en ecoulement monophasique et

diphasique dans la calandre des exhangeurs bobins. XII Journees de l'Hydraulique, Paris, France, 1972.

le PFPX wodels for shellEside het trnsfer nd fritionl pressure drop vlE idted y predheim @wy IWWRD ppF STEIHIA D eunn @PHHHA nd xeers et al. @PHHRDA

uperheted vpor )ow

eordinglyD trnsformtion from purely grvity ontrolled to sher onE trolled )ow ours long the pth due to the inrese of void frtion from usully 0.02 0.07 % t the topD using the gs )ow to elerte onsidE erly nd entrin liquid dropletsF por eh )ow regimeD pulily ville empiril orreltions were (tted to mesurement dt otinedF predheim @wy IWWRD pF WHA pointed out tht het trnsfer of sturted flling (lm )ow is omplex due to four @minA mehnisms involvedX

ret trnsfer y grvityEdrined (lm )ow ret trnsfer y enhnement due to sher )ow ret trnsfer y nulete oiling3
3
In the state of nucleate boiling, vapor bubbles are generated over cavities on the hot surface remarkably aecting the heat transfer (Fredheim, May 1994, p. 75).

IW

grei PF wyhivsxq

ret trnsfer redution due to mixture e'ets

he models in le PFP mrked with hve een su0iently vlidted y predheim @wy IWWRD ppF STEIHIAF he work of predheim hs een ontinued y eunn @PHHHA with n improved test filityF u0iently vlidted models re inluded in le PFP nd re indited y F eently vlidted models y xeers et al. @PHHRDA re supplemented in le PFP nd mrked with F xote tht lter vlidtion results re generlly fvored due to their etter uryF he lultion of the free )ow re n e done y the use of the method y qilli @IWTSAF

2.4.3 Dynamic modeling

por the purpose of dynmil vxq plnt simultionD ri modeling ws performed y welen @yt IWWRAD m @wr PHHPA nd rmmer nd ingh nd rovd @PHHTGHWGPVEPWD PHHUGHSGPUEQHAF he resulting models re sed on the lmost identil ssumptions nd simpli(tions with minor di'erenesD e.g.D lultion methods for het trnsfer oe0ients nd pressure dropsF he most importnt modeling ssumptions re given in the sequelF

epplition of oneEdimensionl homogeneous )ow model for oth tueE side nd shellEside stremsF gonsidertion of sttionry mss lneD resulting in in(nite ompoE sition dynmisF gonsidertion of enthlpy s onservtion stte insted of internl enE ergy @exept for rmmer whih ompred oth vrintsAF essumption of thermodynmi equilirium etween gsGliquid phsesF xegligene of grvity @y mD wr PHHPY rmmerAD het rdition nd xil ondution @)uidGwllAF xo het ondution resistne of the tue wll in rdil diretionF essumption of lumped insultion het )ow through the shell wll inE sted of modeling nturl onvetion in the jket lerneF gonsiderE tion of n diti mndrel @no het umultionAF
ri model vlidtion ws performed y rmmer et al. @PHHQGHQGQHEHRGHQA nd ist et al. @PHHQGHQGQHEHRGHQA4 F
4
They considered a slightly modied model of Hammer named DCOIL.

PH

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi

(a) Bubble

(e) Slug

(b) Plug

(f ) Annular

(c) Stratied

(g) Spray

(d) Wavy

Flow

pigure PFQX qsGliquid )ow ptterns in horizontl pipes @from erry et al.D IWWWD pF TFPTA

Remark PFP. en unonventionl dynmi ri model ws reently proposed y rsn et al. @PHHUGHSGPUEQHAF hey modeled ris y the use of het exE hnger networksF his pproh requires no geometril dt of ris nd is thus onvenient for lkEox modelingF hrwks thereof re tht model prmeters need to e estimted for the riD whih requires trnsient meE surement dt of externl sttesD i.e.D inputGoutputD nd tht internl sttes of the het exhnger network re not neessrily representtive for the internl sttes of the riF

2.4.4 Modeling issues

wodeling issues our minly euse phse hnge is present on the shellE side nd in prtiulr tues of the riF sn vxq pplitionsD the shellEside )uid is evporting nd moving from top to ottom of the undle while the tueEside strems typilly )ow upwrds nd re either ooled or ondensedF e rief survey of the (eld of gsGliquid )ow is provided y erry et al. @IWWWD ppF TFPTETFPWAF he detiled modeling of gsGliquid )ow is hllenging due to physil omplexityF xote tht eh phse hs its own ompositionD densityD visosity nd veloity sptilly distriutedF enother dimension of omplexity is the ft tht di'erent )ow regimes re usully present long the pth of phse hngeF e tegoriztion of tueEside nd shellEside )ow regimes is shown in pigure PFQ nd PFRD respetivelyF wodels for the temporlly ndGor sptilly distriuted properties of twoEphse )ow suh s phse inversion point5 D degree of dispersionD slip rtioD void frtionD interfil reD mss trnsfer nd friE tionl pressure dropD re usully rreF fesidesD the ft tht eh )ow regime
5
This is the point where the continuous phase transforms into the disperse and vice versa.

PI

grei PF wyhivsxq

(a) Droplet ping

drip-

(b) Liquid columns

(c) Liquid sheets

pigure PFRX tterns of liquid )ow etween two djent horizontl tues @from uomustfogullri nd ghenD IWVVA possesses its own model equtions mkes n implementtion into hei solver di0ultF

2.4.4.1 Classication of ow models

llis @IWTWA presents three di'erent modeling pprohes for twoEphse )ow @listed with deresing degree of sophistitionAX

Separated ow model

st is tken into ount tht oth phses hve di'erE ent propertiesF wodels of vrious degrees of omplexity my e derivedF he most sophistited version requires seprte onservtion equtions for eh phse nd their simultneous solutionF wodel equtions desriE ing the intertion etween the phses nd the phses nd the wll re dditionlly neessryF pundmentl hrteristis of twoEphse )ow re the slip rtio S = wg /wl nd the void frtion = Vg /Vl = Ag /Al F e reltionship etween oth n e otined y liner omintion of the ontinuity eqution for eh phse nd is given y

1 g 1 = 1+S . l

Drift ux model

his model is essentilly speil se of the seprted )ow modelF ettention is foused on the reltive motion of the two phses rther thn on the motion of the individul phsesF sshii nd riiki @PHHTD pF QVPA stte tht the use of the drift )ux model is pproprite when the motions of the two phses re strongly oupledF his is espeE illy vlid when the reltive motion is independent of the )ow rtes of eh phse @llisD IWTWD pF VWAF he drift )ux model is thus onvenient

PP

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi for ulyD slug nd droplet )owD ut not for nnulr )owF he voluE metri )ux of either phse reltive to surfe moving t the volumetri verge veloity j = j1 + j2 is known s the drift )ux j21 = j12 nd is proportionl to the reltive veloity w12 = w1 w2 ording to

j21 = (1 ) j2 j1 = (1 ) w12 .
he drift )ux my e seen nlogous to the di'usion )ux in the moleulr di'usion of gsesF sn terms of the )uxes of eh phseD the men density is given y j21 j1 1 + j2 2 + (1 2 ) . = j j wixture onservtion equtions my e derived s presented in sshii nd riiki @PHHTD ppF QVPEQVQAF

Homogeneous ow model

sn the theory of homogeneous )owD the phses re onsidered eing well mixed nd my thus e onveniently repreE sented y homogeneous phseF ell properties of the two phses re verged etween the phses y using ertin weighting method in orE der to pply onservtion equtions to the pseudo ontinuous )uidF por some properties this my e su0ientD prtiulrly when one phse is (nely dispersed into the otherF henD slip ftor S = 1 holds nd the @vergeA veloity of oth phses reds

w=4

M . d2 h

he homogeneous density follows from liner vpor frtion weighting of the spei( volumes of oth phses nd n e written in terms of the individul densities s

g l . g + g (l g )

he determintion of hrteristi visosity is more prolemtiF hree di'erent formuls re ommonly used in literture @ited y llisD IWTWD

PQ

grei PF wyhivsxq trem xturl gs ueEside mixed refrigernt hellEside mixed refrigernt

p/pcrit HFT HFR HFHR

g /l HFI HFI HFHQ

g /l HFP HFI HFHI

le PFQX xturl gs nd mixed refrigernt properties of the wossel fy plnt pF PUAX w edms et al. @IWRPA =

gihitti et al. @IWTHA = g g + (1 g ) l g l hukler et al. @IWTRA = g + (1 g ) . g l eording to urume @PHHRD ppF RSUERSVAD these verging methods proE vide quite di'erent resultsF roweverD it must e stressed tht it is nywy demnding to relily predit the visosities of single phse mixtures nd thereforeD the error relted to the verging etween the phses is not generlly the most dominntF

g l g + g (l g )

2.4.4.2 Signicance for LNG service

st is likely tht the tueEside strems in vxq pplitions possess high presE sures lose to the ritil pointF his leds to smll property di'erenes eE tween the gs nd the liquid phse nd verging of properties s neessry for the homogeneous )ow model is thus ppropriteF le PFQ shows presE sureD density nd visosity dt of the nturl gs nd the mixed refrigernt in the wossel fy plntF he pressure rtios p/pcrit of the tueEside )uids re t lest 0.4F his fores the density nd dynmil visosity rtios of the tueEside )uids to e not smller thn HFIF reneD the driving fores for phse seprtions re smll nd the homogeneous model is likely to work out well on the tue sideF his ws lso indited y the mesurement results of xeers @ep IWWQAF ris vlidtion of het trnsfer orreltions sed on the homogeE neous model expetedly showed tht the model predition error dereses with inresing pressureF

Remark PFQ. he nturl gs shows the highest pressure rtioD whih is due to the ommonly known ft tht the liqueftion of high pressure feed is fvorle in terms of e0ieny @hurr et al.D PHHVY tesD PHHPGIHGIQEITAF fesidesD nturl gs is onventionlly lique(ed t pressures higher thn RH r in order to reh eptle levels of ompressor shft power requirementsF

PR

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi eordinglyD miniml rtio of p/pcrit 0.6 for nturl gs n e onsideredF

st is importnt to stress tht the veloities of the tueEside )uids re usully quite lrge @n exmple is given in le PFRAD whih provides sheer stress nd fvors homogeneous distriution of the disperse phse @ulesGdropletsAF yn the shell sideD ompletely di'erent onditions re presentF yn the one hndD the shellEside pressures re smller thn the tueEside onesF yn the other hndD the shellEside veloities re usully smller t the inlet setion of the undle s the )ow is predominntly grvity driven @predheimD wy IWWRD pF SUAF rmmerD pF WH lso pointed out tht the residene time on the shellEside is severl times lrger thn tht of the tues whih he spei(ed with 8 10 sF st n e onluded tht for the shellEside )ow seprted )ow model is thus etter suited thn homogeneous oneF his ws veri(ed y rmmer et al. @PHHQGHQGQHEHRGHQAD whih found tht the homogeneous )ow model negleting grvity is not su0ient to desrie twoEphse shellEside )ow properlyF

2.4.5 Conservation equations

sn order to provide su0ient mthemtil tretmentD ll tues nd the shell re onsidered oneEdimensionlF ht isD stte vriles nd properties re llowed to hnge with longitudinl sptil oordinte nd timeF king into ount tht the tue slope is onstnt for eh prtiulr tue pssD the use of unique sptil oordinte6

zshell zi zi = = sin (i ) Lshell Li Lshell

is onvenientD where 0 < i F he energy e is onserved nd onsists of 2 internl nd kinemti energyF st is written s

e=h+
purther model ssumptions reX

p + w2 .

ell properties re ssumed to e homogeneously distriuted ross the rossEsetion of one pssgeF hi'usion nd ondution terms re negligileF ret rdition is negleted over the di'usive nd onvetive trnsportF ret trnsfer is treted s onversion terms in the onservtion equtionsF
6
The index

indicates the

ith

tube pass.

PS

grei PF wyhivsxq

ret trnsfer to the jketGshroud is referred to s stti insultion het term nd het trnsfer to the mndrel is negligileF

2.4.5.1 Governing uid equations

he generl formultion of the mss onservtion eqution for the speies j is known s 1 j + j w = 0. @PFIA t L
accumulation transportation

he generl formultion of the momentum onservtion eqution is given y

accumulation

( w) + t

transportation/acceleration

1 2 w L

1 = p + L
pressure force

frictional force

1 L

gravitational force

where =

phse )ow re not expliitly indited nymore y the r nottionF pinllyD the generl formultion of the energy onservtion eqution reds

nc j=1

g sin (),

@PFPA

j F xote tht from now onD homogeneous properties for two

accumulation

1 1 1 ( e) + ( e w) = w p+ w t L L L
transportation pressure work

frictional work

hese equtions hold for single nd multiEphse )owF sn order to solve the onservtion equtionsD model redution is resonle to void omputtionl expensivenessF xeverthelessD it is required tht the solution of simpli(ed model remins relisti in terms of the min in)uentil ftorsF he mgniE tudes of ll terms in @PFIA through @PFQA give n impression out pproprite negligeneF e sis for n estimtion of these mgnitudes is served y dt in les PFR nd PFU whih show geometril nd proess dt of the wossel fy suoolerF

+ w g sin () +
potential energy

heat transfer

q .

@PFQA

PT

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi ueEside vw snlet yutlet PIS IIQ QVFR QTFV RIU TQS IFW HFV ERUH EUQT hellEside vw snlet yutlet IIP PII RFQ RFI SWH PPH HFP QFH EUQT EPTT

gonditions emperture @in uA ressure@in rA hensity in kg/m3 eloity (in m/s) inthlpy (in kt/kg)

le PFRX snlet nd outlet proess dt of the wossel fy suooler

2.4.5.2 Substantiation of model reductions

st is onvenient to simplify the energy expression e = hp/+w2 F eording to the dt in le PFRD the ontriution of h in e is lrger thn 99 % for oth the tueEside nd the shellEside )uidF husD the sustitution e = h is justi(ed for stedyEstte modelingF rmmerD ppF IQUEIQV investigted the divergene of the two modeling pprohesD enthlpy nd internl energy onversionD y omprison of dynmil simultion results of n vxq liqueftion suEmodel of the wpg proessF st turned out tht the models ehve di'erently t time sles smller thn O 102 s F en estimtion of the mgnitudes of the modeling eqution terms n e done y mking them dimensionlessF por this skeD redued vriles need to e de(nedD e.g.D pr = p/ in terms of pressureF sf vrile is sptilly p distriutedD its referene vlueD i.e.D p in the exmpleD is estimted y the use of the geometri men etween inlet nd outletF he oe0ients otined re listed in le PFSF ell oe0ients re dimensionless exept for the ones of the umultion termsF gonsequentlyD the negligene of the umultion term my only e sustntited quntittively if time sles re tken into ountF por the momentum onservtion eqution it n e onluded tht the trnsport term my e negligile over the pressureD fritionl nd grvity fore @provided n error of 1 is dmissileAF he sme holds for the momentum umultion term if onsidered time sles re wy ove O 101 s F sn ontrstD the pressure nd fritionl work s well s the potentil energy re negligile over the energy trnsporttion termF por oth the mss nd energy onservtionD the umultion n e negleted ginst trnsporttion if time sles wy ove O 102 s re onsidered whih n e veri(ed y prior works @e.g.D welenD yt IWWRY wndler et al.D wy IWWVY rmmerY ingh nd rovdD PHHTGHWGPVEPWA whih indite tht vxq liqueftion proess trnsients re in time sles of pproximtely n hourF he min disrepny etween the model simpli(tions proposed in this setion nd the model implementtion done y other uthors suh s welen

PU

grei PF wyhivsxq wss L/w 1 2 , 10 10 s I womentum L/w 1 2 , 10 10 s I / w2 p 104 , 103 p 2 / w 3 104 , 10 g L () /w2 sin 103 , 103 inergy L/w 1 2 , 10 10 s I / p2 h 3 10 , 10 / p2 h 3 10 , 10 g sin () /h L 4 , 104 10

eumultion rnsporttion ressure foreGwork pritF foreGwork qrvityGpotF energy

le PFSX wgnitudes of terms of the dimensionless onservtion equtions for {tue, shell} Eside sed on vw dt of the wossel fy suooler @ording to les PFR nd PFUA

@yt IWWRAD m @wr PHHPA nd rmmer is tht ll onsidered the mss onservtion eqution qusiEsttionryF sn setion PFRFUFQ it is shown tht qusiEsttionry ontinuity eqution together with dynmil energy onserE vtion eqution is not reommended due to poor simultion resultsF

2.4.5.3 Reduced PDAE model

eording to the omments oveD the )uid is modeled using the following set of model equtionsX

c 1 (w c) = t L 1 p T 0= ffric (w, c) M c g L nm 1 (w h) h = fht (T, p, c, w, Tim ) (T Tim ) . t L

i

@PFRA @PFRA @PFRA

xote tht for the ske of simple nottionD the index i for the strem hs een omittedF woreoverD the density vetor is repled y the molr onentrtion vetor cF glori nd therml equtions of stte serve s losure onditions to meet zero degree of freedom of the )uid equtionsF hey re respetively given y the generl formultions

PV

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi

0 = p fteos (T, c) .

0 = T fceos (h, p, c)

@PFSA @PFSA

he metl round eh )uid is modeled y simple energy lne of het trnsferred etween the metl nd the stremsD in whih the temperture is independent of the rdil oordinte nd the enthlpy is onservedF I.e.D het ondution is in(nitely fst in rdil diretion nd negleted in longitudinl diretionF his yields
s hm = fht,i (Ti , pi , ci , wi , T m ) (Ti T m ) . t

e generl formultion of the lori eqution of stte serve s reltion etween metl enthlpy nd tempertureD i.e.D
m 0 = T m fceos (hm ) .

@PFTA

he model equtions @PFRA through @PFTA represent oupled set of lgeri s well s ordinry nd prtil di'erentil equtionsF ywing to their speE il propertiesD the setEup nd solution of these soElled prtil di'erentilE lgeri equtions @heisA need reful ttentionF eording to ve vnn et al. @IWWVGHUGISAD heis re di0ult to solve euse hnge in single prmeter or oundry ondition my led to ompletely di'erent ehvior of the solutionF es onsequeneD numeril methods whih perform well for his my e totlly unle to do so for heisF ystemti struture nlyE ses nd solution pprohes of heis me up y the lte IWWHs @n overview is given y iihlerEvieenowD IWWWGHTGIVD ppF RUERVA nd pulitions in this (eld still hppen to ontinue @for instne xeumnn nd ntelidesD PHHVAF ome noteworthy properties of heis reX

heis re non hyperoli due to the ontriution of lgeri equE tions nd equtions with prtil derivtives with respet to the sptil oordinte @wrtinson nd frtonD PHHIAF eording to vieerstein @IWUPD pF UQAD hi system is sid to e wellEposed if it hs unique solution nd depends ontinuously on its dtF imilrly to hisD hei system my e improperly stted @not wellEposedAD whih mkes it not menle for numeri integrtion y stndrd integrtion odesF wrtinson nd frton @PHHIA provide frmework whih helps to identify improperly stted heisF

PW

grei PF wyhivsxq

e hei system possesses two indiesD eh of them t lest of numer IF eording to wrtinson nd frton @PHHHAD they re lled @di'erenE titionA index with respet to t nd xD respetivelyD nd re de(ned s nturl generliztion of the @di'erentitionA index of hei de(ned y frenn et al. @IWVUD pF IUAF fy the methodEofElinesD heis n e trnsformed into heisF he resulting hei my or my not e of high indexF
e liner stility nlysis of two pss het exhnger model similr to the hei system @PFRA through @PFTA ws performed y rnke et al. @PHHSA with the di'erene tht pure )uid ws onsideredF e generliztion thereof is presented in eppendix PFeF he nlysis revels tht oundry onditions @fgsA must e imposed for the mss )ux c |v| nd the enthlpy h t inlet nd for the pressure p t outlet of the pssgeD i.e.D

0 = |w (in )| h (in ) Hin .

nlike the fgsD the initil onditions re not ritrryF gonsistent initil onditions for pD hD c re needed nd usully otined y solving the sttionry form of the heiF

0 = p (out ) pout

0 = c (in ) |w (in )| A F in

2.4.5.4 Transformation into DAEs

he methodEofElines is pplied for the trnsformtion of the hei into its hei formF st refers to the disretiztion of the sptil di'erentils y using the kwrd form of the (rst order (nite di'erene pproximtionF uh @upwindA methods re pproprite s they hve proven to e stle provided tht their stility onditions re stis(edF e frequently pplied (rst order upwind disretiztion method is the method y qodunovF sn omintion with n expliit iuler integrtion lgorithmD the stility is proven if 1 where = t/x is the gournt numer nd is the lrgest wve speedD i.e.D the mximum eigenvlue of the oe0ient mtrix of the hyperoli system @see for instne veequeD PHHPD pF UHAF he disretiztion pplied is sed on the disretiztion sheme shown in pigure PFSF he relting semiEdisrete equtions for the )uids red

QH

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi

=0 1 Flow in pos. direction 2 3 4 j N-3 N-2 N-1 =1

N T, h, p, c w q

... ...

Metal

...

Flow in neg. direction 1- 1+ 2+ 3+

... ...
j- Gravity N-2N-1 N- N+

pigure PFSX hisretiztion sheme for stggered veloity grid

cj 1 1 wj c j wj c j u = u t L 1 pj pju T 0= ffric wju , cju + sgn wju M cju g L hj 1 1 wj hj wj hju = u t L nm fht,i Tj , pj , c,j , wj , Tjm,i Tj Tjm,i m m
i

0 =fceos (hj , Tj , pj , cj ) 0 =fteos (Tj , pj , cj ) ,

with the index nottion indited in le PFTF he disretiztion of the metl energy onservtion eqution yields
ns hm jm i = fht,i Tji , pi , ci , wj , Tjm Tji Tjm j j m m t i m m m 0 = fceos hjm , Tjm .

QI

Tm, hm q T, h, p, c w

grei PF wyhivsxq

j ju j ju jm

w>0 {2, . . . , N } j1 j + 1/2 j 1/2 j

w<0 {1, . . . , N 1} j+1 j 1/2 j + 1/2 j

le PFTX sndex nottion for disretiztion he fgs red

0 = cjin |wjin | A F in

where jin =

0 = pjout pout wjin hjin Hin pure 0= , Tjin Tin otherwise N 1

if w > 0 F otherwise

1 N

if w > 0 nd jout = otherwise

2.4.6 Phenomenology
sn the equtions oveD het trnsfer nd pressure drop orreltions re generE lly referred to s fht nd ffric D respetivelyF sn this setionD they re spei(ed in more detilF es pointed out in etion PFRFPD di'erent strem regimes re present long the pssge on oth tue nd shell side whih reltes to onE siderle mount of empiril orreltions neededF wodeling e'ort n e onstrined y imposing restritions on the generlity nd therefore reduing the numer of neessry empiril orreltionsF hen only vxq servie is fousedD the following restritions n e imposedF

Tube-side condensation and shell-side evaporation Downward ow on shell side

impiril models for tueEside evportion nd shellEside ondenstion n e disregrdedF ynly models for grvity driven flling (lm )ow nd sher )ow need to e onsidered on the shell side esides the model for @superhetedA single phse )owF he rther omplited empiril model for nulete oiling n e disregrded for shellEside evportionF snE stedD the simpler tueEside ondenstion model serves s n equivlent sustituteF

Small temperature dierences

QP

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi eleted models referred to in les PFI nd PFP hve een implemented into the yssw ri modelF hey re indited in more detil in eppendix PFfF sn order to hieve good onvergene performne of the model equtionsD the trnsitions etween the orreltions of two djoined )ow regimes hve een smoothed @one ontinuously di'erentileAF xote tht implementtion into yssw requires the sttement of derivtives with respet to the stte vrilesD i.e.D pD cD w nd h in eh ellF hue to the high omplexity of the orreltionsD utomti di'erentition tehnique @ehyvEgD ep PHHSA ws hosen nd suessfully ppliedF

2.4.7 Dynamical validation

ypertionl dt of the pekshving vxq liqueftion plnt wossel fy served s sis for the vlidtion of the yssw ri modelF

2.4.7.1 Test plant set-up

e detiled desription of the tests ws presented y eithmeier et al. @PHHRGHRGPIE PRAF rereD the most importnt fts re relledF sn IWWVD n industril sized ri prototype mnuftured y vinde ws instlled in prllel to the wgri of the wossel fy vxq liqueftion plnt ommissioned in IWWPF he liqueE ftion proess is sed on single mixed refrigernt @wA yleF he mixed refrigernt onsists minly of nitrogenD methneD ethylene nd isoutneF foth the ri nd the test strems hve een extensively instrumentedF e totl of QP temperture elements were instlled t the shellEside of the three unE dlesF pigure PFT shows the instlltion of one temperture element inside the undleF ell mesurements were individully judged y redundny in order to ensure high uryF feside the dy to dy opertionD designted tests were rried out in two suessive test periodsF he (rst test period took ple from eptemer through xovemer IWWWF sts fous ws minly the study of ri performne t stedy stte opertion s well s plnt strtEup nd trip testsF efter three yers of )wless produtionD seond test period ws rried out from epril through wy PHHIF sts ojetive ws the investigtion of the dynmi ehvior of the ri s well s the on(rmtion of the originl IHH 7 lodF he dynmi investigtions inluded the following senriosF

peed gs tripsD refrigernt ompressor trips nd plnt trips7 lnt shutdowns

7
These incidents either happened during normal operation due to dierent causes or were forced deliberately by tripping the refrigerant compressor.

QQ

grei PF wyhivsxq

pigure PFTX snstlltion of EIHH element inside n ri undle @from eithmeier et al.D PHHRGHRGPIEPRA

lnt strtEups from wrmGold onditions gooling downGwrming up proedures due to unlned supply nd demnd of refrigertion8 tep hnges of other proess prmeters t di'erent lods

2.4.7.2 Modeling and data manipulation

he trnsient mesurements from the seond test period were used to vlidte the ri modelF he simultion of the omplete wossel fy liqueftion unit ws not onsidered pproprite for the purpose of ri model vlidtionF his is due to the ft tht model inuries of supplementry equipment suh s ompressorsD ompressor fteroolers etc. would hve to e tken into ountF snsted the dynmi vlidtion of one stndElone ri undle inluding losely relted equipment ws onsideredF rnsient inputD output nd @prtlyA internl onditions for eh undle were villeF he deision to investigte the suooling undle HPEiwEPHP ws sed on the fts tht @iA the lest omplexity is present due to minimum of two tue psses nd tht @iiA the interesting se of phse hnge is present in ll three tue pssesF he instrumenttion for dt quisition is given in pigure PFUF he mixed refrigernt nd nturl gs omposition were deteted y mnul smpling @lortory nlyzesA severl times dyF sn order to ount for trnsient omposition hngesD the hevy hydrorons @rrgA seprtor nd the mixed refrigernt seprtorD HPEhEPHS nd HPEhEIHVD respetivelyD were modeled supplementrily to the undleF eordinglyD the tempertures nd pressures inE side the seprtors eme dditionl trnsient input vriles to e regrdedF he dt set onsisting of mesurements every 30 s ws mnully resmpled into lrger nonEequidistnt time steps in order to redue noise nd elerte simultion timeF
8
These scenarios were created by either a rapid increase/reduction in mixed refrigerant load at constant natural gas ow or a rapid reduction/increase of natural gas ow at constant mixed refrigerant load. The conditions were held constant within a certain time period after which the process parameters were set back to their original values.

QR

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi

02-34
FC 2001 TI 2017

01-32
TC 2009

LNG 02-35
PDI 2022 TI 2018 TI 2027 TI 2029 PDI 2011 TI 2030 PDI 2010 PI 2018 TI 2032 TI 2033 TI 2031 PDI 2007 PI 2014 PDI 2008 PI 2019 TI 2028 PDI 2023 PDI 2024 TI 2026

02-EM-202
PDI 2020 PDI 2021

Sampling

TI 2007 PI 1013 TI 2014 TI 2015 TI 2016

TI 2008

TI 1028

01-31
TI 2066

02-10

02-30

02-33

02-VD-108
02-36 LMR 02-20 HMR 01-30 MR NG
FI 2004 TIC 2005

02-VD-205
01-11

Sampling HHC 01-20

pigure PFUX snstrumenttion of the suooling undle of the wossel fy ri qeometril dt of the wossel fy vxq suooler required for the lulE tion of shellGtue msses nd strem veloities were otined from design drwE ings nd dt sheets delivered y the vinde proprietry design tool qixs @teinuer nd rehtD IWWTGHTGHQEHSAF sn le PFU the dt is presented for onvenieneF he wossel fy ri ws mde of luminumF ome omments regrding modeling issues re given in the sequelF

Remark PFR. efter modeling the yssw )owsheetD initil vlues for ll

input vriles were setF ixpetedlyD owing to modeling errorsD the lulted stedy stte model output did not gree with the mesurement outputF sn order to (x the disrepnyD model prmeters needed to e djustedF ret exhnger tuning ftorsD multipliers of het trnsfer nd fritionl pressure drop oe0ientsD were hosen for this purposeF he numer of independent tuning ftors for (tting the output tempertures ws equl to the numer of het exhnge resF husD s the het exhnge re etween shell nd mient tmosphere ws negletedD only two degrees of freedom were present to

QS

grei PF wyhivsxq ues xturl gs wixed refrF IP IP I I IHIFR IIVFT IQU QQT

yuter dimeter tueGshell @in mmA ueGshell wll thikness @in mmA ueGshell length @in mA xumer of tues himeter mndrel @in mA hikness of rdil spers @in mmA wen tue distne @in mmA xumer of tue lyers wetl density in
kg m3

hell IQTH PT WFT HFT PFH PFU PU PUHH PFVP HFPPR

PUHH IFQH HFHRQ

PUHH QFUP HFIHT

wetl mss @in wgA xet ross )ow re in m2

le PFUX qeometril dt of the wossel fy ri

Calculated stationary temperature profiles

200 180 T (in K) 160 140 120 100 0 Tubeside LMR Shellside LMR NG

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

pigure PFVX ttionry temperture pro(les in the wossel fy suooler mnipulte three output temperturesF gonsequentlyD one further independent tuning prmeter ws neessry to (t the three lulted output tempertures to the mesurement dtF he strtegy to orret the nturl gs )ow rte did not work out well euse quite onsiderle orretion of pproximtely 30 % less nturl gs )ow rte would hve to e neessry whih would intolerly 'et the het exhnger dynmisF hereforeD the orretion of the nturl gs )ow rte ws omitted willing n o'set of IFS u etween lulted nd mesured output temperture of the mixed refrigernt strem t the wrm end of the undleF xote tht disrepny t the wrm end is more resonle thn t the old due to mximum sptil temperture grdient t the wrm end s indited in pigure PFVF

QT

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi

Temperatures warm end F (in mol/s) 200 T (in K) 190 180 170 14May 8:00 PM 9:00 PM 500 400 300 200 14May 8:00 PM 9:00 PM Flow rates Tubeside LMR Shellside LMR NG

Shellside temperatures 42 p (in bar) 180 T (in K) 160 140 120 14May 8:00 PM 9:00 PM 40 38 36 34

Tubeside pressures

14May 8:00 PM

9:00 PM

Temperatures cold end 4.8 4.6 4.4 4.2 4 3.8

Shellside pressures

112 110 14May 8:00 PM 9:00 PM

p (in bar)

T (in K)

114

14May 8:00 PM

9:00 PM

pigure PFWX wesurement dt from wy IRth D PHHI

Remark PFS. st turned out tht it is inpproprite not to model the hoke vlve

nd onsider the strem HPEQS s n independent dynmi input of the modelF sn this seD the model output t the old end would show exellent greement with mesurement dt despite signi(ntly inurte internl onditionsF his e'et is relted to very smll @drivingA temperture di'erenes t the old end due to the lrge het exhnger reF es onsequeneD the hoke vlve ws modeled s n isenthlpi expnsion to pressure given y mesurement dtF

2.4.7.3 Simulation runs

hynmi simultions were rried out for two opertion senrios nd four di'erent sophistition levels of the modeling equtionsF he level of sophistiE tion is indited y three digit )g odeD referring whether the dynmil umultion of the metl energyD the strem energy nd the mss is onsidE ered @IA or not @HAF I.e.D the ode @HDHDHA reltes to pure stedyEstte models for referene purposesD @IDHDHA indites tht metl energy is the only umultorD

QU

grei PF wyhivsxq

Model flag code: 0,0,0 Twarm (in K) Tcold (in K) 118 114 110 Model flag code: 1,0,0 Twarm (in K) Tcold (in K) 118 114 110 Model flag code: 1,1,0 Twarm (in K) Tcold (in K) 118 114 110 Model flag code: 1,1,1 Twarm (in K) Tcold (in K) 118 114 200 180 160 8:15 PM 200 180 160 200 180 160 200 180 160

Tubeside LMR (meas.) Tubeside LMR (calc.) NG (meas.) NG (calc.) Shellside LMR (meas.) Shellside LMR (calc.)

110 14May 7:15 PM

7:45 PM

pigure PFIHX gomprison etween mesurement dt from wy IRth D PHHI nd simultion results @IDIDHA sttes in(nite mss dynmis nd (nite metlGstrem energy dynmis nd @IDIDIA is the most sophistited model where metlGstrem energy nd mss dynmis re (niteF he respetive numers of di'erentil equtions per umulting ell yield HD ID P nd 2 + nc F he numer of umulting ells is given y 5pssges (5ells per pssge 1) .

he ri model ws set up with SH ells nd mixed refrigernt with IH omponentsF eordinglyD the totl numers of di'erentil equtions for models of inresing sophistition re HD IRUD PWR nd IUTRF he simultion were onduted using indows P desktop with sntel gore huo g iVRHH @QFH qrzD QFS qf ewAF he (rst vlidtion run is sed on the mesurement dt otined from UXIS to WXIS w on wy 14th D PHHIF he mesurement dt round the suooler is shown in pigure PFIHF efter stedy stte opertionD the nturl gs )ow rte ws rmped from 17200 to 14300 m3 /h t UXQS wF es resultD the )ow

QV

PFRF sevEyxh rie igrexqi

Temperatures warm end F (in mol/s) 200 T (in K) 190 180 170 15May 8:00 PM 500 400 300 200 15May 8:00 PM 9:00 PM Flow rates Tubeside LMR Shellside LMR NG

9:00 PM

Shellside temperatures 180 160 140 120 15May 8:00 PM 9:00 PM p (in bar) T (in K) 40 35 30

Tubeside pressures

15May 8:00 PM

9:00 PM

Temperatures cold end 112 p (in bar) T (in K) 111 110 15May 8:00 PM 9:00 PM 4.4 4.2 4

Shellside pressures

3.8 15May 8:00 PM

9:00 PM

pigure PFIIX ht from wy ISth D PHHI

rte of the light mixed refrigernt @vwA ws redued y the ontrollersF his used the dishrge pressure to inrese until t VXHU w @QIPH sA the venting of mixed refrigernt ws exeutedF pigure PFIH shows the results of the four simultion runsF he level of sophistition is indited ove eh hrtF he est mth etween simultion nd mesurements is hieved y the models with the )g odes @IDHDHA nd @IDIDIA wheres the ltter is mrginlly etterF he integrtion times were pproximtely PRHD PTHD PHH nd PUH sD respetivelyD nd the numer of integrtion steps were in the order of IQHH for llF snteresting to note is the ft tht the model with )g ode @IDIDHA produed the worst preditions despite its rther high level of sophistitionF he mesurement set from UXIS to WXIS w on wy 15th D PHHI ws seleted for seond vlidtion runF he dt is shown in pigure PFIIF he test n e seen s kind of impulse step responseF et VXHQ wD oth the rw nd vw )ow rte were redued y RS 7 nd shortly fterwrds t VXIP w the prior onditions were restoredF et WXQH w the plnt returned into stle opertionF pigure PFIP shows the simultion resultsF e similr piture s for

QW

grei PF wyhivsxq

Model flag code: 0,0,0 Twarm (in K) Tcold (in K) 114 111 108 Model flag code: 1,0,0 Twarm (in K) Tcold (in K) 114 111 108 Model flag code: 1,1,0 Twarm (in K) Tcold (in K) 114 111 108 Model flag code: 1,1,1 Twarm (in K) Tcold (in K) 114 111 200 180 160 8:45 PM 200 180 160 200 180 160 200 180 160

Tubeside LMR (meas.) Tubeside LMR (calc.) NG (meas.) NG (calc.) Shellside LMR (meas.) Shellside LMR (calc.)

108 15May 7:45 PM

8:15 PM

pigure PFIPX gomprison etween mesurement dt from wy ISth D PHHI nd simultion results the (rst vlidtion run n e drwnF he numer of integrtion steps nd the integrtion times re in the sme order of mgnitudeF

2.4.8 Conclusions
sn this setionD the development of dynmil model of n ri unit for the use in the vinde inEhouse simultor yssw is presentedF sn ontrst to relted dynmil models in the open litertureD the model llows for temporl mss umultionF fesidesD the model inludes empiril orreltions of het trnsfer nd pressure drop speilly vlidted for ris pplied in vxq liqueftion plntsF he ri model hs limited pilities s it is sed on homogeneous )uid modelF I.e.D senrios where gs nd liquid phse hve onsiderle di'erent veloities nnot e urtely preditedF por instneD the e'et tht liquid gthers t the ottom of the ri on oth tue nd shell side during trips or shut down senrios nnot e lultedF purther enhnement of the ri model my thus inlude seprted )ow model

RH

PFSF ipsqiesyx ggvi

z

L
L

Separator

z1 Condenser

Condenser

Evaporater

nr Compressor

Multi-stream heat exchanger

T
p T F

Stream source Compressor

xi

(a) Refrigeration

cycle

with

variable active charge

pigure PFIQX rtly losed on(gurtions of refrigertion yle models predominntly for the shellEsideF por etter preditions on smller time slesD strem internl energy onservtion ould e implemented @rmmerAF

2.5 Refrigeration cycles

sn this setion some issues relted to the modeling of yle proesses re disE ussedF

2.5.1 Steady-state models

tedy stte models of mixed refrigernt yles re uilt s shown in pigure PFIQ nd F foth yles re modeled with n inlet nd n outlet strem nd re losed y ssigning the temperture nd the pressure of the outlet strem to the inlet stremF his is lled partly closed congurationF xote tht neither of the yles n e diretly losed y onneting the outlet to the inlet strem s this would yield singulr set of equtionsD i.e.D the )ow rte nd omposition would e undeterminedF sn eh yleD one )ow ontrolling vlve @dottedA is intive for the ske of simpliityF I.e.D the vlve is modeled s onstnt pressure dropD s its degree of freedom is moved to the yle inlet )ow rte whih n e independently djusted instedF et (rst glneD this prtly losed on(gurtion seems unprolemti nd it is indeed if the inlet )ow rte nd inlet omposition re oth independent of proess onditionsF roweverD independene of inlet )ow rte gets lost if the

nr

Stream source

(b) Refrigeration

cycle

with

charge and partly condensation

RI

xi

variable

active

grei PF wyhivsxq tive hrge eomes (xed s in ertin yle topologies disussed y tensen nd kogestd @PHHUA nd independene of inlet omposition gets lost if prtly ondenstion of mixed refrigernts tkes pleF voss of independene of inlet )ow rte through (xed hrge n e proven y onsidering the yle in pigure PFIQF rereD the (xed tive hrge n e implemented y either omitting the liquid storge tnk fter the throttle vlve or y keeping the level in the tnk (xedF ithout loss of generlity it is sE sumed tht pure refrigernt is in duty nd tht the mjor mss reservoirs re the liquid in the ondenserD the evportor nd in etween @piping nd tnkAF yn the one hndD the level depends on mient onditionsD i.e.D the temperE ture of the het exhnging mediums in the ondenser nd evportor s they in)uene the density of the liquid refrigernt nd therefore the liquid volumeF yn the other hndD the level depends on the )ow rte of the refrigernt s it determines oth the ondenstion nd evportion front individullyF xowD it n e onluded tht if the level in the tnk is (xed @or the tnk is omittedAD then the )ow rte of the refrigernt must depend on mient onditions nd nnot e independent nymoreF husD one eqution must e dded in the modeling equtions in whih the volume integrl over the refrigernt density equls (xed vlueF he orresponding dditionl @dependentA vrile is the yle inlet )ow rteF voss of independene of the refrigernt omposition in se of prtly ondenE stion n e shown y onsidering the yle shown in pigure PFIQF ithout loss of generlity it n e supposed tht the hevy mixed refrigernt @rwA liquid in the seprtor is the only reservoir in the yleF sf the temperture of the het exhnging medium in the ondenser dropsD the rw eomes lighter ut nnot s the seprtor liquid is the only reservoirF snsted the seprtor inlet strem must eome hevier in order to leve the rw omE position invrintF eordinglyD the mixed refrigernt omposition t the yle inlet is dependent on mient onditionsF he pproprite modeling of the mixed refrigernt yle is performed y introduing nc equtions where nc is the numer of speies in the refrigerntF sn the ith eqution the volume inE tegrl of the molr density of the ith speies over ll equipment is (xed to onstnt vlueF he nc 1 inlet molr frtions nd the seprtor level re introdued s @dependentA vrilesF his n then e referred to s quasi-closed congurationF

2.5.2 Dynamic models

nlike s in stedyEstte models the yle outlet strem n e diretly onE neted to the yle inlet stremF hynmi solution @i.e.D integrtion of the hei systemA n tke ple fter lulting the initil solution nd swithE

RP

PFeF efsvs exevs yp ri pvsh wyhiv ing the model equtions from prtly losed or qusiElosed on(gurtion to n tully losed on(gurtionF sn order to get n pproprite initil stedyE stte solutionD the model setup must nevertheless e relized s disussed in the prior setionF he dynmi simultion of refrigertion yles involves yet nother modeling issueF es mentioned in etion PFRFSFQD the pproprite oundry onditions of distriuted het exhngers models depend on the on(gurtion of the model equtionsD i.e.D well posed hi is requiredF sf only the energy onservtion equtions of the het exhnging strems re dynmiD it is su0ient to deterE mine ll stte vriles t the inlet oundry of eh pssgeF hese oundry onditions fil if the energy nd mss onservtion equtions re dynmi nd the momentum onservtion eqution is qusiEsttionryF sn this se it is neessry tht the )ow of eh speies nd the temperture re imposed t the inlet nd the pressure is imposed t the outlet of eh pssgeF sf suh het exhnger models re used for modeling refrigertion ylesD then there re in ft two loops whih need to e uiltF he (rst loop onsists of strem onneE tors nd rries the )ow rteD omposition nd temperture informtionF he seond loop onsists of vrile onnetors nd propgtes the pressure inforE mtion in ounterurrent to the (rst loopF st is importnt to stress tht for modeling pressure driven )ow this is nywy reommended in order to void generting high index heiF

2.A Stability analysis of the uid model

fsed on the demonstrtion of rnke et al. @PHHUAD the neessry onditions for the stility of the hei susystem @PFRA through @PFSA re presented in this setionF st is onvenient to omine the therml nd lori iysD @PFSA nd @PFSAD to one orreltion of the form h = g (p, c) y elimintion of the temperture nd onsider redued set of three primry vriles cD p nd H = w g F he reformultion of the hei in terms of these vriles yields T Hx gp gc g ct + H cx + c H px cx = 0 @PFUA H g g

px = S (H, p, c)

@PFUA

T gc

ct + gp pt + Hx = T (H, p, c) .

@PFUA

rereD S nd T represent momentum loss y fritionGgrvity nd het exhngeD respetivelyF he indies t nd x indite temporl nd sptil derivtivesD respetivelyF he highly nonliner hei @PFUA through @PFUA need to e linE erized nd freezed t point of interest in order to onlude to lol stilityF

RQ

grei PF wyhivsxq ith u =

cT

p H

the qusiEliner system n e stted s @PFVA

A ut + B ux + C u = v (x, t) , 0 0 0

where

xote tht the freezed properties re indited y the htF ine the mtrix penil {A, B} is regulr9 D the system @PFVA my e trnsformed into its eierE strss nonil form s suggested y hirvni nd o @IWWVAF rnsformtion mtries P nd Q hve een derived using the symoli omputtion funtionE lity of weriwesge vSFPF he leftEside multiplition of @PFVA with P yields 1 w I nc Q1 ut + I Q1 ux + P C Q Q1 u = P v (x, t) , 0 w1 0 @PFWA where T gc p g/ cT1g +1 g ( c) , 1 Q1 = D 1 gp g/(cT gc )+1 1nc @PFIHA 1 T 1 c g gp g/ cT g +1 w ( c) c gT cT g c 1nc 1 gc / + D 2 g T g 1nc 1 @PFIHA P = p H g T gc H g+c T gc g

gI 0 A= 0 0 gc gp T HI H g B= 0 0

T c gc

H gp g

c c 1 0 . 0 1

For information regarding matrix pencils and generalized eigensystems the reader is referred to matrix computation textbooks such as the one by Golub and VanLoan (1996, pp. 375-376).

RR

PFeF efsvs exevs yp ri pvsh wyhiv in whih

D1 = D2 =

1/2 c 0
T

FF

1/nc c

T Ri F eording to wrtinson nd frton @PHHIAD the nd 1i = 1 . . . 1 (rst nc rows of @PFWA re known s the hyperoli susystemD wheres the lst two re referred to s the proli prtF he dvntge of the present formuE ltion is tht system properties eome ovious y inspetion nd onlusions n e esily drwnF qenerllyD the following n e sttedX
he mtrix Q1 trnsforms the primry vriles into vriles known s invrintsF ih susystem @hyperoliGproliA is equivlent to system of ordinry di'erentil equtions long prtiulr diretion in the (t, x) plne @wrtinsonD pe PHHHD ppF IHHEIHTAF he diretion is given y the generlized eigenvlues (A, B) tht orresponds to the invrints of the suElokF por the hyperoli prtD the oundry onditions on the left nd right side re equl to the numer of ssoited positive nd negtive generE lized eigenvluesF he numer of initil onditions equls the numer the dimension of the hyperoli prtF sf ny generlized eigenvlue hs nonzero degeneryD the system does not depend ontinuously on its dtF he numer of oundry onditions required for the proli prt equls its dimensionsF snitil vlues re needed nd restritions on the side of the oundry onditions rise when n ssoited generlized eigenvlue is degenertedF wore preiselyD if generlized eigenvlue is oneEfold degenerted then it must e stis(ed tht @iA one initil ondition is spei(edD @iiA the ssoited oundry onditions re not enfored t the sme point nd @iiiA the index with respet to time of the entire system is less thn twoF ith the ltter two the solution depends ontinuously on its dtF
prom these fts the following onlusions n e drwn for @PFWAF he numer of nc initil onditions must e spei(ed for Q1 u i i {1, . . . , nc }F RS

g + c gc g

0 1/2 c

Rnc nc
FF F

1/nc c

(n 1)nc R c

grei PF wyhivsxq

edditionlly nc fg for Q1 u i i {1, . . . , nc } need to e imposed t in)owY depending on the veloity diretion t the left (w > 0) or right (w < 0) oundryF
he eigenvlues ssoited with the proli lok reoneEfold degenerE tedF gonsequentlyD one initil ondition is needed for Q1 u nc +1 pF he lk of n initil ondition for H is resonle sine it follows from g (p, c) nd the respetive initil onditionsF

hue to the degenery of the proli lokD the fgs for Q1 u nc +1 nd Q1 u nc +2 must e spei(ed opposite t either side of the dominF prom prtil point of view it is ler tht the enthlpy is spei(ed t in)owF gonsequentlyD Q1 u nc +2 = f (c, p, H) need to e imposed t in)ow nd Q1 u nc +1 p t out)owF eordinglyD the pressure must e spei(ed t out)ow in order to otin wellEposed prolemF nfortuntelyD one further neessry ondition for the wellEposedness of the system n not e generlly provenF es stted oveD the index with respet to time must e less thn twoF roweverD it n only e generlly shown tht the upper ound for the index with respet to time of liner system suh s @PFIHA is less equl two10 F
sn this setionD the neessry fgs for the stle solution of speil lss of het exhnger models were derivedF roweverD this knowledge is not new s it ws previously pointed out y other uthors @ntelidesD pe IWWVY rnke et al.D PHHUAF

2.B Empirical correlations

he tue rrngement within n ri n e spei(ed with geometril vriles s indited in the setionl drwing in pigure PFIRF qlser @IWQVA nd edzi nd holz @IWUQA indite how the men gp width nd thus the net rossE)ow re mong the tues n e lultedF he gp width etween two djoining tues is funtion of the @onstntA thikness of the spers aD the @onstntA height etween the windings c nd the @vrileA reltive position of the tues xF wo hrteristi positions my e determinedF pirstD x = 0 where the gp width eomes minimlD i.e.D smax = smin = aF eondD x = Pl
10
Martinson and Barton (2002, Theorem 4.1) proved that the upper bound for the index with respect to time of a linear system with linear forcing is less equal the nilpotency of 2 the coecient matrix of the parabolic part. Note that

0 k

0 0

= 0.

RT

fsfvsyqer
GR D VPLQ
GL

3O

VP

D[

3U 'L 'M

pigure PFIRX qeometri hrteriztion of the tue rrngement of n ri @from edzi nd holzD IWUQA where the gp width eomes mximlD i.e.D smax = men gp width n expressed s

1 4

Pl2 + Pr2 do F he

2 sm = Pl Pr = 2
nd

Pl /2 0

s dx Pl Pr 2 1 Pl 2 Pr2 Pl ln + 1+ + do Pl 2 Pr 4 Pr

1 1+ 4

sm = 1.04 a + 0.04 do
for the speil se Pl = Pr F prom this resultD the net ross )ow re yields

Af = Dm nlay sm ,
where

Di + Do . 2 por more geometril onsidertionsD the reder is referred to predheim @wy IWWRD eppendix eAF fsed on the geometril vriles in the setionl drwing of pigure PFIRD empiril orreltions for tueGshellEside het trnsfer nd pressure drop re given in les PFV through PFII for vrious )ow regimesF hepending on the ontextD the vrile d refers to do or di F Dm = Di + (nlay 1) a + nlay d + sm =

RU

grei PF wyhivsxq

Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity Model equ.

Comments Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity Model equ.

Gnielinski (1986a) Re = w d d 1 < Re D < 105 1 2 d ffric = f Re, D d w 2 d f Re, = D 64 d 1 + 0.033 log10 Re D Re 0.3164 d + 0.03 D Re0.25 d 0.45 Recrit = 2300 1 + 8.6 D 

Tube side/single phase ow

if 1 < Re

< Recrit d if Recrit < Re D < 105

d D

Comments

le PFVX ueEside pressure drop orreltions

Chisholm (1973) n g 2 l Xtt = g l  2n 2 2ph l ffric = ffric 1 + Xtt 1 B (x (1 x)) 2 + x2n if Xtt 9.5 G 500 4.8 2400 if Xtt 9.5 500 < G < 1900 G 55 if Xtt 9.5 G 1900 G0.8 B= 520 if 9.5 < Xtt < 28 G 600 Xtt G 21 if 9.5 < Xtt < 28 G > 600 Xtt 15000 if Xtt > 9.5 Xtt G The variable n refers to the exponent of Re in the Blasius equation; i.e., n = 1 . The variable G is the mass ux. For 4 calculation of B , the unit of G must be kg/ s m2 .

Tube side/annular ow

RV

fsfvsyqer

Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity Model equ. Comments

Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity Model equ.

Dittus-Boelter (1930) c d Re = w di , P r = p , N u = i 3 5 2.5 10 < Re < 1.24 10 , 0.7 < P r < 120 (Shah and Sekuli, 2003, pp. 482, 484) N ust = 0.023 Re0.8 P r0.4 Curvature correction in turbulent ow: di N uct N ust = 1 + k D , with k 3.5 The subscript st and ct refer to straight tube and coiled tube, respectively. If curvature is small, the contribution of secondary ow is negligible and straight tube equations are adequate (Kreis, 1997). Boyko and Kruzhilin (1967), Silver (1947) (w w ) (d 2 ) g , P rg , N ug Rel ,P rl ,N ul , Reg = g l g i 3 1.5 10 < Re < 1.5 104 2ph = 1+lm (method by Silver, 1947; Bell and Ghaly, 1972) lm lm = l l = l 1 + lg g (method by Boyko and

Tube side/single phase ow

Tube side/annular ow

Comments

Kruzhilin, 1967) = g Z f C di Z = qqcore = (cp )g di 2 T h tot di g = di 2 N uct d d The term d2 may be disregarded if the lm thickness is not taken into account. Not considered are (i) enhancement multiplier for the eect of liquid lm turbulence Cf and (ii) the correction for mass transfer = e where is the Ackermann 1 correction term (as dened by Sardesai et al., 1982, 1983).

le PFWX ueEside het trnsfer orreltions

RW

grei PF wyhivsxq
Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity Model equ.

Comments Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity Model equ. Comments

Barbe et al. (1972a) (for reference see Table 2.2) Pl r Re = do w a = Po , b = do d 5 Re < 10 2 M2 ffric = 4 1 + 1 2 Pl fst (Re) fin (Re) 2 1.73 2 (a1) 2 a1 fst (Re) = 0.88 a2 +0.25 b2 + 1 Re0.295 2 a1 fin (Re) = 0.7 0.2 1.52 (a 1) (b 1) Re0.2 if Pr Pl 0.68 2 0.5 0.2 ( a1 ) a1 b1 otherwise 0.9 (b 1) Re 0.32
b1

Shell side/superheated ow

The functions fst and fin respectively represent the contribution of staggered and inline heat exchanger conguration.

Chisholm (1973) n g 2 l Xtt = g l  2n 2 2ph l ffric = ffric 1 + Xtt 1 B (x (1 x)) 2 + x2n See tube-side annular ow for denition of B and n.

Shell side/shear ow

le PFIHX hellEside pressure drop orreltions

Bibliography
Looking inside ...: Spiral-wound versus plate-n heat exchangers. Pullach, Germany, 2005. Coil-wound heat exchanger. Pullach, Germany, 2006a. ADOL-C: A package for automatic dierentiation of algorithms written in C/C++: v1.10.1, Sep 2005. URL

http://www.math.tu-dresden.de/wir/project/adolc/.

E. E. Abadzic. Heat transfer on coiled tubular matrix: 74-WA/HT-64. The American Society of Mechanical Engineers winter annual meeting, New York, New York, 1974/11/17-22. E. E. Abadzic and H. W. Scholz. Coiled tubular heat exchangers. Advances in cryogenic

engineering, 18:4251, 1973.

B. Aunan.  Shell side heat transfer and pressure drop in coil-wound LNG heat exchangers:

Laboratory measurements and modelling: Ph.D. thesis. Ph.D. thesis, NTNU, Trondheim,
Norway, 2000. W. A. Bach, W. Frg, M. Steinbauer, R. Stockmann, and F. Voggenreiter. Spiral wound heat exchangers for LNG baseload plants. LNG conference, Seoul, South Korea, 2001/05/14-17. C. Barbe, D. Roger, and D. Grange. Two-phase ow heat exchanges and pressure losses in spool-wound exchanger shells. Pipeline and gas journal, (11):8287, 1972.

SH

fsfvsyqer

Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity Model equ. Comments Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity Model equ. Comments Flow regime Author Dim.less num. Validity range Model equ.

Bays and Mcadams (1937); Bennett et al. (1986) (c ) Ml Rel = 4 l , P rl = pll l with = 2 X and Dcore +D shell n X= layer 2 3 40 < Re < 10 (Bennett et al., 1986), 2 103 < Re < 104 (Neeraas al., 2004b) et
c

Shell side/falling lm

McNaught (1982)

o Reb P rlb N ul = a dc l 2 1/3 l c = g 2 l Suciently validated coecients are {a, b, c, d} = 1 1 1 0.886, 9 , 3 , 3 if Re 2000 (Bennet et al. , 1986) . 0.313, 1 , 1 , 1 otherwise (Neeraas et al. , 2004) 4 3 3

Shell side/shear ow

0.9 g 0.5 l 0.1 Lockhardt-Martinelli parameter Xtt = 1x x l g 102 < Xtt < 101 b 1 (2ph )s = a Xtt ls with a = 1.26 and b = 0.78 The subscript s indicates forced convective shear ow. The subscript ls indicates the case in which liquid is owing alone in the section.

Comments

Gnielinski (1979) c wd d Re = o , N u = o , P r = p 2 2 1 < Re < 106 , < P r < 0.7 103 0.7 Pl 0.3 + N u2 + N u2 N u = f Pr , lam turb N ulam = 0.664 Re P r1/3 0.037 Re0.8 P N uturb = 1+2.443 Re0.1 P rr 1 ( 2/3 ) Pl 0.7 Pr 0.3 Pl 2 f Pr , = 1 + 1.5 Pl

Shell side/superheated ow

The variable = 1 the void fraction for calculation of average velocity between tubes.

r +0.7 do 4 Pr represents

le PFIIX hellEside het trnsfer orreltions

SI

grei PF wyhivsxq
P. I. Barton. The equation oriented strategy for process owsheeting. Cambridge, Mas-

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grei PF wyhivsxq

SV

Chapter 3 New results on self-optimizing control

tedy stte proess optimiztion y regultion ws (rstly motivted y worri et al. @IWVHAF hey rtiulted the ide tht onstnt setpoint poliy leds to optiml opertion if the underlying ontrol struture is properly designedF hroughout this workD the term ontrol struture refers to set of ontrolled vrilesD i.e.D vriles whih re kept t ertin setpoints y one or more ontrollersF he proedure of systemtil development of ontrol strutures is known s ontrol struture design @ghAF kogestd nd ostlethwite @IWWTD pF RPVERQQA extended the ide of worri et al. @IWVHA nd gve n pproxiE mte riterion for (nding @linerA ontrol strutures whih inherently provide lmost optiml opertionF purtherD they were the (rst whih mde use of the terminology selfEoptimizing ontrolF essuming liner proess model nd qudrti ost funtionD n ext lol riterion for the identi(tion of selfE optimizing ontrol strutures ws developed y rlvorsen et al. @PHHQAF foth the pproximte nd the ext lol riterion require the solution of mulE tivrite nonEonvex prolem sujet to struturl onstrintsF his hpter dels with the development of new solution methods whih n hndle struE turl onstrints not yet onsidered eforeF elted work in the (eld of selfEoptimizing ontrol is referred to in etion QFIF etion QFP outlines the mthemtil frmework of selfEoptimizing ontrol theoryF sn etion QFQD new method is proposed whih is dedited to (nding selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures in whih eh ontrolled vrile is liner omintion of the sme proess vrile susetF es shown in etion QFRD it n e extended to (nd ontrol strutures in whih individul proess vrile susets re mpped to eh ontrolled vrileF sn etion QFSD numeril study is presented whih ims to ompre the presented gh methods with others from the puli dominF gonluding remrks re given in etion QFTF

3.1 Related work

sn this setionD pulily ville methods for the identi(tion of selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures re reviewedF ht there re vriety of gh methods

SW

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv present in the open literture is due to the ft tht gh is usully multiE ojetive prolemF yn the one hndD there is lwys trdeEo' etween struE turl omplexity nd hievle optimlityF yn the other hndD gh must del with prtil spets relting to proess knowledge whih nnot e mde ville y rules or mthemtil methodsF e selfEoptimizing ontrol struture sujet to proess vrile seletion n e found y exhustive sreening ll possile proess vrile omintionsF es this eomes imprtil for lrgeEsle modelsD uriwl nd kogesE td @PHHTGHUGHWEIQAY go nd uriwl @PHHVA nd uriwl nd go @PHHWD PHIHA suggested the use of rnh nd ound lgorithms to (nd n optiml solutionF vrsson et al. @PHHIA proposed heuristil rules to derese model size y disriminting proess vriles s ndidte ontrolled vriles for the ske of reduing the omintoril diversityF hey proved their pproh y pplying the rules on the ennessee istmn proessD ommon enhE mrkF ingell et al. @PHHSGHUGHREHVA proposed the suessive disregrding of proess vriles s ndidte ontrolled vriles sed on mximum singuE lr vlue rule pplied to hrteristi mtrix of the proessF hey pplied their results to retive distilltion olumn nd tested it y dynmi simuE ltionF roess vrile omintion methods hve een pulished y elstd nd kogestd @PHHUAY uriwl @PHHUAY elstd et al. @PHHWA nd uriwl et al. @PHHVA nd re relled in eppendix QFeF hese methods hve in ommon tht ll ontrolled vriles re liner omintions of the sme proess vrile susetF he developments introdued in this hpter ontriute to relx this struturl onstrint @reldtD PHHWD PHIHAF he prolem of (nding the est proess vrile suset of ertin size ws proposed to e e0iently solved y either rnh nd ound lgorithms @uriwl nd goD PHHWD PHIHA or mixed integer qudrti progrm @elhuru nd kogestdD PHIHGHUGPSEPVAF e more e0ient greedy lgorithm for (nding stisftory proess vrile suE sets ws proposed y wihelsen et al. @PHIHAF eprt from the liner ontrol theory there re reent works y tshke et al. @PHHWGHTGIHEIPA nd tshke nd kogestd @PHHWA whih fous on nonliner selfEoptimizing ontrolF es this is only pplile to proesses with rther simple nlytil modelsD it is not sujet of this workF

3.2 Mathematical framework

he sheme in pigure QFI represents generl regultory ontrol struture pE plied to n ritrry proess plntF fsed thereon the ext lol riterion of rlvorsen et al. @PHHQA is introdued in this setionF he vetors u Rnu D d Rnd D y Rny nd c Rnu D respetivelyD orrespond to the mnipuE TH

QFPF weriwesgev pewiyu

cs Controller c +n u d Plant y

nc Combination

ny

pigure QFIX qenerl representtion of regultory ontrol strutures in hemil plnts @fter elstd et al.D PHHWA lted vriles @wsAD disturne vriles @hsAD mesured proess vriles @sA nd ontrolled vriles @gsAF e onstnt setpoint poliy is ppliedF ht isD the ws re djusted y the ontroller@sA until @fesiility providedA the gs equl the setpoint vetor cs whose vlues remin (xedF o ount for mesurement errorsD the s nd gs re 'eted y the implementtion errors ny Rny nd nc Rnu F worri et al. @IWVHAD the inventors of selfEoptimizing ontrolD stte tht it is desirle @FFFA to (nd funtion of s whih when held onstntD leds utomtilly to the optiml djustments of the wsD nd with itD the optiml operting onditionsF sn other wordsD selfEoptimizing ontrol my e hieved y n pproprite mpping of s towrds gsD denoted y c = H (y)D where H Rnu represents the omintion lok in pigure QFIF por deriving the ext lol methodD rlvorsen et al. @PHHQA onsidered the liner ontrol struE ture H = H/y T F he opertionl ost @or negtive pro(tA of plnt denoted y J is usully 'eted y oth types of input vrilesD ws nd hsF sn order to operte plnt optimlly t minimum ost @or mximum pro(tA y ompenstion of hs vi diret mnipultion of wsD the prolem

uR/O (d) = arg minJ (u, d) sFtF g (y, u, d) = 0

u

@QFIA

must e solvedF he solution to prolem @QFIA is referred to s feedEforwrd reE optimiztion @GyA throughout this workF rereD g Rny denotes the stedyE stte model equtions of the plntF por the further derivtion from hereonD some simplifying ssumptions need to e mdeF IF he plnt is in its optiml stte t nominl onditionsF he inputGoutput @sGyA vriles re trnsformed suh tht u = 0D d = 0 nd y = 0 hold t nominl onditionsF PF he numer of ws my e redued s some my hve no e'et on the

TI

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv ostD others my need to e spent in  priori ontroller loops in order to either stilize the plnt or ful(ll ontrol trgets suh s produt qulE ity or optimlly tive onstrintsF st is ssumed tht u represents only the remining ws ville for selfEoptimizing ghF he  priori onE troller loops re onsidered prt of the model equtions g F purtherD it is supposed tht the optimlly tive onstrints remin lolly unlteredF QF xonlinerities of the plnt re lolly negligile round the optiml opE erting pointF gonsequentlyD the stedyEstte sGy model of the plnt t optiml onditions n e represented y the liner eqution

y = Gy u + Gy d + ny , d
where the ugmented plnt is given y

@QFPA

nd the elements of uD d nd y represent devitions from nominl operE ting pointF RF he ost funtion J n e lolly pproximted y seond order ylor seriesD i.e.D

Gy d

g y T

1
0

g uT dT

J = J0 +

Ju Jd

u d

1 + 2

u d

Juu Jud T Jud Jdd

u d

@QFQA

where the indies u nd d indite the prtil derivtive evluted t nominl operting pointF sn prtiulrD Ju = 0 nd Juu 0 hold s onsequene of the (rst nd seond pointF pigure QFP shows exemplrily the opertionl ost of proess plnt versus one hF he ost of the feedEforwrd reEoptimiztion is indited y the solid line nd gives the lower ound for feedk ontrol with onstnt setpoints represented y the dshed urvesF st is thus onvenient to de(ne the mesure

known s the loss funtionF rere uS/O (d) nd uR/O (d) represent the inE )uene from hs to ws for feedk ontrol with onstnt setpoints nd reEoptimiztionD respetivelyF e good selfEoptimizing @GyA ontrol struture refers to sitution in whih the funtions uS/O (d) nd uR/O (d) re similr to eh other nd the loss L (d) is smll for the expeted disturnesF

L (d) = J uS/O (d) , d J uR/O (d) , d

@QFRA

TP

QFPF weriwesgev pewiyu

J(d) J(u opt (d),d) J(u H(d),d) Poor

Good

Loss d d=0

pigure QFPX gost funtions of regultory ontrol strutures @dshedA nd reE optimiztion @fter kogestdD PHHHA

he dependeny of @QFRA from the feedk ontrol struture is not yet pE prent nd will e derived elowF por shorter nottionD the indition of the dependeny on d is dropped in the sequelF snsertion of @QFQA into @QFRA yields

L=

1 T 1 uS/O Juu uS/O + uS/O Jud d uR/O Jud d uT Juu uR/O , @QFSA 2 2 R/O

for whih Ju = 0 ws tken into ountF sing the (rst order ylor series

nd the ft tht reEoptimiztion implies J/u = 0D it follows tht

1 uR/O = Juu Jud d.

J = Ju + Juu u + Jud d u
=0

@QFTA

sing this resultD @QFSA n e trnsformed into

L=
with the loss vriles

1 T z z 2

@QFUA

z = Juu
1/2

1/2

sn @QFVAD Juu is the gholesky ftor orresponding to Juu =

uS/O uR/O .

@QFVA

Juu

1/2 T

Juu F

1/2

TQ

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv prom H y = c = cs = 0 nd @QFPA it n e otined tht uS/O = (H Gy )1 H Gy d + ny . d

!

@QFWA

snsertion of @QFWA nd @QFTA into @QFVA yields

z = Juu (H Gy )1 H

1/2

por simpli(tion of nottionD the mtries

1/2

1 Gy Gy Juu Jud d + ny . d
@QFIHA @QFIHA @QFIHA

Gy = Gy Juu z y 1 = Gd Gy Juu Jud W d W ny F M = (H Gy )1 H F

z

re introdued whih yields the short expression

z = M f.
rereD

@QFIIA

omines the sled disturnes nd implementtion errors nd W d nd W ny re the respetive digonl sling mtriesF prom @QFUA nd @QFIIAD rlvorsen et al. @PHHQA onluded tht the worstEse loss for feedk ontrol is given y

f F = x Rnd +ny : x2 1

Lwc = maxL =
f F

1 2 (M ) 2

@QFIPA

where indites the lrgest singulr vlueF gonsequentlyD selfEoptimizing ontrol struture with lest worstEse loss my e otined y solving the prolem H = arg min (M ) . @QFIQA
H

where indites the smllest singulr vlueF eordinglyD pproximte soluE tions n e found y either minimizing H F or mximizing (H Gy )F z he (rst strtegy is mde use of y the nullspe method @elstd nd kogesE tdD PHHUAD while the seond strtegy gives rise to the mximum singulr vlue

en upper ound for (M ) n e derivedD i.e.D H F / (H Gy ) (M ) , z

TR

QFPF weriwesgev pewiyu @wA ruleD whih reds

H = arg max (H Gy ) z
H

@QFIRA

when sling is disregrdedF foth strtegies hve the dvntge tht they redue omplexity nd re thus fvored y severl uthorsF uriwl et al. @PHHVA proposed the verge loss 1 L df = Lav = M 2 @QFISA F 6 (nYu + nd ) f F sed on the ssumption tht f 2 is uniformly distriuted over the rnge 0 f 2 1F rereD .F indites the proenius norm nd nYu = |Yu | where Yu = Y1 Ynu nd Yi is the suset orresponding to the ith gF I.e.D Yu indites the overll suset of ll s who hve t lest one nonzero liner oe0ient in the ontrol struture @e.g.D nYu = nu for seletionAF uriwl et al. @PHHVA stte tht the verge loss @QFISA is usully etter estimte of the loss s the worstEse loss @QFIPA tends to overestimtionF eording to @QFISAD uriwl et al. @PHHVA suggested solving

H = arg min M F
H

@QFITA

insted of @QFIQAF hey proved tht the solution to @QFITA is superEoptiml in the sense tht it minimizes oth the verge nd the worstEse lossF

Remark QFI. eording to @QFISAD the verge loss depends on the numer of s used s omintion vriles nYu F his dependeny ws omitted in @QFITA in order to limit the fvor of lrge nYu F
efter this rief survey it n e onluded tht the identi(tion of selfE optimizing ontrol strutures n e hieved y solving @QFIQAD @QFIRA or @QFITA sujet to ertin struturl onstrintsF en optiml ontrol struture sujet to seletion n e found y exhustive sreening of ll possile omE intionsF es this eomes imprtil for lrgeEsle modelsD severl uthors @uriwl nd kogestdD PHHTGHUGHWEIQY go nd uriwlD PHHVY uriwl nd goD PHHWD PHIHA suggested the use of e0ient rnh nd ound @fefA lgorithmsF ythers @elstd nd kogestdD PHHUY uriwlD PHHUY uriwl et al.D PHHVY elstd et al.D PHHWA1 pulished methods for the identi(tion of strutures in whih eh g is liner omintion of n priori imposed
1
Alstad et al. (2009) proposed two dierent methods, the extended nullspace method and one which was not named but for which a linearly constrained quadratic problem needed to be solved (see Appendix 3.B). If not explicitly stated, the method by Alstad et al. (2009) refers to the latter method throughout this work.

TS

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv suset @relled in eppendix QFeAF sn order to get the est struture sujet to ertin set sizeD one possiility is the exhustive serhD i.e.D sreening of ll possile susets nd for eh suset pplying one of these methodsF es for the seletion prolemD this eomes omputtionlly expensive for lrge ny nd lso for lrge suset sizes smller ny /2F hereforeD uriwl nd go @PHHWD PHIHA proposed e0ient fef solution methods for (nding the est suset sujet to ertin set sizeF his thesis is dedited to the solution of @QFIQAD @QFIRA or @QFITA sujet to more dvned struturl onstrints thn seletion or liner omintions of ommon suset with ertin set sizeF his is the onern of etion QFRF roweverD these methods re sed on further method for ommon suset omintion nmed qh methodF st ws priorly presented y reldt @PHHWD PHIHA nd is relled in etion QFQF

3.3 The GSVD method

uppose prolems @QFIQA nd @QFITA need to e solved sujet to prede(ned struture in whih liner omintion of the sme suset Y with set size nY = |Y| nu is mpped towrds every gF pirstD it is onvenient to restte @QFIIA s Y T T z T GY HT = f T F HT . @QFIUA z Y Y

rereD the su nd supersript Y denotes tht relting olumns in H nd rows in Gy nd F re extrtedF eording to ige nd unders @IWVIAD generE z lized singulr vlue deomposition2 @qhA of the mtrix pir T Y , GY T F z exists whih is used to rewrite @QFIUA s

zT U V T H T = f T U V T H T . Y Y

@QFIVA

he properties of the deomposed mtries re pointed out nextF he mtries T U Rnu nu nd U Rnf nf re unitryD i.e.D U T U = I nu nd U U = I nf F he mtrix V RnY q owns the property tht it hs full olumn rnkD i.e.D Y GY rank (V ) = q D wheres q = rank F he mtrix Rnu q is F 2 2z 2 triling digonlD with T = dig 1 , 2 , ..., q nd 0 i i+1 1F
2
others not. Here the latter type is referred to, corresponding to the MATLAB gsvd().

There are dierent types of GSVDs. Some require a rank condition on the matrix pair, function

TT

QFQF ri qh wiryh

2 2 2 T he mtrix Rnf q is leding digonlD with = dig 1 , 2 , ..., q 2 2 nd 1 i i+1 0F he reltion i + i = 1i {1, . . . , q} holdsF Y purtherD the numer of r = q rank Gz leding i nd i re I nd HD Y respetivelyD nd the numer of s = q rank F triling i nd i re H

nd ID respetivelyF he quotient i = i /i is referred to s the ith lrgest T Y , (Gy )T F por more generlized singulr vlue of the mtrix pir F z Y

informtion on qh nd on how the resulting mtries n e omputedD the reder is referred to stndrd liner lger textooksD e.g.D the textooks of rogen @PHHUD ppF USFPHEPRA nd qolu nd nvon @IWWTD ppF RTSERTUA nd the wevef doumenttion @PHHVA of gsvd@AF

Lemma 3.2. Given two arbitrary matrices

Rmp ,

it holds that

for indicating either induced two-norm or Frobenius norm. Proof. he proof follows trivilly from reursive pplition of rorn nd tohnE
son @IWWHD heorem UFQFWAF

A B A

A Rnp with n p and B

Theorem 3.3. If rank

loss are given by and

GY = nu , then the minimum worst-case and average z Lwc = 1 2 2 r+1

@QFIWA

respectively. @QFIWA and @QFPHA are obtained by selecting

HY = M n P T , 2

q 1 2 Lav = i , 6 (nY + nd ) i=r+1

@QFPHA

where M n Rnu nu is an arbitrary regular matrix and P 2 is the nY nu 1 sub-block of P = P 1 P 2 = V T = V V T V in which denotes the right pseudo-inverse (can be replaced by the inverse if q = nY holds).
TU

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv

Proof. st is onvenient to rewrite @QFIVA s

z U
T

0nu r 2

VT 1 VT 2

HT = Y 1 T 0rnu V1 H T , @QFPIA 2 Y VT 2 0snu

he ondition rank GY = nu implies tht 2 is regulrF husD (nite M z imposes the neessry ondition tht V T H T is regulrF sf this is providedD it 2 Y follows from @QFPIA tht 1 1 1 V T H T V T H T 2 1 2 Y Y M = . 2 1 2

where s = max (0, nf q) nd V is split into two suEloks V 1 RnY r nd V 1 RnY nu suh tht T V 1 P1 V T P2 I rr T 1 V P = = . @QFPPA I nu nu V T P1 V T P2 2 2

f T U 0nu r 0sr

es the ondition V T H T = 0 meets this lower oundD it is su0ient for miniE 1 Y mizing M nd the results @QFIPA nd @QFISA n e trivilly derivedF es n e seen from @QFPPAD the seletion H Y = M n P T stis(es oth the neessry 2 ondition tht V T H T is regulr nd the su0ient ondition V T H T = 0F 2 1 Y Y

rereD it ws used tht indued twoEnorm nd proenius norm re oth unitrily invrintF prom vemm QFP it n e onluded tht H T independent lower Y ound on M existsD i.e.D M 2 1 . 2

Remark QFR. por perfet disturne rejetionD i.e.D M = 0D it is required tht t lest u triling i re zeroF es indited oveD the numer of s = Yn q rank F triling i re in ft zeroF husD perfet disturne rejetion ours if the inequlity s nu is stis(edF hue to q nY D the su0ient ondition for perfet disturne rejetion reds Y nY nu + rank F .
TV

QFRF ehexgih gyxyv gi

Y D whih n only e stis(ed he neessry ondition is thus nY > rank F if ertin numer of implementtion errors re zeroF sf ll implementtion errors re disregrded nd eh h hs linerly independent e'et on the s Y of the set Y D then rank F = nd nd the ondition for perfet disturne rejetion reds nY nu + nd F his is in greement with results of other omintion methods @elstd nd kogestdD PHHUY uriwlD PHHUY uriwl et al.D PHHVY elstd et al.D PHHWAF
he equivlene of the qh method with previously pulished methods is pointed out in eppendix QFfF

3.4 Advanced control structures

his setion is dedited to the solution of @QFIQAD @QFIRA or @QFITA sujet to dvned struturl onstrintsF riniple ides onvenient for the susequent disussion re presented in etion QFRFIF sn etion QFRFPD it is rgued why the ommon susets re onsidered insu0ient for pplition in indusE tril prtieF etion QFRFQ dels with the mjor ostles fed when tking dvned strutures into ountF he onern of etion QFRFR is n ppropriE te trnsformtion of the solution spe for prolems @QFIQA nd @QFITA sujet to n ritrry prede(ned liner ontrol strutureF epproximte solution pE prohes whih mke use of this trnsformtion re presented in etion QFRFSF

3.4.1 Principles
por lerer expressivenessD it is onvenient to provide de(nitions of ontrol struture types nd sets of ontrol struturesF

Denition 3.5. e ontrol struture in whih ll gs re liner omintions of the sme suset Y Yy of size nY = |Y| is referred to s column control structureF e common-sized control structure refers to ontrol struture in whih the ith g is liner omintion of n individul suset Yi with the onstrint tht ll susets hve the sme set size ncs = |Yi | i {1, . . . , nu }F sn more generl individually-sized control structureD the ith g is liner omintion of n individul suset Yi with individul set size nYi = |Yi |F
he lrgest set of struturl solutions whih ful(lls set of onstrints is referred to s superstructureF yne struturl solution within the superstruture is lled n element of the superstrutureF ome properties of olumn ontrol strutures re presented nextF

Denition 3.6.

TW

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv

Lemma 3.7. Let H represent a column control structure of size nY with nite

worst-case/average loss, iFeF, the necessary condition rank (H) = nu holds. Then, for every H there exists a common-sized control structure H cs with a PV subset size per CV of ncs = nY (nu 1) and the same worst-case/average loss as H .
suh tht H = H 1 H 2 0nu (ny nY ) where H 1 R is regulr nu (nY nu ) F xowD the ft is used tht M (H) = M (M H)D nd H 2 R n where M n Rnu nu my e ny regulr mtrixF his is selfEevident y oservtion of @QFIHAF eordinglyD H nd H cs = H 1 H = I nu H 1 H 2 0nu (ny nY ) 1 1

Proof. ithout loss of generlityD it is ssumed tht the s re reordered nu nu

hve equl worstEseGverge loss @QFIPAG@QFISAF st is ovious tht H cs hs ncs = nY (nu 1) nonzero elements per rowF

nu and nite loss. Then, the worst-case/average loss is independent of the coecients in H . Rather, the worst-case/average loss depends only on the selection of the PV subset Y F H cs with the sme worstEseGverge loss s H nd suset size of ncs = 1F

Corollary 3.8. Let H be a column control structure with PV subset size nY =

Proof. eording to vemm QFUD it exists ommonEsized ontrol struture

Remark QFW. vemm QFU sttes tht ommonEsized ontrol strutures n e

lulted from @optimlA olumn ontrol strutures y simple liner trnsforE mtionF st is importnt to stress tht these results re not neessrily optiml in the sense to prolems @QFIQAD @QFIRA nd @QFITA sujet to ommonEsized superstruturesF

Remark QFIH. es indited in vemm QFUD the worstEseGverge loss of

ontrol struture H is invrint with respet to liner trnsformtions of the form M n H D where M n Rnu nu my e ny regulr mtrixF roweverD the struture of H is not generlly invrint with respet to suh trnsformtionsD only if M n is digonl mtrixF

3.4.2 Motivation
ome dvntges of ommonEGindividullyEsized ontrol strutures over olumn ontrol strutures re pointed out elowF

UH

QFRF ehexgih gyxyv gi IF e smller suset size per g is on the one hnd fvorle due to etE ter prtil eptneD ut on the other hnd usully ompnied y lrger worstEseGverge lossF prom vemm QFU it n e onluded tht for nu > 1 redution in suset size per g without 'eting the worstEseGverge loss n e hieved ifD insted of olumn ontrol strutureD ommonEsized ontrol struture is tken into ountF eE ordinglyD ommonEsized ontrol struture needs less degrees of freedom @numer of struturl nonzerosA in H thn olumn ontrol struture to hieve the sme lossF PF fy implition of the (rst rgumentD it is evident tht smller worstE seGverge loss n e hieved ifD insted of olumn ontrol struE tureD ommonEsized ontrol struture with equl suset size per g is tken into ountF he numeril demonstrtion of this ft is given in etion QFSF QF fy de(nitionD nYu = nY for olumn ontrol strutures nd nYu > ncs for ommonEsized ontrol struturesF husD the size of the union suset nYu of ommonEsized ontrol struture is lrger thn tht of olumn ontrol struture if oth hve the sme suset size per gD i.e.D if nY = ncs F his hs two implitionsF pirstD lrger nYu leds to n inresed hne tht noise nels out whih mkes the ontrol struture more roust in terms mesurement filureGlossF eondD lrger nYu fvors smller verge lossF his is due to the multiplier (nYu + nd )1 in expression @QFISA nd mpli(es the seond rgument regrding verge lossF RF por nY = nu the optimlity of olumn ontrol strutures is only mtter of suset seletion s pointed out in gorollry QFVF gonsequentlyD the degrees of freedom of the liner oe0ients re in this se unused nd seletion strutureD i.e.D ommonEsized ontrol strutures with ncs = 1D is fvorleF SF golumn ontrol strutures H generlly fil if nY < nu holdsF his is due to the ft tht rnk (H) < nu whih leds to singulr H Gy ndD y z oservtion of @QFIIA nd @QFIHAD to in(nite lossF sn ontrstD ommonE sized nd individullyEsized ontrol strutures do not neessrily fil if ncs < nu nd nYi < nu for llGny i {1, . . . , nu }D respetivelyF essume for this rgument tht nu > 1F TF ome spets of prtil eptne require tking individul suset per g into ount s in ommonEGindividullyEsized ontrol struturesF

UI

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv A sGy seletion sed on heuristi rules is ommon prtieF sf deentrlized ontrollers re usedD physil loseness etween gs nd ws is proly the most ommon ruleD in order to hieve good use nd e'et nd short delys etween ws nd gsF sf the ws re fr prt from eh other @e.g.D in lrge sle proessesAD then physil loseness n only e hieved y tking individul susets per g into ountF A wixedEunit omintionsD i.e.D omintions inluding di'erent physil unitsD re not reommended to e utilized due to poor prtil eptneF sf pureEunit omintions re imposedD then eh g must e of the sme unit when olumn ontrol strutures re onsidered nd thus ll informtion of s outside the seleted group must e disregrdedF sn ommonGindividullyEsized ontrol strutures more informtion n e tken into ount s the unit of eh g n e di'erentF A sullyD ommissioning of whole plnt ours y tking suEunits susequently into opertion ording to well de(ned sequeneF st is thus neessry tht the gs of eh suEunit onsist only of s whih relte to the sme suEunit or suEunits lredy in opertionF sn this respet is lso ene(il to hve di'erent susets per gF prom these points it n e onluded tht it is very desirle to solve the prolems @QFIQAD @QFIRA nd @QFITA sujet to ommonGindividullyEsized onE trol struturesF ht this is rther hllenging tsk is pointed out in the susequent setionF

3.4.3 Obstacles
he di0ulty of solving prolems @QFIQAD @QFIRA nd @QFITA depends on the imposed struturl onstrintF por seletionD the prolems turn into pure integer prolemsF sf single prede(ned olumn struture is imposedD then the verge loss prolem @QFITA n e trnsformed into linerly onvex qudrti prolem @see elstd et al.D PHHWA for whih n nlytil solution n e derived whih lso solve the worstEse loss prolem @QFIQAF fsed on this resultD it ws shown y uriwl nd go @PHHWD PHIHA tht prolems @QFIQA nd @QFITA sujet to olumn superstrutures with ertin suset sizes turn into pure integer prolemsF gonsidering ommonGindividullyEsized struturesD di'erent onstrint types n e imposed whih then led to di'erent solution tehniquesF yne n eiE ther impose prede(ned struture or superstruture with ertin size@sAD ncs

UP

QFRF ehexgih gyxyv gi nd ni D of the susetsF sn the ltter se uxiliry onditions ould e required y the userF por instneD only ertin s my e llowed to e omined with eh other @e.g.D ording to their physil unitsAF purtherD n individul ndidte set my e imposed for eh g @e.g.D from di'erent plnt lotionsAF e weker ondition would e to prohiit overlpping of the susetsF Remark QFII. st is importnt to note tht the development of generl frmeE work whih overs ll these onstrints is n issue in itself nd is not within the sope of this thesisF por simpliityD only ommonGindividullyEsized ontrol superstrutures with the sme ndidte susets for every g re tken into ount hereF e generl expliit solution to one of the prolems @QFIQAD @QFIRA nd @QFITA sujet to n ritrry prede(ned ommonGindividullyEsized struture ould not e derived y the uthor of this thesis nd is onjetured tht it is nonE existentF gonsequentlyD solutions n only e otined y pplying itertive solution tehniquesF roweverD this is umersome due to nonEonvexityF he itertive solution of prolem @QFIQA is even more omplex s it sttes minGmx prolemF hue to the lk of n expliit solution for prolems @QFIQAD @QFIRA nd @QFITA sujet to prede(ned ommonGindividullyEsized strutureD the sme proE lems sujet to ommonGindividullyEsized superstrutures stte mixedEinteger prolemsF I.e.D for eh element of the superstruture n itertive solution pE proh must e ppliedF his eomes imprtil for lrge numer of elements in the superstruture due to omputtionl overlodF he following exmple shows tht the numer of elements in ommonGindividullyEsized ontrol struE tures n e huge even for smll system dimensionsF uppose tht ommonEsized superstruture with set size ncs is imposed s onstrint to one of the prolems @QFIQAD @QFIRA nd @QFITAF purtherD the sme ndidte s re onsidered for ll gsF henD ny the numer of ndidte gs @or ndidte susetsA is nC = Cncs F prom this setD nu gs must e seleted wheres order is irrelevnt nd multiple seE letions re llowed for overing lso olumn struturesF husD the numer of nC elements in the ommonGindividullyEsized superstruture is Cnu +nu 1 F por the dimensions nu = 3D ny = 20 nd ncs = 4D the numer of elements in the superstruture yields 1.9 1010 F por eh elementD one of @QFIQAD @QFIRA or @QFITA sujet to its struture must e solvedF essuming exhustive enumerE tion nd HFI s expense per elementD this mens totl omputtion time of pproximtely TH yersF st n e onluded tht prolems @QFIQAD @QFIRA nd @QFITA sujet to omE monGindividullyEsized superstrutures stte mixedEinteger prolems in whih

Example 3.12.

UQ

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv glol optimlity per element is ostly nd the numer of integer vrints is potentilly hugeF foth spets led to lrge omputtionl lod for prtil relevnt prolemsF his n e tkled y reduing the numer of evlutions vi the use of fef lgorithms nd y inresing the e0ieny of itertive solution tehniquesF e further strtegy is to drop the requirement of glol optimlity s ompromise for hieving etter omputtionl e0ienyF sn the next setionD prolems @QFIQA nd @QFITA sujet to ommonGindividullyE sized superstrutures re trnsformed into pure integer prolems permitting suoptimlityF hese integer prolems n then e solved very e0iently using fef methodsF

3.4.4 Space transformation

sn order to ount for the possiility of individul susets Yi D @QFIIA is restted s nu nu T zT (Gy )T hi eT = f T F hi eT , @QFPQA z i i
i=1 i=1

where hT Rny is the ith row vetor of H D i.e.D H T i nu is the ith stndrd sis vetorF he vetor ei R

h1 . . . hnu D nd T hi = hi1 . . . hiny represents the mp from the omplete set towrds the ith gF gonsidering ertin element of ommonGindividullyEsized superstrutureD liner omE intion of the suset Yi is mpped towrds the ith gF es hij = 0 j Yi D / it is onvenient to write = z
T nu i=1

T GYi z

hiYi eT i

=f

nu i=1

Yi F

hiYi eT , i

@QFPRA

where the suE nd supersript Yi denotes tht those rows of Gy nd F nd z elements of hi re extrted whose index is in Yi F I.e.D hiYi represents the mp from the s of the suset Yi towrds the ith gF Yi T Yi T fy performing the qh of the mtrix pir F , Gz with qi = Yi GYi rank D @QFPRA n e written s F z zT
where
nu i=1

U i i hi eT = f T i

nu i=1

U i i hi eT , i

@QFPSA

i =

0ti ri

diag i(ri +1) , ..., iqi

UR

@QFPTA

QFRF ehexgih gyxyv gi

ri = qi rank GYi D ti = nu rank GYi D z z i =

Y i D ui = nf rank F Yi Y U i Rnu nu nd U i Rnf nf si = qi rank F re unitryY nd hi = V T hiYi D with V i RnYi qi nd rank (V i ) = qi F i he solution spe of single prede(ned ommonGindividullyEsized struE ture is now trnsformedF he tsk is to (nd the est hi in terms of lest worstEseGverge loss nd pplying the k trnsformtion hiYi = V T hi i T hi in order to onlude to H F st is if qi = nYi nd otherwise hiYi = V i importnt to stress tht due to implitions of emrk QFIHD hi nd hiYi 2 2 n e hosen to e n ritrry positive vlueF he (rst useful property of the deomposed formultion @QFPSA is tht it llows the redution of the solution spe for one element of the ommonGinE dividullyEsized superstruture provided tht suoptimlity of the solution is permittedF his is lri(ed nextF

diag i1 , ..., i(qi si )

0ui si

Remark QFIQ. prom @QFPTA it follows tht if ri > 0 for ny i {1, . . . , nu }D then ij = 0, ij = 1j {1, . . . , ri }F I.e.D seleting the (rst ri elements in

hi unequl zero orresponds to the unfvorle seletion of in(nite generlized singulr vluesF xote tht if the (rst ri elements re the only nonzero elements T in hi D then hi is in the nullspe of GYi nd nu (Gy )T hi eT is singulr z z i i=1 whih is stritly undesirleF husD it is generlly dvisle to selet only the lst qi ri elements in hi unequl zeroF eordinglyD the solution spe n nu e redued from i=1 nYi to nu qi ri = nu rank GYi n2 F u z i=1 i=1

fsed on the trnsformed solution spe for one elementD novel method for solving the worstEseGverge loss prolem @QFIQAG@QFITA sujet to ommonG individullyEsized superstrutures is presented in the susequent setionF

3.4.5 AM problem solution

sn the se of lrge numer of elements in ommonGindividullyEsized suE perstrutureD it is not 'ordle to perform ostly itertive solution pprohes for eh elementF e good ompromise etween optimlity nd e0ieny is oE tined y reduing the solution spe to disrete pointsF gonsidering @QFPSAD i.e.D the mp from f to z for ertin element of the superstruture in terms of the trnsformed speD the limittion hi {ri +1 , . . . , eqi } is imposed for e qi refers to the j th sis vetorF ke into ount every gD where ej R / e tht hi {1 , . . . , eri } is due to emrk QFIQF xowD (nding the solution of the US

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv worstEseGverge loss prolem @QFIQAG@QFITA sujet to prede(ned ommonG individullyEsized ontrol struture only requires the sreening of nu qi ri i=1 lterntives insted of solving nononvex prolem with nu qi ri vrilesF i=1 he more striking dvntge of this pproh is tht the prolem of (nding the est element in ommonGindividullyEsized superstruture is trnsformed from mixedEinteger into pure integer prolem nd the integer prolem per element n e omined with the integer prolem of (nding the element in the superstrutureF por the j th ndidte suset of the ith g qh must e performed (j) (j) (j) (j) yielding the mtries U i D i D U i D i F he prolem of (nding the est liner omintion of the est ndidte suset of the ith g now orE (j) responds to (nding the est entry mong ll entries of hi j {1, . . . , nC }F his in turn orresponds to (nding the est relting olumns of the ugmented mtries G i nd F i given y G T = U (1) (1) . . . U (nC ) (nC ) i i i i i F T = U (1) (1) . . . U (nC ) (nC ) . i i i i i
(j) (j) he supersript denotes tht the (rst rj olumns in i nd i re omitted whih is due to emrk QFIQF eordinglyD G i Rvnu nd F i Rvnf where v = nC qj rj F j=1

st ws lredy pointed out in emrk QFII tht in this thesis for every g the sme set of ndidtes susets re tken into ountF hus for every g the ugmented mtries re identil nd index i n e droppedF xowD the mp from f to z n e written in terms of ll elements of the superstruture s z T G T HT = f T F T HT . @QFPUA

nd the prolem of (nding ommonEGindividullyEsized solutions is redued to solving the prolem H = arg min (H G)1 H F sFtF Hij {0, 1} nd H HT = I nu . @QFPVA
H

rereD H Rnu v is inry mtrix with one nonzero entry per olumn nd refers to either indued twoEnorm or proenius norm depending on whether worstEse or verge loss is onsideredF xote tht prolem @QFPVA is lmost identil to the originl prolems @QFIQA nd @QFITA sujet to seletionF enlogously to @QFIRAD n pproximte solution n e otined y solving n

UT

QFRF ehexgih gyxyv gi w prolem

H = arg max (H G) sFtF Hij {0, 1} nd H HT = I nu .

H

@QFPWA

rolems @QFPVA nd @QFPWA re referred to s ugmented mtrix @ewA proE v lemsF hey re pure integer prolems with omintoril omplexity of Cnu integer solutionsF es this my e huge numer lso for rther smll sGy dimensionsD very e0ient solutions methods for prolems @QFPVA nd @QFPWA re neededF hue to their similrity to the seletion prolemsD very e0ient methods re lredy ville in form of the idiretionl fef @fQA lgorithms proposed y go nd uriwl @PHHVA nd uriwl nd go @PHHWD PHIHAF hey re outlined in the sequelF

B3MSV

his method is sed on the work of go nd uriwl @PHHVAF e wevef ode ws mde pulily ville on the snternet y go @PHHUGIIGIIAF he method solves the w prolem @QFIRA sujet to seletionD i.e.D it selets the rows of tll mtrix suh tht the resulting squre mtrix hs mximum wF

B3WC, PB3WC

hese methods were developed y uriwl nd go @PHHWA nd mde pulily ville s wevef odes y go @PHHWGHIGHWAF he fQg method solves the worstEse loss prolem @QFIQA sujet to seletionF he fQg solves the worstEse loss prolem @QFIQA sujet to olumn superstrutureF es it is not fully idiretionlD it is lled prtil fQ lgorithmF

B3AV, PB3AV

hese methods were developed y uriwl nd go @PHIHA nd mde pulily ville s wevef odes y go @PHHWGIIGIUAF he fQe method solves the verge loss prolem @QFITA sujet to seletionF he fQe solves the verge loss prolem @QFITA sujet to olumn superstrutureF es the fQgD the fQe method is sed on prtil fQ lgorithmF

he pplition of the fQw lgorithm to @QFPWA is referred to s the fQwE ew method nd n tke ple without modi(tionsF he fQg nd fQe lgorithm need to e slightly modi(ed to e pplile to prolem @QFPVAF he neessry hnges in the lgorithm re presented in eppendix QFgF he use of either of the modi(ed lgorithms for solving @QFPVA is referred to s fQgEew nd fQeEew methodF e preproessing step of ll ew methods is the lultion of the ugmented mtriesF sf ommonEsized ontrol strutures with set size ncs re desiredD then ny the preproessing step involves nC = Cncs qh llsF yn the one hnd this

UU

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv my lredy e omputtionl expensive tsk for lrge sGy dimensionsF yn the other hnd the fQ lgorithms rely on lulting v v mtries whih limits nC due to memory resonsF edditionl onstrints on the ndidte susets suh s disregrding mixedEunit omintions my redue the size of nC nd v F en dditionl possiility for keeping the omputtionl lod smll is to prede(ne ndidte susets from proess insightF

3.5 Numerical study

pive gh methods were tested ginst eh other using wevef D the fQgD fQgEvD fQwEewD the fQgEew nd the wsg methodF he fQgEv nd the wsg method hve not een introdued yetF

PB3WC-LT

his method refers to (nding ommonEsized ontrol struture of set size ncs y pplying the fQg method to (nd the est olumn struture of set size ncs +nu +1 nd then linerly trnsforming the result into ncs sized ommonEsized strutureF

MIWC/MIAV

his method refers to the pproximte solution of the worstE seGverge loss prolem @QFIQAG@QFITA sujet to the ommonGindiviE dullyEsized superstrutureD whih is of mixedEinteger typeF por eh element of the superstruture the deomposition @QFPSA is tken into E ount for the ske of serhing in the redued spe nd hving good strting vluesD i.e.D hi = eqi i {1, . . . , nu }F he prolem per element is lolly solved y unonstrined minimiztion @wevef funtion fminun@AA sed on (niteEdi'erene pproximtion of derivtivesF he omputtionl e0ieny of the integer prolem is enhned y fef lE gorithms s lri(ed in eppendix QFhF

ell methods were pplied to severl ses wheres eh se ws IHHH times repetedly lulted with rndomly generted liner stteEspe models @QFPAD sling mtries W d nd W ny s well s ojetives of the form @QFQAF he entries of the oe0ient mtries followed norml distriution with N (0, 1) exept for the uniformly distriuted W d U (0, 1) nd W ny U (0, 1.0E 4) s well s Juu = R RT where the oe0ients of R Rnu nu were normlly distriuted with N (0, 1) nd the ound (Juu ) > 1.0 104 ws imposedF en lterntive mesure of optimlityD the reltive loss D ws usedF spei(es the rtio etween the loss of the result of prtiulr method nd the lest loss of ll seletion struturesF he susript reltes to either P or p depending on whether worstEse or verge loss is onsideredF he mesure is onvenient s the loss of seletion represents the upper ound for the loss of omintionD i.e.D 2 1 if worstEse loss is onsideredF UV

QFSF xwisgev h
log 10 (2 ) 0 2 4 0 2 4 1 0 1 2 3 4 2 0 0 PB3WC PB3WCLT B3MSVAM B3WCAM

log 10 riter

log 10 niter

log 10 titer /1 s

log 10 F

5 0.5 0 0.5 (nY,cs nu ) /nd 1

pigure QFQX xumeril results of run e wo test runs were performedF sn the (rst run @eAD eight di'erent ses were simultedF prom se to seD the numer of omined s nY ws deresed from eight to oneD wheres the other dimensionsD nu = 3D nd = 4 nd ny = 10D remined unlteredF sn the seond run @fAD nY ws redued from six to one in six steps while keeping nu = 2D nd = 3 nd ny = 7 (xedF he lultions were onduted in wevef PHHV using indows P desktop with sntel gore huo g iVRHH @QFH qrzD QFS qf ewAF pigure QFQ shows the results of run eF he following mesures re presented in the hrts from top to ottomX reltive worstEse nd verge lossD 2 nd F D omputtion time titer D evlution numer niter nd reltive evlution numer riter whih represents the evlution numer relted to the numer of elements in the superstrutureF he ordinte vlues re ll indited in terms of men vlues with stndrd devition rF por the sissD the reltive mesure for the suset size = (nY,cs nu ) /nd is usedD whih is onvenient s the

UW

log 10 nite log 1010riter) log (2

2 1 grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv 0 PB3WC PB3WCLT B3WCAM MIWC 0 0 0.5 1 (nY,cs nu ) /nd

0 2 2 0 4 2

log 10 F

2 4 1

pigure QFRX xumeril results of run f

hrteristi points = 0 nd = 1 relte to nY,cs = nu nd nY,cs = nu + nd D 0 1 respetivelyF he following oservtions n e mdeF sn greement with vemm QFUD 3 the loss urves of the fQgEv re identil with those of the fQg ut shifted y nY,cs = nu 1D i.e.D = (nu 1) /nd D to the leftF he 2 fQg fils for < 0 nd hieves equl worstEse loss s seletion 1 for = 0D whih is ler in the ontext of gorollry QFVF he men reltive 0 worstEseGverge loss of eh method monotonilly delines with inresing F roweverD t some pointsD lower ound for the worstEseGverge loss is 2 rehed where signi(nt redution nnot e hieved nymoreF his lower 0 ound of the loss is hieved y the optiml solution to the worstEse loss 2 prolem @QFIQA sujet to the omintion of the omplete suset nd is 0.5 1 lled est 0disturne rejetion loss @fhvAF prom theory it is evident tht (nY,cs nu ) /nd the fhv is zero if the implementtion error is disregrded nd ny nu + nd F he fhv is lmost hieved y the fQg method t = 1 nd y the fQgEv nd the other methods t = 1 F st mens tht the seletion > 1 D i.e.D nY,cs > nd +1D is unresonle for ommonGindividullyEsized ontrol strutures s the hievle worstEseGverge loss redution to the se = 1 is insigni(ntF por 1 D the omputtionl lod of oth the fQgEew nd the fQwEew method is onsiderly lrger thn tht of the other methods mking them unresonle in terms of hievle loss redutionF he exellene of the fQ methods is indited in the lowermost hrtF elted to the omintoril omplexity the fQ methods re le to redue the numer of evlutions up to T orders of mgnitudeF es expetedD the fQwEew method shows etter omputtionl e0ieny thn the fQgE ew method s the ltter is not fully idiretionlF
log 10 riter 2

he min result of run f is presented in pigure QFRF st illustrtes tht the reltive worstEse loss of the wsg method is smller thn ut lmost indistinguishle lose to tht of the fQgEewF his justi(es tht the simE pli(tions mde for the ew methods do not severely impir the hievle ury of the solutionF

log 10 niter

log 10 titer /1 s

VH

QFTF gyxgvsyx

3.6 Conclusions
his hpter gives new insights into the prolem of (nding selfEoptimizing ontrol struturesF everl new methods hve een proposedF he qh method is dedited to (nding proper gsD ltogether liner omintions of ommon susetF es the methods y uriwl et al. @PHHVA nd elstd et al. @PHHWAD it minimizes the verge loss superoptiml to the worstEse loss y tking expeted disturnes nd mesurement errors into ountF st is lso the sis for the newly developed ew methods whih re le to (nd suoptiml ontrol strutures with the struturl onstrint tht for eh g individul susets n e tken into ountF es no restrition on the size of the suset ws mdeD the ew methods lose the link etween seletion nd omintionF he ew methods proved their usefulness y the pplition to rndomly generted systems nd prtil exmplesF e mjor ssumption for the derivtion of the ew methods is tht for every g the sme ndidte suset needs to e tken into ountF es it is desirle to relx this onstrintD future work my spire the further developE ment of the ew methodsF elterntivelyD the fQ lgorithms @go nd uriwlD PHHVY uriwl nd goD PHHWD PHIHA my e enhned suh tht every g n e relted to ndidte suset nd struturl solutions whih violte this reltion re prunedF

3.A PV combination methods

he list elow presents solution methods of prolem @QFIQA nd @QFITA sujet to omintion of ommon suset per gF ell methods re written in terms of the omplete set Yy F xote tht they work s well for seleted suset Y Yy F henD in the formuls stted elow the respetive rows in Gy nd Gy must e extrted nd ny must e sustituted y nY = |Y|F d

Null space method

elstd nd kogestd @PHHUA proposed simple method for the identi(tion of omintionsF hey required tht H is the left null spe @kernelA of

1 F = Gy Gy Juu Jud , d represented y the nottion H T = ker F T F his seletion provides

H F = 0,

@QFQHA

whih in turn mkes the loss independent of the disturnes s @QFIHA nd @QFIIA revelsF he neessry ondition for the pplition for this

VI

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv method is ny nu +nd F sf the inequlity holdsD preseletion of suset of s Y hs to e performed suh tht the suset size equls nu + nd F yne drwk of the method is tht this my e n unfvorle lrge numerF enother drwk is due to the ft tht the implementtion errors ny re negletedF

Extended null space method

por feedEforwrd ontrolD the loss vriles z re given y u , z=J d where

he null spe method hs een extended y elstd et al. @PHHWA to the generl se with extr mesurementsD i.e.D ny > nu + nd D nd to few mesurementsD i.e.D ny < nu + nd F he ide of the extended nullspe method is to (rst fous on minimizing the stedyE stte loss used y disturnesD nd thenD if there re remining degrees of freedomD minimize the e'et of mesurement errorsF he method is sed on the ft tht M (H) = M (M n H) provided M n Rnu nu is regulrF fy setting M n = (H Gy )1 nd W ny = 0D @QFIIA n e z restted s y uR/O y z = M n H G Gd . @QFQIA d
=G

@QFQPA

J=

fy omprison of @QFQIA nd @QFQPAD it follows tht the solution of

Juu

1/2

1 Juu Juu Jud

1/2

Mn H G = J

@QFQQA

gives the desired H F por the ses ny nu + nd the solution of @QFQQA gives zero disturne lossD i.e.D z2 = 0F sf ny > nu + nd D the left pseudoEinverse of G n e used to determine H F sf ny < nu + nd D the right pseudoEinverse of G n e used to determine H D minimizing EF in whih E = M n H G J F elstd et al. @PHHWA prove tht this lso minimizes M F F o ount for the implementtion errors the uthors proposed to selet

H = M 1 J n

where indites the pseudoEinverse of mtrixF hey proved tht this seletion minimizes oth EF nd M n H W ny F nd pointed out VP

W 1 G ny

W 1 , ny

QFeF gywfsxesyx wiryh tht the ltter norm my e interpreted s the e'et of the implementE tion error on the loss vriles z F

Constrained average loss minimization

elstd et al. @PHHWA pulished nE other methodD lso sed on the priniple tht the prolems @QFIQAG @QFITA hve no unique solutionF prom this ft the uthors onlude tht it is useful to selet M n = (H Gy )1 = I nu nd minimize @QFITA sujet z to this onstrintF he optimiztion prolem n then e restted s

his linerly onstrined onvex prolem hs the expliit solution

T H = arg min F H T
HT

1/2 T sFtF (Gy )T H T = Juu .

T H = FF
T

xote tht no minimiztion tkes ple for the ses in whih ny = nu F his is due to the ft tht the solution of the onstrint is uniqueD levE ing no degree of freedom for the minimiztionF he optimlity is then exlusively mtter of seleting n pproprite suset Y F e generlizE tion thereof is pointed out in gorollry QFVF sn the followingD it is shown tht the solution @QFQRA provides the sme worstEseGverge loss s the method y uriwl et al. @PHHVAF snserting @QFQRA into @QFIHA yields

1 1 1/2 T y T y FT G (G ) F Juu . G
y

@QFQRA

M=

1/2 Juu

(G )

y T

T FF

(Gy )T

T FF

F.

he verge loss @QFISA is then given y

6 (ny + nd ) Lav = M F = tr M M
nu = i i=1

Juu
nu i=1

1/2

1 T T 1 1/2 (Gy )T F F Gy , Juu

1/2 Juu

nu = i M M T i=1

1 i

(G )

y T

T FF

1/2 T Juu

whih grees with @QFQTAD the verge loss y uriwl et al. @PHHVAF xote tht i indites the ith lrgest eigenvlueF

Minimum worst-case loss by eigenstructure analysis

VQ

uriwl @PHHUA

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv proved tht the following lgorithm leds to glol solution of @QFIQA sujet to ommon suset per gF IF erform the singulr vlue deomposition

1/2 Juu 1/2

=U

V 11 V 12 V 21 V 22

suh tht Gy Juu = U V T F 11 1 PF glulte = 2 (V 11 ) 1D where i denotes the ith lrgest sinE nu 1 T = 0D where i gulr vlueF hen nu 2 Gy Juu (Gy )T F F indites the ith lrgest eigenvlueF
1 T QF erform n eigenvlue deomposition of 2 Gy Juu (Gy )T F F nd (nd the eigenvetors 1 , . . . , nu orresponding to the lrgest nu eigenvluesF T RF elet the omintions s H = M n 1 . . . nu D where M n Rnu nu n e ny regulr mtrixF

he minimum worstEse loss is then given y

Lwc =

1 2 . 2

@QFQSA

Minimum average loss by eigenstructure analysis

uriwl et al. @PHHVA proved tht the following lgorithm leds to glol optiml solution to @QFITA sujet to ommon suset per gF 1 1/2 1/2 T IF ivlute X = Juu (Gy )T F F Gy Juu F PF erform n eigenvlue deomposition of Gy Juu X Juu (Gy )T T F F nd (nd the eigenvetors 1 , . . . , nu to the lrgest nu eigenE vluesF T QF elet the omintions s H = M n 1 . . . nu D where nu nu n e ny regulr mtrixF Mn R
u 1 1 (X) . i 6 (nd + ny )

1/2

1/2

he minimum verge loss is then given y

n

Lav =

@QFQTA

i=1

VR

QFfF isevixgi yp gh wiryh es pointed out oveD the sme result n e hieved y the onstrined verge loss minimiztion y elstd et al. @PHHWAF

3.B Equivalence of CSDs methods

xextD it is shown tht the minimum verge loss y uriwl et al. @PHHVA nd elstd et al. @PHHWAD i.e.D eqution @QFQTAD n e onverted into the verge loss of the qh method @QFPHAF

nu 1 1 1 y T y FT i (Gz ) F Gz 6 (nd + ny )
i=1 (1)

1 6 (nd + ny ) 1 6 (nd + ny ) 1 6 (nd + ny ) 1 6 (nd + ny )

nu i=1 nu i=1 nu i=1 nu i=1

1 (Gy )T RT R1 Gy z z i

(2)

1 R1 Gy (Gy )T RT z z i

(3)

1 R1 Gy (Gy )T RT , I nu z z i 1 Gy (Gy )T , R RT z z i

(4)

(5)

1 = 6 (nd + ny ) = 1 6 (nd + ny )

(6)

i=ny nu +1 ny i=ny nu +1

ny

T i F F , Gy (Gy )T z z 2 T i F , (Gy )T z

T sn the (rst stepD gholesky ftoriztion of the mtrix F F = R RT isperE formedF por the seond step it must e proven tht i A AT = i AT A i m for ny mtrix A Rmn | m nF he evidene is trivil when onE sidering the singulr vlue deomposition A = U A AV T with A T = A A diag s2 , . . . , s2 nd T A = diag s2 , . . . , s2 , 0, . . . F sn the third step m m A 1 1 the ft is used tht every eigenvlue prolem (B)D i.e.D B x = x with B Rmm D my e written s generlized eigenvlue prolem (B, I m )D i.e.D B x = I m xF sn the textook of qolu nd nvon @IWWTD pF RTIA it is pointed out tht (B, C) = X T B X, X T C X holds for symmetri B, C Rmm where C 0 nd ny regulr X Rmm F hereyD step four is justi(edF tep (ve inludes the reEomposition of the gholesky ftors nd

VS

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv the interhnge of the mtries in the rguments of the generlized eigenvluesF gonsidering the eqution B x = C x nd B x = C x for B, C Rmm D it is ler tht i (B, C) = 1 m+1i (C, B)F tep six is lri(ed y the sttement of qolu nd nvon @IWWTD pF RTTA tht 2 (D, E) D T D, E T E for D Rkn D n k D nd E Rmn D m k F por omprison with @QFPHAD it must e tken into ount tht q = rank F = ny nd r = q rank GY =
z

ny nu F

he qh method @nd othersD uriwl et al.D PHHVY elstd et al.D PHHWA minimizes the verge loss superoptiml to the worstEse lossF hereforeD its result for the worstEse loss must equl tht y uriwl @PHHUA whih derived method for exlusive worstEse loss minimiztionF he onversion etween the minimum worstEse loss y uriwl @PHHUA nd @QFIWA is not shown here for the ske of revityF he onversion steps re similr to the ones stted oveF

3.C Modication of B3WC/B3AV method

he fQgGfQe lgorithm is speilly designed for solving @QFIQAG@QFITA suE jet to seletionF I.e.D the integer prolem of seleting nu orresponding rows in Gy nd F whih minimize the worstEseGverge loss must e solvedF z snsted of sreening ll possile solutions y exhustive enumertionD the methE ods serh in so lled solution trees where only promising solutions nd suE solutions re evlutedF his is done y entering lwys the most promising pth @rnhingA nd exlude rnhes where the solution is know to e E sent @pruningAF yne tree is in upwrd diretion where the root node reltes to n empty set of seleted rows nd where nu node lyers lie etween root nd rnh endsF he other tree is in downwrd diretion where the root node reltes to the full set of rows seleted nd ny nu node lyers re loted ny in etween root nd rnh endsF foth trees hve Cnu rnh ends whih relte to the possile solutionsF erhing in suh trees mkes it neessry to evlute nd judge intermedite nodes in whih the numer of seleted rows is less or greter thn nu F purtherD from the evlution of n intermedite node it must e possile to onlude whether further evlutions towrds the end nodes re resonle or notF por this purposeD uriwl nd go @PHHWD PHIHA introdued the funtions

Lwc (Y) =

1 1 (N (Y)) 2 w

@QFQUA

VT

QFgF wyhspsgesyx yp fQgGfQe wiryh nd

Lav (Y) =

respetivelyF rereD i indites the ith lrgest eigenvlueD w = rank GY D z N (Y) = T GY z Y F Y F T 1 GY z

w i=1

1 (N (Y)) , i

@QFQVA

nd Y indites the seleted suset of size nY F foth funtionsD @QFQUA nd @QFQVAD n e evluted for Y with ritrry set sizeD i.e.D 1 nY ny F hey hve the property tht they re monotonilly inresing from oth empty nd full suset towrds suset with size nu long ertin rnhF et set size nu D @QFQUA nd @QFQVA equl the worstEse nd verge lossD respetivelyD prt from the multiplier in the ltter seF sn order to lulte N (Y)D it is T Y FY Y neessry tht F is regulrF sn other wordsD F must not e tll mtrix nd must hve full row rnk @linerly independent rowsAF e su0ient ondition for this requirement tht ll implementtion errors re nonEzeroD is Y i.e.D rank (W ny ) = ny rank F = ny rank F = nY F
Y

sf the fQgGfQe lgorithm is pplied to prolem @QFPVAD then GY nd z F re sustituted y G Y nd F Y F sn most of the prtil relevnt sesD F Y n e tll mtrix in the downwrd treeF wore preiselyD rank F Y nf holds lwys nd in the downwrd tree it is nY {nu + 1, . . . , v}F esD it my Y hppen tht nf < v D F my loose full row rnkD i.e.D rank F Y < nY . @QFQWA

gonsequentlyD the fQgGfQe lgorithm is not pplile in its originl formF he ode must e modi(ed for the se when @QFQWA ours in the downwrd treeF sf @QFQWA is trueD @QFQUAG@QFQVA nnot e evluted nd thus there is no deision riterion for pruning nd rnhingF hownwrds pruning n e simply omittedF hownwrds rnhing n e performed sed on the row norms of the ndidte rows of either G or F F sn this respetD it is importnt to note tht the rtio of the ith row norm of F nd the ith row norm of G refers to generlized singulr vlue whih is fvorle to e smllF husD the seletion of rnhes re ordered ording to the lest @or lrgestA row norms of ndidte rows in F (or G)F he omputtionl e0ieny of suh modi(ed fQgGfQe method is deresed s the downwrd serh is only prtil idiretionlF es the fQw is not required to e modi(edD it is fvorle over the fQgGfQe method if e0ieny is more ruil thn uryF

VU

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv fy the use of the qhD the rnge in whih downwrd pruning is tive my e inresed from nY rank F Y to nY < rank F Y + rank G Y F his my e done y sustitution of @QFQUA nd @QFQVA y

nd

T T 1 2 Lwc (Y) = w F Y , G Y 2
w i=1 2 i

Lav (Y) =

respetivelyF por nY rank F Y D they gree with @QFQUA nd @QFQVAF por nY rank F Y + rank G Y they re oth zeroF sn etweenD it must e shown tht monotoniity holdsF Conjecture 3.14. sf rank F Y nY rank F Y + rank G Y nd w = rank G Y nu D then L (Y\i) L (Y) holds where i Y nd refers to either v or wF
his onjeture ws veri(ed y mens of repeted rndom testsF e generl proof is n open prolemF

FY

T Y T , G .

3.D MI problem solution

he deomposed formultion @QFPSA gives rise to the e0ient ew methods whih deliver pproximte solutions to the mixedEinteger prolems @QFIQA nd @QFITAF nfortuntelyD no error ound etween the pproximte nd the tul solution ould e derivedF sn order to get n ide of the ppropriility of the ew methodsD they need to e numerilly ompred with more urte soluE tion methods whih re developed in this setionF he numeril omprison tkes ple in etion QFSF es pointed out in etion QFRFQD the ontinuous prolem of (nding the liner oe0ients for prede(ned struture hs no nlytil solution nd thus iterE tive solution methods need to e ppliedF he deomposed formultion @QFPSA is ene(il for itertive solution tehniques due to two e'etsF pirstD seleting hi = enYi likely gives good strting vlues for the itertion s it selets the smllest generlized singulr vlues s n e seen y oservtion of @QFPSAF eondD the numer of optimiztion vriles n e redued if ri > 0 for ny i {1, . . . nu } s lredy disussed in emrk QFIQF st is thus onvenient to keep the formultion @QFPSA nd perform the itertive serh in redued trnsformed speF sn order to improve the e0ieny of the serh of the est set in the superE strutureD fef methods n e ppliedF fef methods serh the est set

VV

QFhF ws yfviw yvsyx in solution tree where eh rnh end reltes to full set nd eh node reltes to n inomplete setF e prerequisite for the pplition of fef methE ods is tht the ojetive to e minimizedD i.e.D Lwc or Lav D n e repled y funtion whih n e evluted lso for inomplete setsD whih equls the ojetive t full sets nd whih is monotonilly inresing from the tree root towrds the rnh endsF

Denition 3.15.

vet

Lk =

{h1 ,...,hk }

min

to e the glol optiml vlue of the ontinuous prolem of prtiulr set of superstruture nd h1 , . . . , hk the relting solutionF rereD

F k X 1 k

@QFRHA

Fk =

Xk = Xk + Xk =
k i=1

k i=1

U i i hi eT i T 0nu k ker X k

U i i hi eT i

nd refers to either the indued PEnorm or the proenius normF st is imporE tnt to stress tht L2 u equls either 2 Lwc or 6 (nYu + nd ) Lav depending on n the spei(tion of F purtherD L = F k1 X 1 | hi = hi i {1, . . . , k 1} k1 k

is introduedF L is lmost identil to the solution of @QFRHA exept for the k ft tht hk is zero vetorF

Lemma 3.16. For k 2, the inequality

L Lk k
@QFRIA

holds irrespective of the specication of .

with the unitry Q ndthe upper tringulr R Rnu k F es the lst nu k olumns of Q equl ker X k D one n write

Proof. erforming the qrmEhmidt deomposition of X k yields X k = Q R

Xk = Q

Rk

I nu k

VW

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv where Ri Rii 1 i k is prinipl minor of RF ell tht due to the upper tringulr form of RD the deomposition is preserved if the lst olumn in X k is deleted with the only di'erene tht the lst olumn in R is deleted s well @see qolu nd nvonD IWWTD ghpter IPFSFPAF husD if k 2 one n simply onlude to Rk1 X k1 = Q . I nu +1k es the inverse of Rk n e lulted from kwrd sustitutionD the priniE pl minors of R1 depends only on the orresponding prinipl minors of Rk F k eordinglyD R1 is prinipl minor of R1 s Rk1 is prinipl minor of k1 k Rk F st is then ovious tht the (rst k 1 olumns in oth 1 Rk 1 Ak = F k X k Q =F k I nu k 1 Rk1 Ak1 = F k1 X 1 Q=F k1 k1 I nu +1k re identilF husD the mtrix AT Ak1 is prinipl minor of AT Ak nd k1 k guhy9s interling inequlities @rogenD PHHUD ppF VFQEVFRA pplyD i.e.D

1 (Ak ) j (Ak ) j (Ak1 ) j+1 (Ak ) k (Ak ) .

es Ak nd Ak1 re similrity trnsformtions of F k X 1 nd F k1 X 1 D k k1 respetivelyD whih do not 'et the singulr vluesD the inequlities n lso e written in terms of F k X 1 nd F k1 X 1 F sn prtiulr it holds tht k1 k

nd

k1 F k1 X 1 k F k X 1 k1 k
k1 i=1 k i F k1 X 1 k F k X 1 k k1 i=1

whih orrespond to F k1 X 1 F k X 1 nd @QFRIA for either speE k1 k i(tion of F

Theorem 3.17. The function

creasing in k.

Lk as dened in @QFRHA is monotonically in-

Proof. er de(nitionD Lk1 is glol minimum nd thus Lk1 L F fy using k

@QFRIAD it follows Lk1 Lk F

WH

fsfvsyqer he wsgGwse method refers to unidiretionl fef serh in the upwrd tree3 where in eh node the prolem @QFRHA is itertively solvedF he rnh with the smllest generlized singulr vlue is lwys preferredF he upper ound is updted if full set with lower loss is foundF et the eginning the upper ound is set to in(nity4 F runing of rnhes tkes ple if Lk exeeds the upper oundF hue to etter uryD the wsgGwse method is more fvorle thn the fQgEewGfQgEe method in se of smll system dimensions @nu D nd D ny A when omputtionl lod is not limitingF woreoverD the wsgGwse method hs the dvntge tht it is not restrited to the requirement tht for every g the sme ndidte gs need to e tken into ountF

Remark QFIV. he deomposed formultion @QFPSA is dditionlly vlule for

rereD inYi refers to the smllest generlized singulr vlue of the ith gF foth ounds follow from the onlusion tht the lest Lk orresponds to the idel se tht hi = enYi iD U iYi U jYj i = j nd U iYi U jYj i = j whih yields digonl mtrix

the priori elimintion of sets in the superstruture s it provides lower ound for Lk D given y either of oth Lk max inYi @QFRPA i{1,...,k} k 2 Lk inY . @QFRPA
i=1
i

F k X 1 k

k i=1

inYi ei eT i

from whih @QFRPA nd @QFRPA n e trivilly deduedF ets whose lower ound exeeds the upper ound of the solution of the mixedEinteger prolem n e omittedF

Bibliography
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http://www.mathworks.com.

The null space method for selecting optimal measurement

3 4

In an upward tree, the root node refers to an empty CV set It is worth mentioning that in some cases a nite initial upper bound can be calculated from (3.25).

WI

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv

combinations as controlled variables. Industrial and engineering chemistry research, 46 (3):846853, 2007. V. Alstad, S. Skogestad, and E. S. Hori. Optimal measurement combinations as controlled variables. Journal of process control, 19(1):138148, 2009. Y. Cao. Bidirectional branch and bound minimum singular value solver: V2, 2007/11/11. URL

http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/17480. http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/22632.

Y. Cao. Bidirectional branch and bound solvers for worst case loss minimization, 2009/01/09. URL

Y. Cao. Bidirectional branch and bound for average loss minimization, 2009/11/17. URL

http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/25870.

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L. Hogben. Handbook of linear algebra. Discrete mathematics and its applications. Chapman & Hall/CRC, Boca Raton, Florida, 2007. ISBN 1584885106. R. A. Horn and C. R. Johnson. Matrix analysis. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, 1990. ISBN 0521386322. J. E. P. Jschke and S. Skogestad. ear systems. Optimally invariant variable combinations for nonlin-

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symposium on advanced control of chemical processes: July 12-15, 2009, Ko University, Istanbul, Turkey, volume 2, pages 551556. 2009.
J. E. P. Jschke, H. Smedsrud, S. Skogestad, and H. Manum. Riverfront, St. Louis, Missouri, 2009/06/10-12. V. Kariwala. Optimal measurement combination for local self-optimizing control. Industrial Optimal operation of a

waste incineration plant for district heating. American control conference, Hyatt Regency

and engineering chemistry research, 46(46):36293634, 2007.

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V. Kariwala and Y. Cao. Bidirectional branch and bound for controlled variable selection: Part II. Exact local method for self-optimizing control.

Computers and chemical engi-

neering, 2009.
V. Kariwala and Y. Cao. Bidirectional branch and bound for controlled variable selection: Part III. Local average loss minimization. IEEE transactions on industrial informatics, 2010a. V. Kariwala and S. Skogestad. Branch and bound methods for control structure design.

Symposium on Process Systems Engineering/European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering, Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Germany, 2006/07/09-13. V. Kariwala, Y. Cao, and S. Janardhanan. Local self-optimizing control with average loss minimization. Industrial and engineering chemistry research, 47(4):11501158, 2008. T. Larsson, K. Hestetun, E. Hovland, and S. Skogestad. Self-optimizing control of a largescale plant: The Tennessee Eastman process.

Industrial and engineering chemistry re-

search, 40(22):48894901, 2001.

F. A. Michelsen, B. F. Lund, and I. J. Halvorsen. Selection of optimal, controlled variables for the TEALARC LNG process. Industrial and engineering chemistry, 49(18):86248632, 2010. M. Morari, Y. Arkun, and G. Stephanopoulos. Studies in the synthesis of control structures for chemical processes: Part I: Formulation of the problem. Process decomposition and the classication of the control tasks. Analysis of the optimizing control structures. American

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C. C. Paige and M. A. Saunders. Towards a generalized singular value decomposition. SIAM

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WQ

grei QF xi iv yx ivpEyswssxq gyxyv

WR

Chapter 4 Practical application of CSD methods

his hpter dels with the prtil pplition of the newly developed gh methods to industril @nonlinerA plnt modelsF sn etion RFID rief survey of reent work in this (eld is givenF etion RFP dels with the generl prtiE l issues relted to selfEoptimizing ghF sn etion RFQD selfEoptimizing gh for n evportion proess is performed for illustrtion purposesF xote tht this hs een previously onsidered y other uthors @goD PHHRGHIGIIEIRY egustriynto nd hngD PHHTGHVGQHEHWGHIY uriwl et al.D PHHVAF qenerl thoughts regrding ontrol of vxq liqueftion proesses re rried out in etion RFRF he results of the pplition of the newly developed gh methE ods to the w yle nd to vinde9s proprietry vxq liqueftion proesses vsww yle nd wpg proess re presented in etion RFSD RFT nd RFUD respetivelyF gonlusions regrding selfEoptimizing gh for vxq liqueftion proesses re drwn in etion RFVF

4.1 Related work

huring the lst dedeD there hs een onsiderle mount of works puE lished whih re in some wy or nother dedited to the prtil pplition of selfEoptimizing ghF rereD rief survey of seleted works is presentedF fy eonomi onsidertionsD vrsson et al. @PHHIA ddresses the prolem of (nding selfEoptimizing ontrol struture for the enhmrk proess of enE nessee istmn gompnyF heir gh proedure ws sed on heuristil rules nd proess insightF he resulting ontrol struture ws veri(ed y the use of dynmil simultionF imilrlyD ingell et al. @PHHSGHUGHREHVA proposed the suessive disregrding of s s ndidte gs sed on speilly derived mesureF hey tested their results on retive distilltion olumn exmpleF he resulting ontrol struture ws heked vi dynmi simultion studies of the linerized proess modelF rori et al. @PHHTGHWGHREHTA nd rori nd kogesE td @PHHVA designed selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures sed on the w rule for twoEprodut distilltion olumnsF hey onsidered indiret omposition ontrol of inry nd multiphse mixturesD evluted ontrol strutures with

WS

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh omintions of mximum two to four s nd onluded heuristil design rulesF sn their (rst pperD dynmil simultion served s veri(tion of the resultsF fsed on the sme proess modelD uriwl nd go @PHIHA derived the est olumn ontrol strutures y the use of the e0ient fQe method where set sizes from minimum to mximum were imposedF elfEoptimizing gh for the evportion proess treted in etion RFQ ws the sujet of the work of go @PHHRGHIGIIEIRAY egustriynto nd hng @PHHTGHVGQHEHWGHIA nd uriwl et al. @PHHVAF he gh of the former uthors is sed on solving onstrined optimiztion prolemD while the ltter use verge loss miniE miztionF lidtion took ple y dynmil simultion @former two ppersA nd nonliner stedyEstte evlution @ltter pperAF versmrungsuk @PHHVA investigted the optiml opertion of simpli(ed het exhnger networks with regultory ontrol @nonliner optimiztion prolemA where swithing etween operting regions is essentilF e ontrol struture sed on splitErnge ontrol ws derived for se study nd prtiility ws proven y dynmi simuE ltion studiesF elfEoptimizing ontrol of simple het pump nd refrigertion yles s well s n vxq liqueftion proesses @sgyA hs een investigted y tensen @PHHSGHSGPWEHTGHIAY tensen nd kogestd @PHHUD PHHWAF elterE ntive ontrol strutures were judged y oth selfEoptimizing ontrol mesures @wA nd nonEliner prmeter studiesF flde et al. @PHHVA onsidered gh for retorEseprtor proess nd took othD stedyEstte eonomis nd dyE nmil ehviorD into ountF heir result ws suessfully tested vi dyE nmi simultion studiesF yldenurg et al. @PHHVGHTGHIEHRA presented selfE optimizing ontrol struture seletion method sed on simple nd e0ient reEuse of stedyEstte simultion dtF fy retrospetive view on prtilly operting ontrol exmplesD howns nd kogestd @PHHWA showed tht selfE optimizing ontrol hs een suessfully pplied in industryF elmost optiml stedyEstte opertion of nonliner proess exmples is the sujet of the works of tshke et al. @PHHWGHTGIHEIPA nd tshke nd kogestd @PHHWAF fsed on n nlytil proess modelD they proposed new frmework for (nding gs @referred to s invrintsA s nonliner omintions of s nd swithing onditions etween operting regionsF hey onsidered wste ininertion plnt @(rst pperA nd ontinuous stirredEtnk retor with two prllel reE tions @seond pperAF por veri(tion of their resultsD dynmil simultion @(rst pperA nd stedyEstte prmeter studies @seond pperA were rried outF wihelsen et al. @PHIHA pplied selfEoptimizing ontrol struture design lE gorithms to proprietry w yle nd veri(ed their results with nonliner testsF

WT

RFPF gh egsgi

4.2 CSD practice

sn this setionD the work)ow for the design of selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures for industril plnts is desried @etion RFPFIA nd the souring of neessry informtion is pointed out @etion RFPFPAF

4.2.1 Workow
lntwide ontrol design proedures hve een proposed y kogestd @PHHRA nd howns nd kogestd @PHHWAD mong othersF sn this setionD the generl prtie for designing selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures is disussed from the point of view of plnt onstrutor whih is onfronted with the di0ulty to deliver them in n erly phse of plnts9 life ylesF he orresponding work)ow is represented in pigure RFIF he sis of ll is the design proE ess )owsheetGmodel of the plntD representing the most ommon operting seF st needs to e trnsformed into rting )owsheetGmodel whih inludes equipment dimensionsD performne mps for rotting equipment nd models for phenomenologies suh s hetGmss trnsfer nd fritionl pressure dropF ke into ount tht it is often onvenient to redue the numer of mteril speies to minimum to enhne the omputtionl performne of the rting )owsheetF elfEoptimizing ontrol depends on n ojetive to e optimizedF sf there re more ws present thn produtGopertionl spei(tionsD then the surplus ws n e used for optimizing n ojetive J suh s energy onsumption nd feed throughputF sf less ws re present thn produtGopertionl speE i(tionsD then the hievement of ll trgets is infesile ut ll ws n e used for minimizing the devition from the trget solutionD for instne in the sense of weighted lestEsqures sumF

Remark RFI. uppose design )owsheet whih is lredy optiml with respet to ertin ojetive ws trnsformed into rting )owsheetF st is sometimes mtter of disussion whether the resulting rting )owsheet is still in its optiml stteF his is generlly not the seD s on the one hnd model equtions hve hnged nd on the other hnd optimiztion onstrints my hve eome osoleteF por instne for optimiztion of design modelsD miniml temperture di'erenes etween the het exhnging strems re imposed s onstrintsF hese onstrints re generlly dropped for optimiztion of rting models s phenomenologil model equtions for het trnsfer introdue nturl rrier for the violtion of minimum temperture di'ereneF
por selfEoptimizing ontrolD it is neessry tht the ost funtion is onvex nd tht n unonstrined optimum is hievedD i.e.D it holds tht Juu 0 nd Ju = 0D respetivelyF sf the optimiztion of the rting )owsheet revels tht

WU

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

Operating conditions

Customer
Specs, operating cases/policies

Equipment vendor

Process engineering dept.

Design/operation constraints, cost

Process engineering Process Design Process Design Process design Flowsheets Flowsheets flowsheets

Check feasible operating range by parameter studies Define PVs incl. measurement noise Calculate steadystate I/O gains and Hessian of cost Define either PV subset size or candidate CVs
Dimensions , maps, etc.

Selecting basic design case Basis process design flowsheet

Dimensions , phenomenologies, etc.

Transformation Rating flowsheet

Apply CSD methods

No

S /O reasonable? Stop
No Yes

Stop

Define cost function , MVs and DVs Optimize objective w.r.t. MVs and s.t. op. constraints Ju = 0, Juu > 0
Yes

Yes

Process Design Process Design . Rating flowsheet incl Flowsheets Flowsheets control structures

nu > 0 Introduce optimally active constraints

No

Nonlinear /dynamic verification of results by parameter/controllability studies

pigure RFIX ork)ow for selfEoptimizing gh there re tive onstrintsD then the numer of unonstrined ws hs to e redued until n unonstrined optimum n e foundF ixmples for tive opertionl onstrints re the ompressor surge line or minimum superhetE ing @mrgin from dew pointA t ompressor inletF st is worth mentioning tht it is irrelevnt for selfEoptimizing gh whih prtiulr ws re used for enE suring the tive onstrints nd whih notF he ultimte lssi(tion omes into ply not until ontrol on(gurtion is onsideredF sf tive onstrints hnge etween ertin operility regionsD then for eh region individul selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures re required @versmrungsukD PHHVY tshke nd kogestdD PHHWY tshke et al.D PHHWGHTGIHEIPAF st is importnt to stress tht due to the need of doing prmeter studiesD the identi(tion of optimlly tive onstrints over the omplete operility rnge n e timeEonsumingD espeilly for lrge numers of ws nd hsF en estimte of the @fesileA operting region n e otined y doing

WV

RFPF gh egsgi prmeter studies of the ws nd hs in eh diretion until infesiility oursF snfesiility is n ttriute of nonliner stedyEstte models nd refers to sitution where set of equtions hs no @relA solutionF por instneD it my hppen tht the setpoint of ontroller nnot e rehedF sn relity nd dynmi models this results in setpoint devitionsD etc. he fesiility region nd the expeted vrines of the hs give lues for the digonl sling mtrix W d F purtherD it is neessry to determine the implementtion errorsD present in the digonl sling mtrix W ny F he sGy gins Gy nd Gy nd the ressins of the ojetive with respet to the ws d nd hs n e lulted s pointed out in etion RFPFPF ith the system informtion Jd D Juu D Jud D Jdd nd W d it n e heked whether optimiztion of opertion is nywy resonleF he mesures inE trodued y ingell @PHHUA nd presented in etion RFRFP give dvie for this deisionF purther it n e judged whether selfEoptimizing ontrol is su0ient in terms of lose to optimlity or whether it my e ene(il to enhne it y setpoint optimiztion tehniques suh s yF he system informtion Juu D Jud D Gy D Gy D W d nd W ny is su0ient d for the pplition of selfEoptimizing gh methodsF sf seletion ontrol strutures re desiredD the pplition of the fQgGfQe method is reomE mended @uriwl nd goD PHHWD PHIHAF sf olumn or ommonEsized ontrol strutures re desiredD it must e deided on the mximum numer of omE ined s nY F golumn ontrol strutures n e otined y pplition of the fQgGfQe method @uriwl nd goD PHHWD PHIHAF sf ommonE nd individullyEsized ontrol strutures re imedD the fQgEewGfQeE ew method needs to e ppliedF his method requires the spei(tion of struturl ndidte gsF his n either e done y seleting them from proess insight or y speifying the mximum numer of omined s nY nd further struturl onstrints suh s whether mixedEunit omintions re llowed etc. he resulting selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures need to e disriminted with respet to nonliner model ehviorF gontrol strutures whih on the one hnd provide su0iently lrge fesiility region nd on the other hnd show smll devition from the idel ost funtion re preferredF xonliner studies s mens n e timeEonsuming for lrgeEsle models nd hve prt from this work only een pulily onsidered y tensen nd kogestd @PHHUD PHHWAF e further possiility for the judgment of nonliner ehvior is the use of wonte grlo simultions s pplied y uriwl et al. @PHHVAF roweverD this is not onsidered in this workF he resulting ontrol strutures n e judged optionlly y dynmil onE sidertionsF his is outside the sope of the work)ow indited in pigure RFI s it requires dynmil rting )owsheetGmodelD ut nevertheless sujet of

WW

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh this workF ghpter S is dedited to the veri(tion of ontrol strutures for vxq liqueftion proesses y mens of dynmil mesuresF

4.2.2 Data acquisition

es pointed out oveD the lolly ext identi(tion methods for selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures re sed on liner sGy model @QFPA nd qudrti ost funtion @QFQA of the plntF his setion dels with the quisition of the required dtF tedy stte models of industril plnts follow from (rst prinE iples nd re usully otined y utiliztion of )owsheeting tools suh s yssw F es presented in iihEoellner et al. @IWWUAD these models re represented y the generi form

0 = f (x, p, sgn q, v)
sFtF q = q (x, p) ,

@RFIA @RFIA

where f Rnx refers to nonliner funtion with ll time derivtives set to zeroF he stte vetor x Rnx ollets stte vriles suh s onentrtionsD mteril nd energy )ow rtesD temperturesD pressuresF he vetor p Rnp summrizes invrint model prmetersD e.g.D het exhnger resF he soE lled swithing funtions q Rnq @RFIA re used to swith mong di'erent sttes of the system desried y di'erent susets of equtionsF ypil resons re sturtion @e.g.D in ontrol deviesAD the pperne or dispperne of phsesD pieewiseEontinuous physilEproperty orreltionsD etc. he vetor v Rnv refers to the degrees of freedom of the plntF st n e divided into T two lsses of vrilesD i.e.D v = uT dT nd nv = nu + nd F rereD u indites the independent input vriles whih my serve s ws for ontrol purposes nd d re the dependent input vriles usully referred to s hsF xote tht ll equtions in @RFIA in whih n element of v is involved n e summrized s 0 = P in f = xv v, @RFPA where xv x nd P in is inry mtrix with one one per rowF he model outputs re suset of stte vrilesD i.e.D y xD nd re thus otined y

y = P out x,

@RFQA

where P out is inry mtrix with one one per olumnF he totl derivtive of @RFIA t the operting point {x0 , v 0 } reds f f dx + dv. df = xT 0 v T 0 IHH

RFPF gh egsgi fy requiring df = 0D it follows tht 1 dx f 1 f = f P T , = in T T T T dv x 0 v 0 x 0

where the lst step follows from oservtion of @RFPAF eording to @RFQAD

his reltes to the liner sGy gins s present in @QFPAD i.e.D dy/dv T = y result y G Gd F sf n equtionEoriented proess simultor suh s yssw is usedD the toin f /x|0 is diretly ville nd so re Gy nd Gy F d ytherwiseD the sGy gins must e estimted y (nite di'erenesF

dx f 1 T dy P in . = P out T = P out dv T dv xT 0

he seond neessry informtion esides the sGy gins re the evlutions of the seond derivtives of the ostGpro(t funtion t the operting pointD i.e.D T Juu D Jud = Jdu nd Jdd F es the seond derivtives re usully not diretly ville in proess simultorD they need to e estimted y (nite di'erenesF sf only funtionl vlues re tken into ountD e.g.D y the use of sequentil simultorD then one element of the ressin n e lulted y the forwrdE di'erene formul given y hennis nd hnel @IWVQD pF VHA

2J vi vj 1 = 2 (J (v) J (v + ei h) J (v + ej h) + J (v + ei h + ej h)) + O (h) , h

whih requires nu +nd + 1 (nu + nd )2 funtionl evlutions in order to otin 2 the full @symmetriA ressinF sf n equtionEoriented simultor is usedD only nu + nd grdient lls re required instedF yne element of the ressin is then lulted y the forwrdEdi'erene formul J 1 2J 1 J J J + = + O (h) . vi vj 2 h vj v+ei h vj v 2 h vi v+ej h vi v

given y hennis nd hnel @IWVQD pF VHAF sf funtionGgrdient evlutions re rther inexpensive nd higher ury is desiredD entrl di'erene pE proximtions with n error ound of O h2 my e pplied s presented in the textook of ermowitz nd tegun @IWUHD pF VVRAF

en interesting question is how lrge should the (nite di'erene intervl e hosenc his is relted to (nding the est trdeEo' etween reltive truntion

IHI

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

Condenser
004 005

Condensate

Separator
L2 200 201

Cooling water

Evaporator

Steam Condensate

100

Pump
003 002

Feed

001

002

Product

pigure RFPX ivportion proess sheme error @tends to inrese with intervl sizeA nd the reltive ondition error @generlly deresing with intervl sizeAF qill et al. @IWVIA proposed solution pproh for this prolemF roweverD in order to ount for higher order nonlinerities over the omplete fesile regionD it is suggested seleting the intervls s lrge s possileF es the urvture of the ost funtion my e symmetriD it is reommended to evlute it in oth diretions nd selet the diretion with the lrger endF elterntivelyD oth diretions my e tken into ount y minimizing the lestEsqures sum of the di'erenes of the evluted funtionlGgrdient vlues nd their @ylor seriesA preditionF

4.3 Evaporator case study

sn this setionD the newly proposed gh methods re pplied to the evpE ortion proess presented in pigure RFPF his foredEirultion evportion ws originlly treted y xewell nd vee @IWVWA nd hs een investigted susequently y reth et al. @PHHHAY go @PHHRGHIGIIEIRA nd uriwl et al. @PHHVAD mong othersF he purpose of the proess is the onentrtion of dilute liquor from the feed to the produt strem y evportion nd seprtion of the solventF he nlyti model equtions @RFVA through @RFVlA re presented in eppendix RFfF he proess model hs three stte vrilesD the level L2 D the omposition X002 nd the pressure p002 with eight degrees of freedomF le RFI lists the importnt strem propertiesD their vlue t the nominl operting point nd their lssi(tion into wsD hs nd sF hree out of (ve ws indited y re used to keep the three s L2 D X002 nd p100 t their setE pointsF xote tht the level L2 in the seprtor hs no stedyEstte e'et ut needs to e ontrolled for stiliztionF he other two ontrolled s need

IHP

RFQF ieyey gei h rile F001 F002 F003 F004 F005 X001 X002 T001 T002 T003 p002 F100 T100 p100 Q100 F200 T200 T201 Q200 J hesription peed )ow rte rodut )ow rte girulting )ow rte por )ow rte gondenste )ow rte peed omposition rodut omposition peed temperture rodut temperture por temperture yperting pressure tem )ow rte tem temperture tem pressure ret duty gooling wter )ow rte ter inlet temperture ter outlet temperture gondenser duty gost xominl vlue WFRTWkgGmin IFQQR kgGmin PRFUPI kgGmin VFIQS kgGmin VFIQS kgGmin SFHH 7 QSFSH 7 RHFH g VVFR g VIFHTT g SIFRIP k WFRQR kgGmin ISIFSP g RHHFH k QRSFPWP k PIUFUQV kgGmin PSFH g RSFSS g QIQFPI k ESVPFPQQ 6Gh glssi(tion wD (2 %) w D (2 %) w D (2 %) (2 %) h (5 %) h (20 %) (1 g) (1 g) (2.5 %) (2 %) w wD (2 %) h (20 %) (1 g)

le RFIX roess vriles of the evportion proess to e kept t their onstrints in order to hieve optimlity over the given disturne regionF qenerlity is not lost y this prtiulr seletion of the unE onstrined wsF sn le RFID the @emredA expeted vritions of the hs nd mesurement errors of the s re given in % from their nominl vlue exept for temperture mesurement errors indited on n solute sleF he eonomi ojetive is to mximize the opertionl pro(t given y the unit eqution

Jp = (4800 F002 0.2 F001 600 F100 0.6 F200 1.009 (F002 + F003 )) 6/h . kg/min
rereD the (rst term is the inome due to produt sleF he seond term is the rw mteril ostF he ltter three terms refer to the opertionl ost of the stemD the wter nd the pumpingD respetivelyF por onvenieneD the

IHQ

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

nY
P Q R ... IH

fest set

F003 , F200 F002 , F100 , F200 F002 , T201 , F003 , F200

ell s

Lav (in 6Gh) QFVHUW HFTSQQ HFRSRS

HFIWRI

Lwc (in 6Gh) STFUIPT IIFTTRQ WFRSIT

UFSHIS

le RFPX orstEseGverge loss of est olumn ontrol strutures for the evportion proess optimiztion prolem is stted s minimiztion of the negtive pro(t J = Jp F he opertionl onstrints @RFWA through @RFWfA presented in eppendix RFf re imposed @for detils see uriwl et al.D PHHVAF he model equtions were implemented in modeling environment @wiA of the vinde inEhouse simultor yssw F he model ws optimized with respet to the hs9 nominl vlues given in le RFI nd the opertionl onstrints @RFWA through @RFWfAF his led to the operting point presented in le RFIF es the wi provides (rst derivtives y utomti di'erentitionD the liner sGy gins Gy nd Gy t the u u operting onditions were diretly villeF eond derivtives Juu nd Jud were estimted y (nite di'erene pproximtion nd the use of the xeq routine iHRepF he numeril results of the sGy gins nd the ressin re in greement with those of uriwl et al. @PHHVAF gontrol strutures for the evportion proess hve een identi(ed using the methods presented in etions QFQ nd QFRF he lultions were onduted in wevef PHHV using indows P desktop with sntel gore huo g iVRHH @QFH qrzD QFS qf ewAF et (rstD olumn ontrol strutures were identi(ed y verge loss minimizE tion using the fQe methodF ome results re given in le RFPF hey reprodue the results y uriwl et al. @PHHVA with devition of less thn 0.6 %F fothD the minimum worstEse nd verge loss of the est struture derese with the suset size nd pproh lower ound @t nY = 10A symptotillyF eording to gorollry QFVD the se nY = nu = 2 indites s well the est seletion strutureF xextD ommonEsized ontrol struture with nY s were soughtF eordE ing to vemm QFUD for eh nY Esized olumn ontrol struture there exists ommonEsized ontrol struture of size ns = (nY nu + 1) whih n e oE tined vi simple liner trnsformtion of the former @fQgEv methodAF husD the results in le RFP indite lso possile ommonEsized ontrol struE

IHR

RFQF ieyey gei h xme gyvQ gywP gywP gywP sxhIp gyvQ viner ontrol struture

0.99 F002 + 0.15 F100 + 0.0 F200 , 0.99 F002 0.12 F100 + 0.01 F200 {6.27 F002 + F100 , 143.08 F002 + F200 } {6.27 F002 + F100 , F200 23.3 F001 } {F100 0.045 F200 , F100 6.28 F002 } {F003 , 0.36 T002 + 0.33 T003 + 0.87 T201 } 0.59 T002 + 0.53 T003 0.61 T201 , 0.02 T002 + 0.01 T003 + 1.0 T201

Lav (in 6Gh)

HFTSQQ HFTSQQ HFSTUQ HFTSQU PFWUHR QFTSUQ

Lwc (in 6Gh)

IIFTTRQ IIFTTRQ IIFVHQR IIFTTT SUFPQPV SUFVTWQ

le RFQX gh results for the evportion proess

tures of suset size ns from one to nineF por instneD le RFQ shows the trnsformtion of the est olumn ontrol struture with set size threeD indiE ted y gyvQD into gywP where only omintions of two s per g ourF hespite its smll suset sizeD gywP hieves onsiderly smll worstE seGverge lossF xote tht ontrol strutures otined y this pproh re generlly not the est mong ll ontrol strutures stisfying the prtiulr struturl onstrint of sets with ommon set size twoF sn order to (nd onE trol struture with lower vergelossD the wse method ws ppliedF he est 10 10 solution found mong the C2 C2 1 /2 = 990 lterntives is indited s gywP in le RFQF hue to the fef lgorithm only IHQ prolems with n verge of HFHU s expense per prolem needed to e solved leding to totl omputtion time of VFQ sF sing the fQgEew methodD the omputtionl e0ieny ould e redued resulting in totl omputtion time of HFIS s t IW prolem evlutionsF he relted solution is indited y gywP F hue to disregrding of solution speD the solution gywP is more inurte nd shows lrger verge loss thn oth gywP nd gywP F uppose tht due to ost issuesD only one )ow meter n e 'ordedF es temperture nd pressure inditors re rther hepD their numers re not limited y ost onsidertionsF uppose further tht mixed unit omintions re disregrdedF sn this situtionD the tsk is to (nd the two est gs out of 6 C1 + 2 ndidtesD i.e.D one out of six )owsD one pressure nd one temperture setF he est ontrol struture indited s sxhIp in le RFQ ws found y pplying the wse methodF st shows slightly etter loss thn gyvQ whih is the olumn ontrol struture where ll tempertures re usedF

IHS

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

4.4 General considerations

his setion ddresses generl onsidertions regrding optiml opertion of vxq liqueftion proessesF sn etion RFRFID prtil operility issues nd their e'ets on optiml ontrol re disussedF sn etion RFRFPD deision meE sures introdued y ingell et al. @PHHSGHUGHREHVA re relledF egrding prtiulr proessD these mesures re vlule for deiding whether selfE optimizing ontrol is su0ient for hieving pro(tGost trgets or whether omintion with online optimiztion tehniques is resonleF

4.4.1 LNG liquefaction processes

yjetives nd onstrints of the opertion of vxq liqueftion proesses nd their implitions on selfEoptimizing ontrol re presented nextF IF he produt onditionsD i.e.D the vxq produt pressure nd tempertureD must e ontrolled fst nd tightF he prodution rte n e ontrolled muh slower s the vxq is not diretly delivered ut stored in lrge tnks from where it is disontinuously o1odedF PF he opertion rnge of ompressors is onstrined y the surge nd the hoke limit omprehensively desried in the textook of vdtke @PHHRD ppF IRHEISTAF y'Edesign opertion ner these limits my use mhinE ery dmge nd plnt tripD oth inresing the plnt downtime whih is ruil for life yle ostF rotetion mehnisms suh s ntiEsurge ontrol @wwillnD IWVQA help to void norml ompressor opertionF xeverthelessD some opertors onsider it more omfortle nd sfer to leve the ompressor regultion un'eted nd therefore tke the respeE tive ontrollers into mnul opertion mode @wndler nd frohuD xov IWWUAF st is therefore mtter of disussion whether or not tking omE pressor regultion into ount for ghF en dvntge of leving for instne the ompressor speed un'eted is the omission of expensive vrile speed driversF st is importnt to stress tht despite onstnt speed poliyD the plnt n e operted in turndown opertion y openE ing the ntiEsurge ypssesF QF wndler nd frohu @xov IWWUA nd wndler et al. @wy IWWVA stte tht it is desirle to ontrol the vxq prodution rte independently from the vxq tempertureF hey developed ontrol strtegies in whih the vxq temperture is ontrolled y other ws thn vxq )ow rteD e.g.D ompressor speedF xote tht this ide is ontroversil s the operting st' usully follows the trditionl onept of djusting the vxq )ow

IHT

RFRF qixiev gyxshiesyx rte in order to ful(ll the vxq tempertureF his is minly due to the rguments in points @IA nd @PAF RF hosing of mkeEup strems @nd venting of mixed refrigerntA whih regulte the mixed refrigernt omposition re not onsidered ville ws for optimiztion purposes s they stte rther ostly regultion methodF SF sn order to deouple the opertion of n vxq liqueftion proess from mient temperture vritionsD it is ommon prtie to keep the temE perture of the mixed refrigernt fter the mient oolers (xedD e.g.D vi vrile speed fns tthed to iroolersF sf not prtiulrly inditedD omission of temperture regultion is ssumed throughout the thesisF his is due to the ft tht in most ses smller mient temperture inreses the liqueftion pity of proessF TF sf hevy hydrorons @rrgsA re present in the nturl gsD they need to e removed in order void freezing out in the old prt of the plnt nd in order to ful(ll produt spei(tions of the vxqF emovl of rrgs n e performed within the vxq liqueftion proessD i.e.D in vporEliquid seprtor ehind the suooler provided tht suritil nturl gs is presentF st is shown elow thtD from n opertionl point of viewD seprtion of rrgs within the yle is unfvorle s one degree of freedom gets lost for optimiztionF sn order to point out the mxiE mum optimiztion ene(tD rrg seprtion is disregrded in ll exmple proesses onsidered in this workF UF st is not the ojetive of this work to design ontrol strutures whih over optiml opertion for ll possile disturnes nd opertion seE nriosF his would require the use of online optimiztion tehniques suh s yGvwgF ht these re not onsidered here is due to vrious reE sons disussed in etion IFIF he fous of this work is exlusively on the design of selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures where omplexity inreses with the numer of disturnesF husD only the essentil disturne nd opertion senrios re onsideredF he hope is tht proess nonE linerities re smll suh tht ontrol strtegies whih turn out to e good for the nominl operting point opertion do not ompletely fil for norml opertionF ome disturnes whih re not onsidered re fouling of het exhngersD e.g.D used y lge in wter oolers or freeze out of rrgs in the preooler @eithmeier et al.D PHHRGHRGPIEPRAD feed vritions in pressureGtempertureGompositionD e.g.D used y upE strem dsorer swithingF e reltively ommon senrio whih is not

IHU

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh tken into ount is turndown opertionD for instneF VF fesides reliilityD the mximiztion of the opertionl ene(t @pro(t funtionA is the most importnt ojetive for plnt opertionF he uE rte solution of this prolem is y fr not trivil tskD s rigorous models of the plnt @predition of opertionl ostD opertionl onstrints nd prodution rteA nd the mrket @sle prie depends on supply nd deE mndA would e required in order to mke n pproprite deisionF hese deisions re usully tken on hierrhil lyers s indited in pigure IFIF his work ims to (nd generl ontrol strutures on the @lowA regE ultory ontrol lyer where generl is ment in terms of independene on plnt hrteristis nd mrket onditionsF st is thus onvenient to fous on mximiztionGminimiztion of simple pro(tGost funtionsD i.e.D on mximizing the oe0ient of performne @gyD rywoodD IWVHD pF USAD mximizing the plnt throughput sujet to given shft power or minimizing the energy onsumption sujet to given throughputF xote tht these ojetives re ontrditory nd my led to totlly di'erent operting pointsF he (ndings in eppendix RFe suggest tht mximizing the vxq throughput is the most generl ojetive independent of plnt on(gurtion nd mrket onditionsF WF uperheting of the mixed refrigernt t ompressor inlet must e proE vided in order to prevent from droplet entry whih my use mhinery dmge nd spoil sfe opertion @ingh nd rovdD PHHTGHWGPVEPWAF he degree of superheting depends on tempertureD pressure nd omposiE tion nd s ll three re somewht unertin due to proess noiseD the degree of superheting nnot e redued to zero in prtie ut must stisfy de(ned sfety mrgin Tsaf @usully IH uAF roweverD from theory of thermodynmi yles it n e onluded tht minimum superheting is generlly optiml for simple yles in terms of mximum e0ieny1 @see limiting grnot e0ieny in the work of rywoodD IWVHD pF IHPAF tensen @PHHSGHSGPWEHTGHIA nd tensen nd kogestd @PHHUDA investigted the opertion of simple het pump nd refrigertion yles nd me to the sme onlusionF yne wy of keeping the degree of superheting t its lower limit is to (x ll three in)uenesF E.g.D omposition is (xed y mnul dosingD sution pressure is ontrolled y ompressor regultion nd sution temperture is ontrolled vi throttle vlveF sn order to proE vide more )exiility in ontrol struture designD nother strtegy thn this is proposedF he dependeny of the dew point temperture on the
1
It is important to stress that minimal subcooling must not be necessarily optimal for more complex cycles.

IHV

RFRF qixiev gyxshiesyx pressure n e pproximted with low order polynomil for the nomiE nl omposition nd is represented y Tdew (p)F he superheting is then kept t its sfety mrgin y ontrolling the mesure (Tdew (p) + Tsaf ) /T F his pproh require one w less thn the ove stted nd is referred to s minimum superheting ontrol @rgA throughout the thesisF IHF here re severl opertionl limittions in vxq liqueftion proesses whih need to e mintined in order to ensure relile opertion of the plntF yverride ontrollers in the regultory lyer re usully used to keep the plnt wy from these limittionsD s plnt shut down will e triggered owing to their violtionsF por instneD some protetion mehE nisms relting to ompressor opertion re shut down due to drop of sution pressure elow its lower limittion or due to exeeding of shft power limittionF sn this workD onsidertions on opertionl limitE tions re mde susequently to the identi(tion of selfEoptimizing onE trol struturesF por instneD ompressor regultion whih in the (rst instne remins unused for ontrol purposes my lter serve s n w for keeping the ompressor within norml opertion modeF prom these points the following onlusions n e drwn for selfEoptimizing gh for vxq liqueftion proessesF he vxq temperture ontrol using the vxq )ow rte is n inherent ontrol loop of the system nd is not suspendedF he ompressor regultion is onsidered feedEforwrd vrile @not used s ontroller wAF I.e.D ompressor regultion orresponds to h in the ontext of selfEoptimizing ontrolF vxq throughput s the most generl ojetive is to e mximized sujet to de(ned shft powerF es shft power nd ompressor regultion re losely reltedD this prolem it is lmost equivlent to mximizE ing the vxq throughput sujet to un'eted ompressor regultion whih is onsidered in the (rst pleF he mient temperture nd the vxq setpoint temperture re onsidered the only hs esides ompressor regultionF xo norml opertion senrios re tken into ountF

4.4.2 Decision measures for feedback and advanced control

es stted y ingell et al. @PHHSGHUGHREHVAD the e'et of feedk ontrol on the ost funtion in the presene of disturnes n e expressed s

J (d) = J uS/O , d J (0, 0) = J uS/O , d J uR/O , d J (0, d) J uR/O , d + J (0, d) J (0, 0).
=L(d)0 =L0 (d)0 =J0 (d)

IHW

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

J J (uR/O(d),d) J (uS/O (d),d) J (0,d)

J0

L d d=0

pigure RFQX i'et of feedk ontrol on ost funtion nd ontriuting terms

por etter omprehensiilityD the terms LD L0 nd J0 re visulized in the sketh in pigure RFQF L is the onvex loss @QFRA s de(ned y rlvorsen et al. @PHHQAD i.e.D the di'erene etween the optiml ompenstion of the disturE ne @solidA nd the ompenstion whih is hieved y the hosen feedk ontrol struture @dshedAF he lso onvex seond term L0 represents the loss of leving the ws un'eted @dshEdottedAF fy using @QFQA nd @QFTAD

n e derivedF he nonEonvex third term J0 is mesure of how the ost is 'eted y disturnes onlyF prom @QFQAD
T J0 = Jd d +

T 1 where X = W d Jdd Jud Juu Jud W d F he ft tht the verge expetE tion is not onsidered here is due to its more omplex evlution s it depends on the proility density funtion of the hs nd the implementtion errorsF xote tht if othD the hs nd the implementtion errorsD re uniformly disE

follows diretlyF sn the following Ewc denotes the worstEse expettion operE torF I.e.D Ewc (L) = Lwc D 1 2 1/2 T Jud W d @RFRA Ewc (L0 ) = Lwc,0 = Juu 2 T 1 Ewc (J0 ) = wc J0 = Jd W d 1 + max | (W d Jdd W d )| @RFRA 2 T J W d + 1 max M T M + X Ewc (J) = wc J = d 1 0ny ny 2 @RFRA

L0

L0 =

1 T T 1 d Jud Juu Jud d 2

1 T d Jdd d 2

IIH

RFSF swvi w ggviGgQw ygi triutedD the verge expettion n e evluted s stted in the work of uriwl et al. @PHHVD roposition IAF sf wc J0 Lwc,0 D or if Lwc D Lwc,0 nd wc J0 re ll reltively smllD then vrition of the mnipulted vriles o'ers no dvntgeD nd neither optiE miztion nor feedk ontrol is required for this disturnesF sf wc J Lwc does not hold for prtiulr regulting ontrol struture H D then online opE timiztion or n dpttion of the setpoints should e performed rther thn just regultion of the hosen vriles to (xed preomputed setpointsF

4.5 Simple SMR cycle/C3MR process

sn this setionD the selfEoptimizing gh for the simple w yle nd the propne preooled mixed refrigernt @gQwA yle is presentedF pigure RFR shows the proess )ow digrm @phA of the gQw proess with the GpG gg ontrol struture ppliedF xewton @IWVTGHUGIHAD the inventor of this ontrol strutureD limed tht it hieves the highest prodution per unit of energy onsumedF e ontrollility study y wndler et al. @IWWUGHUGPRA reveled tht it is less fvorle in terms of dynmi onsidertionsF he GpGgg struture is ompred to newly developed ontrol strutures sed on verge loss nd fesile operting rngeF por the ske of generliztionD ontrol strutures re identi(ed sed on model of the @simpleA single mixed refrigernt @wA proessF ine the w nd the gQw proess di'er only y the propne preooling yleD the resulting ontrol strutures re pplile to oth ylesF he proess of the pekshving vxq plnt indited in pigure RFS serve s sis for this studyF he plnt ws dynmilly modeled in IWWW fter vinde instlled n ri in prllel to the initilly intended pri for evlution purposesF esults of this projet re disussed y eithmeier et al. @PHHRGHRGPIEPRAF sn the gQw proessD the vxq is preooled in frm of kettle type het exE hngers whih re fed with propne y refrigertion yleF he liqueftion nd suooling tkes ple in two or three susequent ris where light nd hevy mixed refrigernt @vw nd rwD respetivelyA re used s the oolntF pigure RFS shows three ri in series euse in the wossel fy plnt rrgs needed to e seprted from the methneErih strem fter the iwPHPsF his seprtion ws disregrded in order to hieve mximum degree of freedom for optimiztionF he w yle onsists of twoEstge ompressor @ugIHIs nd ugIHIssA with interE nd fterooler @iIII nd iIIPAF sn the iIIPD the mixed refrigernt is prtly ondensedF he light nd the hevy frtion re seprted in the seprtor hIHVF he level in the hIHV is not ontrolled s it rries the exessive refrigerntF he vw fter the hIHV is lique(ed on

III

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

SMR
TC
S02_35 S02_34 S01_32

LNG

EM202_III

S02_36

S02_22

S02_33

Cold utility
S02_30

S02_72

M
PI
S02_40

FI

S01_31

EM202_II

ES111
S02_63

KC101_I
S02_62 S02_41

FI

S02_65

VD108
S02_10

S01_71

ES112
S02_66

KC101_II
S02_21 S02_32 S01_11

PI
S02_70

EM202_I VD106
ASC
S02_60 S02_42

S02_50 S02_20 S02_31

NG Propane precooling

S01_10

C3

pigure RFRX he gQw proess nd the sgGpgGg ontrol strtegy @fter wndler nd frohuD xov IWWUA

the tue side of iwPHPs nd iwPHPss nd then suooled on the tue side of iwPHPsssF efterwrds it is throttled nd serves s the shell side oolnt of ll risF he rw fter the hIHV is suooled on the tue side of the iwPHPs nd iwPHPss nd then throttled nd mixed to the vw to give the shell side oolnt for the iwPHPs nd iwPHPssF he mixed refrigernt t the outlet of the shell of the iwPHPs is usully superheted @with onE siderle distne to the dew pointAF xeverthelessD sfety resons require the instlltion of the droplet seprtor hIHTF

IIP

RFSF swvi w ggviGgQw ygi

pigure RFSX ekshving vxq plnt wossel fyD outh efri

4.5.1 Degree of freedom analysis

he w yle in the on(gurtion of pigure RFR hs nc + 2 degrees of freedom de(ned in the sequelF

1 gompressor speed nr F xote tht in single shft on(gurtionD one speed pplies to oth stgesF 2 ositions of the wrm nd old toule!homson @tGgtA vlvesF hey indiretly 'et pressure levelsD hevy nd light mixed refrigernt )ow rtes nd the tive hrge2 F snsted of the vlve positionsD the )ow rtes of the rw nd vwD FHMR nd FLMR D re onsidered s wsF I.e.D it is supposed tht )ow ontrollers mnipulte the vlve positionsF nc 1 wixed refrigernt omposition
2
According to Jensen and Skogestad (2007b), the active charge refers to the total mass in the cycle except for the mass in the buer tank with variable level. One (steady-state) degree of freedom is lost if the level is xed and dosing/venting is prevented.

IIQ

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh xote tht in some plnts the ompressor interE nd fterooler hve djustle ooling pity in order to keep the mixed refrigernt outlet t onstnt temE perture irrespetive of the mient @wterGirA tempertureF his is desirle s it stilizes the yle nd deouples it from shortEterm mient temperture vritionsF his introdues extr degrees of freedom whih exlusively serve s ws of the mixed refrigernt temperture ontrollersF por more detiled degree of freedom nlysis of the gQw proessD the reder is referred to the work of tensen nd kogestd @PHHWAF

4.5.2 Model setup

he gh proedure for the w yle ws performed ording to the workE )ow introdued in etion RFPF e dynmi simultion model of wossel fy plnt in yssw ws lredy ville from former opertion study nd equls the w prt of the )owsheet in pigure RFRF por the ske of doing stedy stte studiesD the model ws slightly hnged suh tht the solute hrge of eh speies remined (xed in the yleF I.e.D the model ws reuilt in qusiElosed on(gurtion s pointed out in etion PFSFIF st is importnt to stress tht only the inventories in the drums were tken into ount s they rry the mjor hrgeF wo ojetivesD the gy nd the vxq throughput FLNG D were optimized y vrition of the wsD FHMR nd FLMR D sujet to n mient temperture of Tamb = 299.15 uD the ompressor rting speed (nr = 10927 w)D n vxq sp setpoint temperture of TLNG = 115 uD s well s lower limit on the sution pressure (psuc 3.5 r)D the superheting (TSH 10 u) nd the ompresE sor )ow @surge line spei(ed y vendorAF he speies9 inventories within the yle might e used s optimiztion vriles ut were kept t design ondiE tionsF he resulting optiml operting points for gy nd vxq throughput mximiztion do not oinide nd re given in le RFRF xone of the imE posed onstrints re tive t the optiml operting pointsF xote tht the ojetive vlues for oth optim re lso indited in the hrt in pigure RFIS for illustrtion purposesF hue to the rgumenttion given in eppendix RFeD the throughput ws seleted s the ojetive for selfEoptimizing ontrol nd the nominl operting point ws seleted t mximum throughput onditionsF he operting rnges of the input vriles t this nominl point were evlutedF I.e.D vrition of eh wGh ws performed in upper nd lower diretion until either resonle distne to the nominl point ws rehed or until onvergene filed inditing the edge of the fesiility regionF he results re shown in le RFSF es sution pressure ontrol y ompressor regultion ws disregrdedD the ompressor speed ws onsidered hF

IIR

RFSF swvi w ggviGgQw ygi

gy @in 7A FLNG @in molGsA FHMR @in molGsA FLMR @in molGsA psuc @in rA TSH @in uA Fsurge @in molGsA

max gy SRFUP PHQFP IVIFV QTVFV QFT RIFT PWFQ

max FLNG SHFQI PRIFI PITFI SQWFW RFR RHFQ IPVFH

le RFRX xominl vlues t optiml operting points of the wossel fy plnt

FHMR @in molGsA FLMR @in molGsA nr @in wA sp TLNG @in uA Tamb @in uA

vower ound IWS (16.7 %) RTH (14.8 %) IHUHH (2.1 %) IIQFS (1.3 %) PVRFIS (5.0 %)

xominl point PITFH SQWFWU IHWPU IIS PWWFIS

pper ound PSS (+15.7 %) TPH (+14.8 %) IIRHH (+4.3 %) IIUFS (+2.2 %) QHSFIS (+2.0 %)

le RFSX yperting rnge of the wossel fy plnt

T D i.e.D he w nd h vetors re respetively given y u = FHMR FLMR T sp the rw nd vw )ow rteD nd d = Tamb TLNG n D i.e.D the mient tempertureD the vxq setpoint temperture nd the ompressor speedF he vetor y onsists of IV vriles indited in le RFTF he pro(t funtion is the vxq throughputD i.e.D J = FLNG F eording to these spei(tionsD the stedyEstte sGy model nd the ressin t the nominl point n e otinedF st is worth noting tht the ressin ws lulted y permuttion of ws nd hs over the rnges given in le RFS nd using lest squres (t of @QFQA on the resulting vxq throughputF he sling mtrix for the disturnes follow the permuttion rnges in le RFSD i.e.D W d = diag (10 u, 1.5 u, 350 w)F por the sling mtrix representing the implementtion errorD W ny D it ws ssumed tht I 7 )ow unertintyD HFS u solute temperture unertinty nd IH mr solute pressure unertinty re presentF ith the presented informtionD ommonly known ontrol strutures were judged in terms of expeted worstEseGverge lossF he results re presented in the (rst three lines of le RFUF elso indited is wc J D the worstEse e'et of feedk on ost @RFRAF por etter illustrtionD ll vlues re relted to the nominl throughput nd re given in 7F he se indited y wH refers to open loop on(gurtion nd un'eted wsF es the implementtion error is

4.5.3 CSD

IIS

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh trem HIII HIQI HPIH HPPI HPQI HPPP HPQP HPQR HPQT HPRI HPRP HPUH

F I
P Q R

T S T U V W IH II IP IQ IR IS IT

IU

IV

le RFTX wesurement nd their indies in y for the w yle

negligileD the worstEse loss of wH equls the mesure Lwc,0 de(ned in @RFRA nd wc J of wH orresponds to wc J0 de(ned in @RFRAF es the Lwc,0 nd wc J0 re not smll nd Lwc,0 wc J0 does not holdD feedk ontrol n e resonly pplied for loss redutionF he onventionl ontrol struture of the wossel fy plnt indited y gyx shows moderte lossF xote tht the sution pressure ontrol whih is tully inluded in the gyx struture ws disregrded in order to mke the omprison of the worstEseGverge loss possileF he GpGgg struture s shown in pigure RFR is indited in le RFU in its linerized formultionF st turned out tht it is very uneonomi ontrol struture in terms of worstEseGverge loss lthough it ws limed tht it produes the highest vxq prodution per unit of energy onsumed @xewtonD IWVTGHUGIHAF xote tht losses ove IHH 7 s in the GpGgg se re meningless ut suggest tht the ontrol struture hs smll fesiility regionF he est ontrol struture in terms of worstEse loss sujet to seleE tion ws found y pplition of the fQg method nd ws nmed ivF sts performne in terms of worstEseGverge loss is etter thn wH y ftor of IGQF gywP indites the est ommonEsized ontrol struture with suset size two nd pure unit omintions found vi pplition of the wse methodF emperture omintions were disregrded s they nnot e physilly interpretedF hue to the smll system dimensionsD the pplition of the wse method ws not expensiveF sn omprison to iv the worstE seGverge loss of gywP is further deresed y one order of mgnitudeF sxh ws otined similrly to gywP with the di'erene tht no )ow rte

IIT

RFSF swvi w ggviGgQw ygi

Name MV0 CONV T/FR/CRC SEL COM2 IND HHC/FRC Linear control structure

{FHMR , FLMR } TS01_31 , FLMR FLMR 1.02 FHMR , pS02_10 9.89 pS02_42 FLMR , TS02_42 FLNG 1.19 FMR , FLMR 1.41 FHMR TS02_42 , pS02_10 + 9.36 pS02_42 TS01_31 , FNG 0.31 FHMR 0.73 FLMR

Lav (in %) 0.43 1.09

178.5 0.15 0.01 0.05 0.85

Lwc (in %) 6.38 16.37

4284.5 2.17 0.19 0.95 20.18

wc J (in %) 38.25 48.23

4315.2 33.95 31.97 32.07 51.69

le RFUX orstEseGverge loss of liner ontrol strutures for the w yle omintions were llowedF sts worstEseGverge loss is thus only hlf s good s gywPF por the ivD gywP nd sxh strutureD it holds the reltionship Lwc wc J F eordinglyD if the mesures Lwc nd wc J in le RFU re relly representtive for the nonliner ehviorD it n e onluded tht feedk ontrol y these strutures is lmost optiml nd optimiztion of ontroller setpointsD for instne y the use of yD n e onsidered redundntF

4.5.4 Nonlinear verication

he nonliner stedyEstte ehvior of ontrol strutures indited in le RFU hve een investigted y prmeter studies of the h set within the rnges given in le RFSF he min results re presented in pigure RFTF he hrts in the (rst row represent the vxq throughput vsF the three hsF he Gy se represents the est hievle ehvior nd ws otined vi the optimiztion funtionlity of yssw F he Gy urve thus indites the upper ound of ll other urves whih re relted to feedk ontrol struturesF es the resolution is firly poorD the devition etween the Gy urve nd ll other urves is respetively plotted in the digrms in the seond rowF xo operility onstrints were violted over the oserved h rngeF ixpetedlyD the mximum hievle vxq throughput @GyA is monotonilly deresing with rising mient tempertureD flling vxq setpoint temperture nd flling ompressor speedF gurve ends indite the edge of the fesile operting rngeF

gonsidering mient temperture dropD the worstEse loss of the wH struE

IIU

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

FLNG /FLNG,0 (in %)

120 110 100 90 80 R/O MV0 CONV T/FR/CRC HHC/FRC

Throughput loss (in %)

5 4 3 2 1 0 285 290 295 300 305 Tamb (in K) 113 114 115 116 SP TLNG (in K) 117 1.06 1.08 1.1 1.12 Speed n (in rpm) 104 x

pigure RFTX esults of nonliner veri(tion of ontrol strutures for the w proess ture underestimtes the tul ehviorF he urves of the gyx struture meet its worstEse loss vlue reltively wellF st is more fvorle thn the wH poliyF es predited y its worstEseGverge lossD the GpGgg struture indited in pigure RFR shows very undesirle performneF violted on either side of the domin of eh of the three hsF his e'et is due to unfvorle omintion of gs whih is pointed out hereF st is importnt to notie tht y holding the FLMR /FHMR rtio onstntD the vpor frtion of the prtly ondensed mixed refrigernt is (xed ndD thusD its pressureD i.e.D the dishrge pressureD depends on the mient tempertureF eordinglyD if the mient temperture risesD the dishrge nd sution pressure inrese s their rtio must remin invrintF roweverD the sution pressure level is ounded from ove s it in)uenes the evportion temperture of the refrigE ernt whih is lredy lose to the ondenstion temperture of the tueEside )uids t nominl onditionsF he sme rgumenttion reversed n e pE plied in order to give n explntion for the fesiility violtion of the vxq setpoint tempertureF e derese of the vxq setpoint temperture requires drop of the temperture level of the evporting refrigernt whih n only e hieved y sution pressure redutionF hisD howeverD is not possile due to invrint pressure rtio nd (xed mient temperture nd dishrge pressureF he reson tht the ompressor speed is ounded from ove is more profound nd proper explntion nnot e givenF

Remark RFP. st is striking tht the fesiility of the GpGgg struture is

Remark RFQ. he pplition of the GpGgg struture to the gQw proE

IIV

RFTF vsww

ggvi

ess my e less severe s suggested y the urves in pigure RFTD s the miE ent temperture disturne n e rejeted y the propne preooling yleF roweverD the smll fesiility region in terms of vxq setpoint temperture is likely to our nywyF hese results verify omments from ustomers whih stte tht the GpGgg poliy is di0ult to implement @wndler et al.D IWWUGHUGPRAF he nonliner performne of the ontrol strutures ivD gyw nd sxh did not meet the expettions rised y their worstEseGverge loss (guresF ell of them filed ginst the gyx struture in terms of fesiility rnge or worstE se loss or othF i tril nd error pprohD promising selfEoptimizing ontrol struture ws foundD given y TS01_31 , FNG / (FHMR + FLMR ) F st is indited s rrgGpg in le RFU @in its linerized formultionAF he rrgGpg struture performs only slightly etter thn gyx ut hs the downside tht it is not prtilly provenF st n e generlly onluded tht the vlues of worstEseGverge losses re not lwys well in greement with the nonliner ehviorF he onventionl ontrol struture implemented in wossel fy hs good selfEoptimizing ilities nd ould not e outperformed y ny other ontrol strutureF

4.6 LIMUM cycle

his setion dels with the selfEoptimizing gh for the @proprietryA vindeE wultiEtgeEwixedEefrigernt @vsww D tokmnn et al.D IWWUGHSGPVA yE leF st is proven tehnology @ferger et al.D PHHQGHTGHIEHSA for the liqueftion of nturl gs in smll to mediumEsized plntsD i.e.D plnts with less thn Q weF st is single mixed refrigernt yle nd its proess topology is deviE tion from tht of the simple w yle treted in etion RFSF he vsww yle will e inorported in one of the (rst vxq )oting prodution storge nd o1oding units @pyA developed y fw y'shore nd vinde eqF he (rst vessel indited in (gure RFU is plnned to e delivered y PHIP @oskreE senskyD PHHWGHQGQIEHRGHPAF st is designed for gs (elds with reserves of IER gp nd liqueftion pity of PFS we vxq plus ondenste nd vq produtionF pigure RFV shows ph of the vsww yle pplied in n vxq liqE ueftion plnt in tvngerD xorwy going on strem in PHIHF he ooling nd ondenstion of the nturl gs strem IIHI tkes ple in three seril ri undlesD iIID iIP nd iIQ whih orrespond to preoolingD liqueftion nd suoolingD respetivelyF e mixed refrigernt of the typil omponents nitrogenD gID gP nd gR is usedF et the (rst pressure stgeD the mixed refrigerE nt strem IPHP is ompressed from the low to the medium pressure y the

IIW

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

pigure RFUX vxq py unit ompressor gHPe nd prtilly ondensed y the irooler iPIF he prtly ondensed strem IPHR is seprted into liquid nd vpor strem y the seprtor hPQF he liquid strem IPPI represents the medium pressure hevy mixed refrigernt @wrwA nd serves s the oolnt for the preooling undle iIIF et the seond pressure stgeD the medium pressure vpor strem IPIS is ompressed nd ooled y the ompressor gHPf nd the irooler iPQD respetivelyF he high pressure vpor strem IPQP is prtly ondensed nd seprted in the wrm undle iII nd the seprtor hIPD respetivelyF his gives the high pressure hevy mixed refrigernt @rwA strem IIRI whih serves s the oolnt for the liqueftion undle iIP nd the high presE sure light mixed refrigernt strem @vwA whih is tken s the suooling oolntF st is importnt to stress tht no rrg removle is implemented fter the preoolerF he regultory ontrol strtegy implemented in the tvnger plnt is lso indited in the ph in pigure RFVF he sution pressure is ontrolled y mnipultion of the inlet guide vne @sqA position of the (rst stgeF he vw )ow rte is (xed y mnipulting the gt vlveF he nturl gs temperture

IPH

RFTF vsww

ggvi
TC
LNG S1_251 S1_236 S1_105

LNG

E13

M
ASC FC
S1_217

E23
S1_216

C02B
S1_252

TC
E23 SPL S1_107 S1_243 S1_242 S1_235

PC
LNG

S1_215

ASC
S1_253

S1_104

E12

D23
S1_220

E21
S1_203

C02A
S1_254 S1_241 S1_234

TC
E21 SPL

D12
LC
D12

<

S1_223 S1_202 S1_222 S1_233 S1_102

TC

E11

S1_255

D21
S1_256

TC
S1_221 S1_232

SPL

NG

S1_101

pigure RFVX vsww plnt

yle with regultory ontrol struture of the tvnger

fter the preooler is ontrolled y mnipulting the t vlveF roweverD this loop is overridden if the temperture of the mixed refrigernt efore the ompressor drops elow lower limitF

4.6.1 Degree of freedom analysis

sn generlD the topology devition etween the vsww nd the simple w yle hs no impt on the opertionl degrees of freedomF his is due to the ft tht there re s mny seprtors s throttle vlves introdued nd their levels need to e stilized y ontrol loopsF es in the wD the level of one seprtor remins unontrolled s it is n inherently stle mode nd llows for vrile tive hrge in the yle @tensen nd kogestdD PHHUAF

IPI

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh ome dditionl fetures of the proess in pigure RFV re tht @iA throttling of the vxq tkes ple efore the suooler iIQD @iiA sq ompressor regE ultion is used nd @iiiA iroolers re ppliedF ell three introdue further degrees of freedomF roweverD the impt of the (rst on proess opertion n e negletedF egrding the seond it is importnt to notie tht twoEstge singleEshft ompressors n inlude two sq rowsD however only in kEtoE k on(gurtion @vdtkeD PHHRD pF IIWAF he third point reltes to the ft tht iroolers re usully equipped with vns nd their speed n e used to regulte the outlet temperture of the prtly ondensed mixed refrigernt whih n e onvenient for reduing the interferene of the mient temperE ture on the liqueftion proessF his mens tht during times when mient temperture is lowD the fns9 speeds re redued y the ontrollers giPI nd giPQ nd vie versF xote tht the im of smll interferene does not generlly on)it with the ojetive of high e0ieny s shown elowF eordinglyD the vsww yle in the on(gurtion of pigure RFV hs nc +5 degrees of freedom ville s wsX

2 sq positions z1 D z2 1 wrw )ow rte FMHMR @or position of relting throttle vlveA 1 vw )ow rte FLMR @or position of relting throttle vlveA 2 pn speeds of iroolers @or setpoints of temperture ontrollersA nc 1 wixed refrigernt omposition

4.6.2 Model setup

he sis of the gh ws n yssw design )owsheet of the tvnger plntF he trnsformtion from the design into dynmi simultion )owE sheet ws rried out s desried in etion RFPF por the ske of stedyEstte investigtionsD the yle needed to e modeled in qusiElosed on(gurtion in order to fore the speies9 inventories within the yle to remin invrint @s disussed in etion PFSFIAF hereyD only the inventories of the drums were tken into ount s they inlude the mjor refrigernt mss @pproxF VH 7AF he gy nd the vxq throughput were optimized y vrition of the wsD FMHMR nd FLMR D sujet to n mient temperture of Tamb = 296 uD n sp vxq setpoint temperture of TLNG = 111.66 uD sq ngles of z1 = z2 = 20 D s well s operting onstrints for sution pressure (psuc 3.5 r)D superE heting t ompressor inlet (TSH 10 u) nd ompressor surgeF he results for mximum vxq throughput nd mximum gy re shown in le RFVF he ojetive vlues re dditionlly indited in pigure RFIS for illustrtion

IPP

RFTF vsww

ggvi
yp/y p0 RP
e s urg
0 .9 5 0. 9

yp/y p0
0.9

RP

rg e

1.0

su

0 .7 0. 9 0 .8 0 .7

nr /n r0 1. 0 = 1 .5

0.0 0.4

1.0
(a) Speed regulation

0.0 0.2

(b) Adjustable IGV regulation

pigure RFWX ghrteristi mps of entrifugl ompressor @from vdtkeD PHHRD ppF IITDIIWA gy @in 7A FLNG @in molGsA FMHMR @in molGsA FLMR @in molGsA psuc @in rA TSH @in uA Fsurge @in molGsA

max gy VIFHW SQSFP QQWFI RSIFV RFI IHFH RSFIW

max FLNG UPFIV TRRFI RIHFW TPIFU RFH IHFH RPQFH

le RFVX xominl vlues t optiml operting points of the tvnger plnt purposesF he superheting onstrint is tive for oth optimF he opertE ing point for the mximum gy se is loted loser to the surge line thn the mximum vxq throughput pointF his e'et ws lredy oserved for the simple w yle nd is resonle s the ompressor opertion is usully very e0ient lose to the surge line s exemplrily indited y the hrteristi ompressor mps in pigure RFW nd F he surge mrgin for the mximum gy se is very smll nd suggests tht the proess is optimlly tive t the surge line somewhere within the operting regionF en nlogil result ws otined y tensen nd kogestd @PHHWA for the sgy proessF from design onditions t Tamb = 296 u where limx of the mximum vxq throughput ws oserved s indited in pigure RFIHF hue to this e'etD it is eonomilly resonle to ontrol the temperture of the prtly ondensed mixed refrigernt vi speed mnipultion of fns tthed to the iroolersF sf Tamb 296 uD the fns should e run t full speedD otherwiseD temperture ontrol should e tiveF

Remark RFR. he mient temperture t nominl point ws seleted o'set

IPQ

FV /FV0

0. 9 9

/ 0 = 0 .2 0 .9 9

1.0
0 .9 7 5 0 .9 5 0 .9 0. 8

75

0 .8 / 0 = 0. 6 - 30 0 30 = 80 70 50

FV /FV0

1.0

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

645 644.5 max FLNG (in mol/s) 644 643.5 643 642.5 642 295 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 297 Temperature (in K)

Tpinch Tm

295.5

296 Tamb (in K)

296.5

pigure RFIHX glimx of mximum vxq throughput

Remark RFS. he e'et tht the mximum vxq throughput versus mient temperture shows limx s indited in pigure RFIH is n unexpeted nd puzzling outomeF st is rther expeted tht the refrigertion pity delines monotonilly with mient temperture s n e oserved for the most refrigE ertion yles suh s the mmoni yle investigted y tensen nd kogestd @PHHUA or the simple w yle treted in etion RFSF he est explntion for the ounterintuitive ehvior is sed on the ft tht the mient temE perture 'etsD on the one hndD the temperture level of the old nd wrm T EQ omposite urves ndD on the other hndD their slopes s result of the vrition of the mixed refrigernt ompositionF yn the left hnd side of the limxD it seems tht the slope of the old urve hnges so unfvorle tht it overompenstes its drop in temperture levelF en interesting question is why this e'et nnot e oserved for the simple w yleF sn the simple w yle there re two refrigerntsD the rw nd the vwD whose )ow rtes n e mnipulted independently from eh other providing the ility to dpt the old to the wrm T EQ omposite urve vi two degrees of freedomF sn the vsww yle there re on the one hnd three refrigerntsD wrw for preoolingD rw for liqueftion nd vw for suoolingD seprting the old T EQ omposite urve into three segmentsF yn the other hndD the three )ow rtes nnot e mnipulted independently from eh other s only one degree of freedomD i.e.D the vw )owD is present @sq ngles re (xedD minimum suE perheting is stis(edAF yne degree of freedom for dpting the slope of the three segments in the old T EQ omposite urve is too few for ompenstion of their individul vrition due to omposition hngeF his onjeture n e proven y the oservtion of the pinh temperture Tpinch D i.e.D the smllest temperture di'erene in ll risD nd the men temperture di'erene over ll ris Tm in pigure RFIHF e smll pinh temperture is foridden

IPR

RFTF vsww

ggvi
vower ound SWH (5.1 %) EPH (200 %) IIIFPR (0.38 %) PWR (0.68 %) xominl point TPIFU PH IIIFTT PWT pper ound TSH (+4.6 %) RH (+100 %) IIPFTT (+0.9 %) PWV (+0.68 %)

FLMR @in molGsA z1,2 @in A sp TLNG @in uA Tamb @in uA

le RFWX erturtion rnge of the tvnger plnt due to inresing need of exhnge re per het trnsfer unitF es the het exhnge re is (xedD smller pinh temperture n only e otined if elsewhere the temperture di'erene is inresedF hue to the monotonilly flling pinh temperture in diretion of smller mient temperture together with slightly deresing men temperture di'ereneD t some point further inrese of the vxq throughput is inhiitedF es stted in eppendix RFeD the mximum vxq throughput point n e onsidered generlly optiml nd ws thus seleted s the nominl operting pointF he wrw )ow rte is used s n w for stisftion of minimum superheting of IH uF hereforeD only one w is left for selfEoptimizing ghF ution pressure ontrol ws disregrded ndD thusD the sq positions were onsidered hsF he fesily region ws deteted y prmeter studies of input vrilesF he rnges re indited in pigure RFW nd were found to e firly smllD espeilly for the vxq setpoint temperture nd the mient tempertureF he sq ngles were not investigted independently from eh other ut were synhronizedD i.e.D z1,2 = z1 = z2 F et either ound of eh rnge n optimiztion of the vxq throughput ws performed in order verify tht the minimum superheting is everywhere optimlly tive whih turned out to e indeed the seF

4.6.3 CSD
he w vetor is only represented y the vw )ow rteD i.e.D u = FLMR F he T SP D i.e.D the @synhronizedA h vetor is given y d = z1,2 TLNG Tamb sq nglesD the vxq setpoint temperture nd the mient tempertureD reE spetivelyF he vetor y onsists of PH vriles indited in le RFIHF he pro(t funtion is the vxq throughputD i.e.D J = FLNG F eording to these spei(tionsD the stedyEstte sGy model nd the ressin t the nominl point were otined wheres the ltter ws lulted y permuttion of ws nd hs over the rnges given in le RFW nd using lest squres (t of @QFQA on the resulting vxq throughputF he sling mtrix for the disturnes re spei(ed s W d = diag (30 , 1 u, 10 u)F por the sling mtrix representing

IPS

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh trem IIHP IIHR IPHR IPIU IPPP IPQQ IPQS IPRP IPQT IPSP IPSR IPST

F I
P Q R S

T T U V W IH II IP IQ IR IS IT IU

IV IW

PH

le RFIHX wesurement nd their indies in y for the vsww

yle

the implementtion errorD W ny D it ws ssumed tht I 7 )ow unertintyD HFS u solute temperture unertinty nd IH mr solute pressure unertinty re presentF ith the presented informtionD two priori known ontrol struturesD wH nd gyxD were judged in terms of expeted worstEseGverge lossF wH refers to un'eted FLMR F gyx reltes to the ontrol struture indited in pigure RFVF he results of the worstEseGverge loss nd the mesure wc J re presented in le RFIIF por etter illustrtionD the vlues re relted to the nominl throughput nd re given in 7F he loss of the wH struture is higher thn in the simple w yle ut still moderteF he worstEse loss of wH equls the mesure Lwc,0 de(ned in @RFRAF wc J of the wH struE ture orresponds to wc J0 de(ned in @RFRAF es Lwc,0 nd wc J0 re oth firly lrge nd s Lwc,0 wc J0 is flseD feedk ontrol n e resonly pplied for loss redutionF he gyx struture hs onsiderle lrge loss nd the ft tht the worstEse loss is wy ove IHH 7 indites high likeE lihood of infesiility over the perturtion rngeF I.e.D for some disturne perturtionsD it my hppen tht setpoint devition oursF he iv struture in le RFII reltes to the seletion struture with lest worstEse loss nd ws otined y pplying the fQg methodF st shows signi(nt smller loss thn wH wheres the only di'erene is tht FMR is held (xed insted of FLMR F xote tht FMR refers to the )ow rte of IIHPF he worstEseGverge loss n e further redued to onsiderle smll worstEseGverge loss y tking omintions into ountF he gywf struture hs the lest worstEse loss of ll ontrol strutures sujet

IPT

RFTF vsww
Name MV0 CONV SEL COMB HHC

ggvi
Lav (in %) 7.23 24.18 0.46 2.6e3 3.93 Lwc (in %) 86.81 360.62 5.58 3.9e2 47.12 wc J (in %) 142.45 391.61 59.83 59.81 96.32

Linear control structure

le RFIIX orstEseGverge loss of liner ontrol strutures for the vsww yle

{TSH , FLMR } TS1_102 , FLMR + FHMR {TSH , FMR } {TSH , FLNG 1.15 FMR } TSH , TS1_102

to omintion of two sF st ws found y pplition of the fQg methodF por ll the so fr onsidered strutures in le RFIID only the gywf struE ture stis(es the reltionship Lwc wc J D whih indites tht optimiztion y feedk ontrol hieves good performne nd online optimiztion of setE pointsD for instne y yD is expendleF

4.6.4 Nonlinear verication

he worstEse nd verge losses of ll the ontrol struture listed in le RFII were judged y implementing them into the stedyEstte model of the tE vnger plnt nd investigting their nonliner ehviorF withing of model equtions ourred t nominl point due to setpoint low ontrol of the temperE tures fter the iroolers nd override ontrol present in the gyx strutureF he results re presented in pigure RFIIF he (rst row of hrts gives the vxq throughput versus the hs mient tempertureD vxq setpoint temperture nd @synhronizedA sq nglesF he est possile ehvior @uppermost urveA is indited y Gy nd ws otined y pplition of the optimiztion funE tionlity of yssw F felow PWT uD vxq throughput is invrint with respet to mient temperture s the temperture of the mixed refrigernt is kept t (xed vlue vi fn speed regultionF eoveD PWT uD the mximum vxq throughput drops with rise of mient tempertureF wximum vxq throughE put is fvored y high vxq setpoint tempertures nd smll sq nglesF he reltive di'erene etween the Gy urve nd ny of the lower urves denotes the lossF st is indited in the seond row of hrtsF inding urves indite tht the edge of the fesiility region is rehedF he worstEse loss results of the wHD the gyx nd the iv struture n e veri(ed reltively wellF st is importnt to stress tht in se of redued fesiility regionD the worstEse loss n only e estimted vi imginry exE trpoltion of the respetive urvesF he gywf struture is dmittedly smll ut not s tiny s suggested y the liner resultsF

IPU

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

FLNG /FLNG,0 (in %)

120 100 80

R/O MV0 CONV SEL COMB HHC

Throughput loss (in %)

10

292 294 296 298 300 Tamb (in K)

111 111.5 112 112.5 SP TLNG (in K)

20 0 20 40 60 IGV angles z1,2 (in deg)

pigure RFIIX esults of nonliner nlysis of ontrol strutures for the vsww yle

ueeping the temperture of the nturl gs (xed fter the preooler is someE times mndtory due to seprtion of rrgs in vporEliquid seprtorF his is only prtly hieved y the gyx struture s the nturl gs temperE ture ontroller is overridden y the rgF st is thus suggested repling the gyx struture y the rrg struture indited in le RFII if removl of rrgs fter the preooler is neessryF es onsequeneD higher reliility for the hievement of produt spei(tion n e otinedF es n e seen y the loss (gures nd the nonliner ehvior in pigure RFIID the eonomi performne is similr for othD the gyx nd the rrg strutureF

4.7 MFC process

he wixed pluid gsde @wpg D prg et al.D PHHHGHQGPRA proess ws deE veloped within the sope of the vxq tehnology lline etween vinde nd ttoilF he (rst tehnil reliztion hs tken ple in lrge sle selod vxq liqueftion plnt t welky sslnd with gs from the nhvit (eld @pigure RFIPAF he plnt is nmed fter the nery ity rmmerfestD xorE wyF rmmerfest is the northernmost vxq plnt with very rough limte onditionsF yne of the resons why the wpg proess ws pplied is tht it is espeilly designed for old limteF feside the limteD there re sevE erl other hllenges whih hve een tkled within the sope of this projet @reierstedD PHHPGIHGIQEITY ferger et al.D PHHQY fuerD PHHSAF

IPV

RFUF wpg

ygi

pigure RFIPX rmmerfest vxq plnt under onstrution t welky sslndD frents e on epril PHHS

he development of selfEoptimizing ontrol struture for the wpg proE ess ws sed on design study for the evlution of the lrgest trin size possile for wrm limte lled gigmF he relted ph is shown in pigure RFIQF he nturl gs is preooledD lique(ed nd suooled in the three sequenE til risD PQiHPD PQiHQ nd PQiHRD respetivelyF he refrigertion pity of the shellEside strem of eh ri is provided y seprte reE frigertion yleD the preooling yle @gAD the liqueftion yle @vgA nd the suooling yle @gA whih re instlled in sde on(gurtionF ell three yles use mixed refrigernt onsisting of omponents from the set nitrogen nd gI through gRF he gD vg nd g mixed refrigernt rry omponents from the rightD from the middle nd from the left of this spetrumD respetivelyF he ompressor of eh yle is driven y qi prme W gs turineF he g hs twoEstge interooled ompressorF por the vgD the interooling is omitted due to onstrution issuesF he g hs only one ompressor stgeF eiroolers re used for trnsferring the het to the mientF o protet the ompressors from surgeD ntiEsurge ypsses re provided round eh ompressorF

IPW

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

43E_01
S43_20

43C01
ASC PC
S43_22 S43_12

23X_01

G
TC
S23_11

LNG

43E_02
S43_24

43C02 43D_02
ASC
S43_09 S23_09

PC

<
FC

23E_04 43D_01
S43_12

TC
S43_13

SPL

42C_01_I
PC
S42_20 S42_08

TC

42E_01
S42_22

42C_01_II 42D_02
ASC
S42_07 S43_07 S23_07

PC

< 42D_01
S42_08

23E_03
TC
S42_09

SPL

SPL

TC

41E_01
S41_20

41C_01
ASC
S41_13

PC

41D_04
S41_24

TC

41E_02
S41_12 S42_05 S43_05

<
PC

S23_05

23E_02 41D_01
S41_13

TC
S41_14

SPL

S41_11 S42_04 S43_04

NG

S23_04

pigure RFIQX wpg proess with regultory ontrol struture from rmmerE fest plnt pigure RFIQ shows lso regultory ontrol struture equivlent to tht imE plemented in the rmmerfest plntF he ontrol strtegy is similr mong the ylesF sn eh yleD the sution pressure is ontrolled y ompressor speed regultion nd the pressure efore the throttlingGexpnsion is (xed vi t vlvesF enother nlogy is tht in eh yle it is prevented tht superheting of the mixed refrigernt t ompressor inlet drops elow lower limitF st is in eh yle hieved y override ontrol of the loop relting to the throughput vlve downstrem of the liquid storge tnk @RIhHRGRPhHPGRQhHPAF sf the ntiEsurge ypss opensD it must e ensured tht the ompressors re prevented from liquid entrneF I.e.D superheted vpor must e present downstrem of the iroolers RIiHID RPiHID nd RQiHPF es this is not lwys ful(lled

IQH

RFUF wpg

ygi

for the g due to rther hevy mixed refrigerntD temperture ontroller stis(es tht lower temperture limit fter the RIiHI is not delinedF hen optiml opertion of the wpg proess is onsideredD the question rises how to distriute the refrigertionGompressor lod mong the three sded yles in order to hieve mximum vxq throughputF he nswer to this question would e some kind of rule or feedEforwrd poliyF por instneD vow et al. @IWWSGIPGPHA onsidered the similr question of how to trnsfer lods etween drivers in djent refrigertion yles nd me up with proessD pprtus nd ontrol methodF sn this workD the question is resttedF ther thn sking how to t on ws in order to hieve the mximum vxq throughputD it is sked whih gs n e kept t (xed vlues in order to hieve the sme ojetiveF his question n e nswered y pplying the selfEoptimizing gh frmeworkF

4.7.1 Degree of freedom analysis

st is ssumed tht othD the vxq temperture ontroller nd the ontroller for the temperture fter the irooler RIiHID re losed nd the respetive ws nnot e independent inputsF he degree of freedom nlysis y xjim @IWVWD ppF RHVERIHA nd tensen nd kogestd @PHHUD ppF RHVERIHA reveled nc + 2 degrees of freedom for simple mixed refrigernt yle with vrile tive hrge nd (xed het trnsfer re of the ondenser nd evportorF es the wpg proess onsists of three suh ylesD degree of freedom of 3 nc + 6 is otinedF hey re itemized s followsX

3 1 gompressor speeds nPC D nLC nd nSC F xote tht in the single shft r r r on(gurtionD one speed pplies to oth stgesF 3 1 ositions of the t vlves @upstrem of the u'er tnks RIhHID RPhHI nd RQhHIAF hey dominntly 'et the dishrgeGsution pressure rE tiosD PC D LC nd SC D ndD s resultD the tive hrges in the ylesF 3 1 ositions of throughput vlves loted downstrem of the u'er tnksF hey dominntly 'et mixed refrigernt )ow rtesF snsted of the vlve positionsD the )ow rtes of the mixed refrigerntsD FPC D FLC nd FSC D re onsidered wsF I.e.D it is supposed tht )ow ontrollers mnipulte the vlve positionsF 3 (nc 1) wixed refrigernt ompositions

IQI

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

4.7.2 Model setup

he sis of the gh ws design )owsheet of the gigm study mentioned oveF he trnsformtion from the design into dynmi simultion )owsheet ws rried out s desried in etion RFPF es no prtly ondenstionGseprE tion of mixed refrigernt tkes ple within the yles nd their tive hrges re vrileD the ompositions nd )ow rtes of the mixed refrigernts re inE dependent on proess onditionsF eordinglyD the yles ould e modeled in prtly losed on(gurtion for stedyEstte investigtions @see etion PFSFI for detilsAF he gy nd the vxq throughput were optimized y vrition of wsD i.e.D mixed refrigernts9 )ow rtes nd ompression pressure rtiosD sujet to n mient temperture of Tamb = 298.15 uD n vxq setpoint temE sp perture of TLNG = 109.35 uD ompressor speeds nPC = nLC = nSC = 3000D r r r s well s the operting onstrintsF he operting onstrints re limiE ttions for sution pressure pk 2.0 r k {g, vg, g} D superheting suc k TSH 10 u k {g, vg, g} nd ompressor surgeF he results for mxE imum vxq throughput nd mximum gy re shown in le RFIPF he ojetive vlues re lso indited in pigure RFIS for the ske of illustrtionF por othD the mximum vxq throughput point nd mximum gy pointD ll the superheting onstrints re tiveF his hs lredy een oserved y tensen nd kogestd @PHHTGHUGHWEIQAF por the mximum gy seD the sution pressures re generlly smller thn for the mximum vxq throughE put se ut not t their onstrintsF es oserved for the simple w nd vsww yleD the operting point for the mximum gy se is loted loser to the surge line s the mximum vxq throughput pointF sn ftD the vg ompressor is operted diretly t the surge line nd the mximum gy se inludes one tive onstrint more thn the mximum vxq throughput seF es pointed out in eppendix RFeD the mximum vxq throughput point is generlly more optiml nd it is thus seleted s the nominl operting pointF he positions of the throttle vlves were used s ws for minimum superE heting ontrol @rgA in order to stisfy the tive onstrintF xote tht this piring is only for stedyEstte investigtions nd hs no in)uene on ghF he tul piring is regrded lter sed on dynmi mesuresF ltimtelyD there re three ws left for ghF he fesily region of the model ws deteted y prmeter studies of the input vrilesF he resulting rnges re indited in pigure RFIQF snsted of independent investigtion of ompressor speedsD they were synhronizedD i.e.D nr = nPC = nLC = nSC F xote tht the speed rnge is r r r firly smll due to the use of qi prme W gs turines s ompressor driversF nder vrition of the mient tempertureD the wpg proess turned out to e more )exile @lrge fesiilityA thn othD the w nd the vsww

IQP

RFUF wpg

ygi
max gy WQFSS PHTVSFW PSUPHFH IUTUQFS VWVHFH RFP UFW PIFS IHFH SFS QFP PFP IHVRFH HFH VWQFW max FLNG VSFQV PURIHFU QTIUPFI PTRTRFP IUSUPFQ QFT TFP IQFR IHFH TFU RFQ QFU TIQUFI RSIRFI RHRTFP

gy @in 7A FLNG @in molGsA FPC @in molGsA FLC @in molGsA FSC @in molGsA PC @in rA LC @in rA SC @in rA PC LC SC TSH D TSH D TSH @in uA pPC @in rA suc pLC @in rA suc pSC @in rA suc PC Fsurge @in molGsA LC Fsurge @in molGsA SC Fsurge @in molGsA

le RFIPX xominl vlues t optiml operting points of the gigm study

FPC @in molGsA FLC @in molGsA FSC @in molGsA nr @in wA sp TLNG @in uA Tamb @in uA

vower ound QHHHH (17.1 %) PHHHH (24.4 %) IPSHH (28.9 %) PVVH (4.0 %) IHWFH (0.3 %) PVVFIS (3.4 %)

xominl point QTIUPFI PTRTRFP IUSUPFQ QHHH IHWFQS PWVFIS

pper ound RHHHH (+10.6 %) QHHHH (+13.4 %) IWHHH (+8.1 %) QHTH (+2.0 %) IHWFT (+0.2 %) QHVFIS (+3.4 %)

le RFIQX erturtion rnge of the gigm study yleF roweverD it is more in)exile in terms of vrying the vxq setpoint tempertureF st ws on(rmed tht minimum superheting is everywhere opE timlly tive y running optimiztions t vrious points lose to the edge of the operting regionF

T he w nd h vetors re respetively given y u = FPC FLC FSC D T SP i.e.D the gD vg nd g )owD nd d = Tamb TLNG nr D i.e.D mient tempertureD vxq set point temperture nd ompressor speedF he veE tor y onsists of PR vriles indited in le RFIRF he pro(t funtion is the vxq throughputD i.e.D J = FLNG F eording to these spei(tionsD the

4.7.3 CSD

IQQ

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh trem RIII RPHR RQHR RIIP RPHS RQHS PQHS RPHU RQHU PQHU RQHW RIIR RPHW RQIQ

F I P Q

T S T U V W IH II IP IQ IR IS IT IU IV

p IW PH PI

PP PQ PR

le RFIRX wesurement nd their indies in y for the wpg

proess

stedyEstte sGy model nd the ressin were otined t the nominl pointF xote tht the ressin ws lulted y permuttion of ws nd hs over the rnges given in le RFW nd using lest squres (t of @QFQA on the reE sulting vxq throughputF he sling mtrix for the disturnes ws set to W d = diag (10 u, 1 u, 100 w)F por the sling mtrix representing the imE plementtion errorD W ny D it ws ssumed tht I 7 )ow unertintyD HFS u solute temperture unertinty nd IH mr solute pressure unertinty re presentF ith the presented informtionD two priori known ontrol struturesD wHD gyx nd tHTD were judged in terms of expeted worstEseGverge lossF wH refers to the struture in whih FPC D FLC nd FSC remin un'etedF gyx reltes to ontrol struture similr s indited in pigure RFIQF sn order to use the sGy model nd ressinsD it must e ssumed tht miniE mum rg is lwys tive in eh yle insted of overriding the g set TS23_05 , TS43_07 , FSC F he worstEseGverge loss (gures of the gyx struture re thus expeted to underestimte the tul ehviorF he tHT struture refers to struture similr to tht proposed y tensen nd kogesE td @PHHTGHUGHWEIQA sed on heuristi onsidertionsF he only modi(tions re tht the loops whih use ompressor regultion were opened nd the vxq temperture ws ontrolled s indited in pigure RFIQF he results of the worstEseGverge loss nd the mesure wc J de(ned in @RFRA re presented in le RFIS for ll onsidered struturesF por etter illustrtionD ll vlues

IQR

RFUF wpg xme wH gyx tHT iv gywf rrg

ygi
viner ontrol strutures

le RFISX orstEseGverge loss of ontrol strutures for the wpg ess

{FPC , FLC , FSC } S41_12 , pPC LCpS42_07 , pS43_09 SC psuc , psuc , psuc T S41_11 , FLC , pS43_09 FPC FLC , pS42_07 6.87 pS42_09 , pS43_09 11.52 pS43_13 FLNG 1.65 FPC , T , S23_05 FLNG 0.77 FSC

Lav @in 7A HFUH HFSQ RFHQ HFPV 3.1e2

Lwc @in 7A IIFQW VFIU SWFHQ QFVU

HFSI IFTH

wc J @in 7A RTFRU RHFPW VUFVQ QVFVP

QSFSP QTFUR

9.8e2

proE

re relted to the nominl throughput nd re given in 7F fothD the wH nd the gyx strutureD show firly smll loss (gures in omprison to the tHT strutureF Lwc nd wc J of wH equl the mesures Lwc,0 nd wc J0 s de(ned in @RFRA nd @RFRAD respetivelyF es Lwc,0 nd wc J0 re not too smll nd s Lwc,0 wc J0 is not trueD feedk ontrol n e resonly pplied for optimiztion purposesF he iv struture in le RFIS reltes to the seletion struture with lest worstEse loss nd ws otined y pplying the fQg methodF st shows only modertely smller loss thn wH nd gyxF he worstEseGverge loss ould e further redued y tking omintions into ountF he gywf struture ws otined y using the wse methodF st hs the lest verge loss of ll individullyEsized ontrol strutures whih stisfy the seleE tion of tempertures nd pure unit omintion of mximum two pressures nd two )owsF sf seprtion of rrgs from the nturl gs tkes pleD the temperture of the strem PQHS needs to e (xedF uppose tht the vg )ow rte serves s n w for respetive ontroller loopF hen the dimension of the gh prolem is redued y one w nd the oe0ient mtries of the sGy model nd the ressin need to e trnsformedF his n tke ple s indited in eppendix RFgF ith the trnsformed mtriesD the rrg struture ws lultedF st ws otined y the use of the wse method nd hs the lest verge loss mong ll individullyEsized strutures whih stisfy the seletion of tempertures nd pressures s well s pure unit omintions of mximum of two )ow rtesF por ll the so fr onsidered strutures in le RFISD only the gywf nd

IQS

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

FLNG /FLNG,0 (in %)

105 100 95 90

R/O MV0 CONV SEL COMB HHC

Throughput loss (in %)

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 290 300 310 Tamb (in K) 109 109.2 109.4 109.6 SP TLNG (in K) 2900 2950 3000 3050 Speed n (in rpm)

pigure RFIRX esults of nonliner nlysis of ontrol strutures for the wpg proess

the rrg struture stisfy the reltionship Lwc wc J F eordinglyD if loss (gures represent the nonliner ehvior su0iently wellD the optimiztion y feedk ontrol using either of oth strutures hieves good performne nd optimiztion of setpoints y y is expendleF

4.7.4 Nonlinear verication

he priori known strutures nd newly developed strutures were pplied to the nonliner ysw model for the ske of veri(tionF he results re preE sented in pigure RFIRF he hrts in the (rst row represent the vxq throughput vsF the three hsF he Gy se represents the est hievle ehvior @upE per ound for feedk ontrol struturesA nd ws otined vi optimiztion of the yssw modelF es the resolution in the (rst row of hrts is rther poorD the devition etween the Gy urve nd ll other urves is respetively plotted in the digrms in the seond rowF ixpetedlyD the mximum hievE le vxq throughput @GyA is monotonilly deresing with rising mient tempertureD flling vxq setpoint temperture nd flling ompressor speedF en ending urve indites the edge of the fesiility region exept for high mient temperturesF hereD ending urves re due to the ft tht the surge line of one of the ompressors is rehedF he urves re disontinued t the surge line in order to provide etter omprison etween the urves nd the worstEse loss (guresF st ws oserved tht the worstEse loss (gures of the wHD gyx nd tHT

IQT

RFVF gyxgvsyx struture re in good greement with their nonliner ehviorF hue to onE siderly smll fesiility region in ll hsD the tHT struture is not inluded in the hrtF st must e stressed tht due to the sution pressure ontrolD the fesiility of the gyx struture is tully smller thn inditedF he iv struture is etter thn the wH nd gyx exept t high mient temE perturesF hereforeD the worstEse loss of the iv struture underestimtes its glol ehviorD wheres the verge loss of the wH struture my gree wellF fesidesD the iv struture shows slightly redued fesiility regionF he dvne of the gywf over the iv struture in terms of worstEseGverge loss n e veri(ed y its nonliner ehviorF st hs the further dvntge over so fr onsidered strutures tht the surge line is not rehed within the oserved operting rngeF he nonliner ehvior of the gywf struture is exellent nd on(rms tht setpoint optimiztion y y my e expendle if this struture is usedF

4.8 Conclusions
e generl gh proedure for industril proesses ws suggested nd pplied to n evportion proess nd three vxq liqueftion proessesF ell types of ontrol strutures were tken into ount nd the dvntges of ommonE sized nd individullyEsized ontrol strutures were pointed outF por vxq liqueftion proessesD the est ontrol strutures in terms of lest lol worstE seGverge loss were tested y nonliner prmeter studiesF xot ll promising ontrol strutures were positively veri(ed y investigtion of the nonliner ehviorF st is importnt to note tht the newly developed ontrol strutures hve the dvntge tht they re devitions from the onventionl strutures nd n thus e trnsferred from one into the other during opertion in loopEyEloop fshionF yne importnt oservtion ws tht holding the nturl gs temperture fter the preooler (xed leds to n undesirle nonliner ehvior for othD the vsww yle nd the wpg proessF ht oth proesses hve in ommon nd distinguish themselves from the simple w yle is tht they loose degrees of freedom for optimiztion due to the optimlity onstrint of miniml superhetingF he onlusion n e drwn tht the omintion of oth gsD nturl gs temperture fter the preooler nd superheting of the mixed refrigerntD re somewht ounterprodutive in mximizing the vxq throughputF his gives rise to the following design reommendtionF

Rule 4.6. If minimum superheating is an optimally active constraint in an LNG liquefaction process, then it is recommended to perform the potential HHC separation upstream of the cycle as both, xing the superheating and the natural
IQU

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

gas temperature after the precooler, leads to rather poor self-optimizing control behavior.
por the development of selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures for vxq liquefE tion proessesD the mnipultion of mixed refrigernt omposition for optimizE tion purposes ws disregrdedF his is due to the ft tht dosing nd venting is omprly expensive mnipultionF roweverD it my e resonly pE plied for ompensting sesonl )ututionsF st is expeted tht optimizing the vxq throughput y vrition of the mixed refrigernt omposition is onE vex prolem nd my e solved y the use of online optimiztion tehniques suh s yF gonsidering the stedyEstte modeling issues disussed in eE tion PFSFID this is expeted to e rther hllenging tskF fy est knowledge of the uthorD this hs so fr neither een investigted nor implemented nd my e sujet for future workF

4.A Objective function

here re two ndidte ojetivesD the oe0ient of performne gy =

FLNG (hNG hLNG ) Ws

@RFSA

s de(ned in the textook of rywood @IWVHD pF USA nd the vxq throughput FLNG F rereD it is disussed whih of oth is the most pproprite ojetive in terms of generlityF e deision n e drwn y onsidering the eonomi pro(t funtion J = c1 FLNG c2 Ws @RFTA whih sttes the net inome s the di'erene of produt sles nd shft power ostD i.e.D c1 indites the sles prie of the vxq in 6G@kmolGsA nd c2 indites the power genertion ost in 6GwF iliminting the shft power Ws using de(nition of the gy @RFSA yields

where = c2 /c1 (hNG hLNG ) is n inditor for projet nd mrket ondiE tionsF sn order to ome to generl onlusion it is onvenient to determine the lower nd upper ound of F upposeD wste gs is used s fuel for the genertion of shft powerF his then orresponds to zero ost nd the lower ound 0F he upper ound is otined y using the most expensive fuel ville onsite whih is of ourse the vxq itselfF he ost of shft power genE ertion using gs turine is then given y c2 = c1 / (vr GT ) where vr

J = FLNG 1 c1 gy

@RFUA

IQV

RFeF yftigsi pxgsyx

2 1.5 log10 FLNG /(kmol/s) 1 0.5 0 0.5 SMR, Mossel Bay 1 0.4 LIMUM, Stavanger = 0.0 % MFC

2 1.5 log10 FLNG /(kmol/s) log10 (J/c1 /kmol) 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0.6 COP 0.8 1

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 SMR, Mossel Bay 1 0.4 LIMUM, Stavanger = 8.1 % MFC

2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 0.6 COP 0.8 1 log10 (J/c1 /kmol)

(a) Zero cost of power generation

(b) Maximum cost of power generation

pigure RFISX gonsidertion of ojetive funtions for opertion

indites the lower heting vlue of the @vporizedA vxq nd GT the gs turE ine e0ienyF fsed on heting vlue of RHFW wtGm3 for typil nturl gs t stndrd onditions @fter utz nd veeD IWWHD pF IHPAD reltively inefE (ient gs turineD i.e.D GT = 0.2 @fter oresD PHHPD pF SUA nd enthlpy di'erene hNG hLNG for the wossel fy plnt of IS wtGkmolD the upper ound 0.08 n e lultedF sing the lower nd upper ound for D two ontour plots shown in pigure RFIS hve een retedF hey represent the eonomi pro(t funtion @RFUA versus vxq throughput nd gyF es dditionl informtionD the mximum throughput nd mximum gy operting points of three vxq liqueftion proesses of di'erent types nd sles re inluded in the grphF st is ovious tht for ny vlue of nd for ll ylesD the vxq throughput is the etter representtion of the pro(t funtionF his serves s proof for seleting the vxq throughput s generl replement of the pro(t funtion @RFUAF xote tht for = 0D the pro(t funtion is in ft the sled vxq throughputF

Remark RFU. gonsidering proprietry w yle nd the sme pro(t funE tion @RFTAD wihelsen et al. @PHIHA me to the onlusion tht the optimum

operting point is given t mximum ooling pity @mximum throughput nd mximum ompressor speedAF

Remark RFV. eske et al. @PHHVA mentioned erlier tht for some plnts nd mrket onditions @e.g.D lrge sles prieA the eonomi optimum nd the mxE
imum throughput point lmost greeF gonsidering the sgy yleD tensen nd kogestd @PHHWA me to similr onlusionsF

IQW

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

4.B Evaporation process model

he hei of the evportion proess is given y

d L2 dt d X2 dt d p2 dt T2

1 (F1 F4 F2 ) 20.0 1 = (F1 X1 F2 X2 ) 20.0 1 = (F4 F5 ) 4.0 = 0.5616 p2 + 0.3126 X2 + 48.43 =

@RFVA @RFVA @RFVA @RFVdA @RFVeA @RFVfA @RFVgA @RFVhA @RFViA @RFVjA @RFVkA @RFVlA

T3 = 0.507 p2 + 55.0 1 F4 = (Q100 0.07 F1 (T2 T1 )) 38.5 T100 = 0.1538 p100 + 90.0 Q100 = 0.16 (F1 + F3 ) (T100 T2 ) 1 F100 = Q100 36.6 T3 T200 Q200 = 0.9576 F200 0.14 F200 + 6.84 T3 T200 T201 = T200 + 13.68 0.14 F200 + 6.84 1 Q200 . F5 = 38.5
he opertionl onstrints red

35 % + 0.5 % X002 40 k p002 p100 F200 F001 F003

@RFWA

0 kg/min 0 kg/min

400 k

80 k

@RFWA @RFWA @RFWdA @RFWeA @RFWfA

0 kg/min

400 kg/min 100 kg/min. 20 kg/min

4.C Model reduction

uppose tht the suset U mong the w set W U is spend in order to (x dditionl gs represented y H U R|U |ny F hen the oe0ient mtries of IRH

fsfvsyqer the sGy model nd the ressins need to e trnsformed in order to solve the gh prolem for the remining w set V = W\U F plitting u into uU nd uV D @QFPA n e written s

y = Gy U uU + Gy V uV + Gy d + ny . u u d
prom nd @RFIHA one otins

@RFIHA

H U y = c = cs = 0

1 1 uU = H U Gy U H U Gy V uV + H U Gy U H U Gy d u u u d
=GuU V
u

=Gd U

snserting this result into @RFIHAD the oe0ient mtries nd noise of the redued model red Gy V red = Gy U GuU + Gy V uV u u u y = Gy GuU + Gy G

1 + H U Gy U H U ny . u
=GnU y
u

n |red =

d y

red

uU Gy U u

d GuU ny

n + ny .

imilrlyD the redued ressins

n e otinedF

T JuV uV |red = GuU JuU uU GuU + JuV uV uV uV u T U JuV d |red = GuV JuU d + JuV d

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IRS

grei RF egsgev evsgesyx yp gh wiryh

IRT

Chapter 5 Operability analysis of LNG liquefaction processes

sn ghpter RD ontrol strutures for vxq liqueftion proesses hve een proposed nd judged with respet to stedyEstte eonomi mesuresF st is importnt to note tht in this ontext the term ontrol struture refers to set of ontrol vriles @gsA whih re omintions of mesurle proess vriles @sAF enother design issue whih is the sujet of this hpter is the mpping etween mnipulted vriles @wsA nd gs for deentrlized ontrolF sn order to distinguish it from the term ontrol strutureD the term ontrol strtegy is introduedF st refers to the entity of the three design spetsD seletion of g setD seletion of w set nd the piring etween gs nd wsF he dynmi ehvior of deentrlized ontrolled proess depends on theses three design spetsF his setion is onerned with omprison of pulily know nd newly derived ontrol strutures in terms of dynmi mesuresF his is referred to s operility nlysis ording to the de(nition of ol' @IWWRD pF RAF

5.1 Related work

everl hFhF students suh s ol' @IWWRAY rvre @tn IWWVA nd @vushD IWWWA dedited their work to the operility nlyses of hemil proessesF ht operility nlysis is not only n demi (eld is proven y vrious industril pplitionsF por instneD @ppD IWWRA desries how inherently d or even instle piring omintions n e reognized t n erly stge of plnt onstrution projet of n ir seprtion unitF re ompred omE petitive piring strutures with frequeny dependent mesures nd proved his result y the use dynmi simultionF yperility nlysis nd ontrol design of vxq liqueftion proesses hve een onsidered y wndler nd frohu @xov IWWUAY wndler et al. @wy IWWVA nd ingh nd rovd @PHHTGHWGPVEPWAF wndler nd frohu @xov IWWUAY wndler et al. @wy IWWVA proposed ontrol strtegies for the gQw proess nd me to the onlusion tht it is ene(il

IRU

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii to rethink the trditionl wy of ontrolling the vxq produt temperture y mnipultion of the vxq )ow rteF ingh nd rovd @PHHTGHWGPVEPWA onE sidered the sgy yle @rie nd wortkoD IWWTGIPGQETA whose topology is similr to tht of the vsww yleF hynmil simultions of vxq liqueftion proesses hve een onsidered y vrious uthorsF he erly work of welen @yt IWWRA demonstrted modE elingD dynmi simultion nd ontrol of n ri networkF m @wr PHHPA developed rigorous dynmi model of gQw proess for the purpose of prediting the produtivity of ompound of trinsF ris ide ws to minimize the oilEo' sujet to ensured delivery to rndomly rriving vxq rriersF rmmer developed rigorous model of the wpg proess in the on(gurE tion of the rmmerfest plnt introdued in etion RFUF re foused rther on thermodynmiD mthemtil nd omputtionl spets thn on system nlysis nd proess ontrolF xote tht in etion SFSD the wpg proess in slightly di'erent on(gurtion thn tht in the work of rmmer is tken into ountF sn further work of yksinski nd henk @PHHUGHRG PREPUAD the gQw nd eE proesses were investigted y dynmil simultionsF wo events were studiedD propne yle dishrge event due to loss of ooling wter nd the trnsition from eE to gQw y tking the suooling @xPA yle out of opertionF

5.2 Motivation
vxq liqueftion proesses re dedited to one or two tsksF he mndE tory tsk is the preoolingD liqueftion nd suooling of the nturl gs to prede(ned tempertureF he optionl tsk is keeping the temperture of the preooled nturl gs (xed due to the seprtion of rrgsF roess ontrol of vxq liqueftion proesses is onerned with the relile nd tight omE plishment of these tsks under the in)uene of disturnesF es this prolem is somewht di0ult to ptureD the opertionl trgets nd relted operility mesures re tegorized nd listed in le SFIF rodut quntity hs een omprehensively onsidered in ghpter QF rodut qulity refers to keeping the spei(tions of the produts within their tolernesD i.e.D temperture nd omposition of the vxqD despite disturnes ting on the proessF his is known s setpoint trking nd disturne rejetion nd mesures thereof re the qe nd the gvhq Gd D respetivelyF he term reliility refers to stle opertion despite of vrying disturnes nd ontroller filureD etc. elted mesures re the qe D the xsD the qe nd the gvhqF ersE tility reltes to the ese of hnging operting regionsF por instneD plnt

IRV

SFPF wysesyx gtegory rodut quntity rodut qulity ypertionl trgets wximizing vxq throughput ueeping vxq temperture in tight ounds ueeping nturl gs preooling temperture in tight ounds insuring superheted refrigernt t ompressor inlet evoiding too low sution pressureb reventing from driver overlodb insuring stility insuring integrity of ontrol loops roviding fst trnsition etween stedyEstte modes evoiding tive limittions of ws roviding independene on sGy diretions wesuresa Lwc D Lav

D G d D G d D G d D G d D G d xs r
w gxD hgx

eliility

erstility

a Readers not familiar with these operability measures are b Out of scope as compressor regulation is disregarded.

referred to Appendix 5.A.

le SFIX ypertionl trgets whih hs smll fesile operting region @wA is not onsidered verstile1 F purtherD plnt whih needs long settlement times when hnging etween opE erting points @rA or whose gins depend strongly on the diretions @gxD hgxA is neither onsidered verstileF e rief survey of operilty mesures is given in eppendix SFeF es introdued in etion RFRFID the mjor hs ting on vxq liqueftion proesses re mient tempertureD vxq setpoint temperture nd ompressor regultionF e further h is the omposition of the feed gs whih hppens to hnge onsiderly due to reliqueftion of oilEo' gs generted during ship lodingF eliqueftion of oilEo' gs eomes populr s more nd more operting ompnies follow zero )ring poliyF huring ship lodingD the ship return gs needs to e reompressed for feeding it into the nturl gs upstrem of the vxq liqueftion proessF his disturne in nturl gs omposition is disontinuous nd ts on the proess only during limited time frmeF he e'et of reliqueftion of oilEo' gs is tken into ount in this workF st
1
This is sometimes referred to as exibility or static resiliency (Lima et al., 2010).

IRW

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii is represented y the ftor {0, 1}D wheres vlue of I refers to lighter nturl gsD i.e.D to the se of reliqueftion of oilEo' gsF

5.3 General considerations

pundmentl limittions on the ndwidth of ontrolled systems re introE dued y rs lose to the imginry xis nd y time delysF uppose tht none of oth is present in plnt modelF he question rises whether the plnt is then relly limittion freec sn most sesD the nswer is no due to modelEplnt mismth whih usully inreses with frequenyF por instneD shok wves in pipingGequipment whih t on firly short time sle re genE erlly not modeled @the momentum lne is often ssumed qusiEsttionryA for the ske of simpliity nd omputtionl lod redutionF eordinglyD lE though no fundmentl limittions n e found in the plnt modelD it my e onvenient to impose lumped limittion in order to ount for unmodeled e'etsF sn this workD the most dominnt modeling inury is proly due to disE regrding piping in the modelsF purther soure of error my e ri model simpli(tions whose e'ets on dynmil model ury re disussed in eE tion PFRFSFPF e lumped time dely of PH s is ssumed for ll vxq liqueftion proesses onsidered hereF his reltes to n upper limit on the hievle ndwidth of fb < 0.008 rz (b < 0.05 rd/s)F st must e stressed tht this ndwidth limittion inludes other unmodeled e'ets suh s vlve dynmis etc.D predominntly present t smll time slesF his prtie is in greement with tht of ingh nd rovd @PHHTGHWGPVEPWA nd leds to more generl onE lusionsF por instneD vlve dynmis depend on the prtiulr (ttingGdriver rhiteture whose dynmis orrelte with the time sle of the plntF ell investigtions in frequeny domin re performed within the intervl 106 , 102 rzF he upper ound reltes to the ndwidth disussed oveF vxq plnt dynmis do not our elow the lower limitF fesidesD every proE ess simultor hs limited omputtionl ury whih limits the frequeny nd likewiseF por instneD n integrtor in omplex yssw )owsheet generlly reltes to pole very lose to ut not extly t the origin of the omplex plneF hynmil model nlyses of yle proesses revel tht these models genE erlly inlude s mny poles nd zeros t the origin < 106 of the omplex plne s there re omponents in the refrigerntF he relting sttes refer to the totl msses of speies in the yle whih re onstnt nd thus unontrolE lle @dosing nd venting is disregrdedAF gonsequentlyD the dynmi order of the model n e redued y the numer of omponents without 'eting

ISH

SFRF vsww
Type MVs DVs Cand. CVs

ggvi
Var. FP F1 F2 Z TA S TP TN SH FS FR Description LNG ow rate (in mol/s) MHMR ow rate (in mol/s) LMR ow rate (in mol/s) IGV angles (in ) Ambient temperature (in K) Ship return gas [0, 1] LNG temperature (in K) Precooled natural gas temp. (in K) Degree of superheating (in K) LMR plus HMR ow rate (in mol/s) LMR & HMR ow rate relation Nom. point 644.1 410.9 621.7 20.0 296.0 0.0 111.66 239.6 10.0 1434.6 1500.1 Span 60 40 60 40.0 10.0 1.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 140 150

le SFPX sGy vriles of the stteEspe model of the vsww

0.025 0.020 Imaginary axis (in rad/s) 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 -0.005 -0.010 -0.015 -0.020 -0.025 -0.05 -0.04 -0.03 -0.02 -0.01 Real axis (in rad/s) -0.00 Zeros Poles

yle

pigure SFIX oleEzero spetrum of the redued stteEspe model of the vsww yle

model uryF

5.4 LIMUM cycle

he gol of this setion is to ompre lterntive ontrol strtegies of the vsww yle with respet to their dynmil ehviorF wodel nlysis is done in etion SFRFIF he ontrol strtegies relte to ontrol strutures found in etion RFT omined with the est sGy piring whih is so fr unknownF he est piring of the gyx nd the gywf strtegy is identi(ed in etion SFRFP nd SFRFQD respetivelyF sn etion SFRFR oth re ompred with eh otherF

ISI

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

5.4.1 Dynamic model analysis

he sme model s in etion RFT ws onsideredF he sGy vriles of the model together with their spn for sling purposes re given in le SFPF fy the use of the ntelides lgorithm @ntelides et al.D IWVVA it ws veri(ed tht the heis re index freeF e liner stteEspe model ws extrted from the yssw model whih onsisted of PUS ordinry di'erentil equtionsF fy the use of the ulmn deomposition the miniml reliztion of the stteEspe model ould e identi(edF pive ontrollleGunoservle nd RH unontrolE lleGunoservle modes where elimintedF PH out of PI poles nd zeros lose to the origin where not neled y the ulmn deomposition s they hve onsiderle reltive devition from eh otherD i.e.D they re distriuted in the intervl [1, 1] 1010 rd/sF hisregrding the modes lose to the origin led to stle redued model with TIH modes @wwilln degreeD kogestd nd ostlethwiteD PHHSD he(nition RFQAF en extrt of the poleEzero spetrum of the redued model is presented in pigure SFIF xot shown re poles nd zeros with mgnitude lrger thn b = 0.05 rd/sF xote tht the lower nd upper limit of mgnitudes of the poleEzero spetrum in the left plne ws found to e 1.6 nd 9.6 104 rd/sD respetivelyF wo rs t 0.058 nd 0.145 rd/s re not indited s they re eyond b nd do not impose dditionl funE dmentl limittions on ontrolF pigure SFP shows the openEloop frequeny response from ws to ndidte gsF st n e onluded tht due to fst )ow dynmisD the pirs p pD r pI nd p pIGpP hve good use nd e'et over the whole onsidered frequeny nd nd deouple from other pirs ner rossover frequenyF

5.4.2 CONV strategy

hue to override ontrolD i.e.D either x or r is tively ontrolledD two ses must e onsideredF ih se hs three pirings with negtive xiederlinski indexF hese pirings n e disregrded s they re losedEloop instleF por eh se only one piring of the omplete ndidte set yields positive qe elements over the frequeny dominF he qe elements for these pirings re shown in pigure SFQ nd F foth qes re promising for the seleted pirings sD fter rerrngementD they re lose to identity t ndwidth frequenyF purtherD oth pirings hve positive xiederlinski index whihD together with positive qe elementsD prove tht integrity is stis(ed @hu nd tutnD IWWTAF portuntelyD the pirings for oth ses re omptile with eh otherD i.e.D the gs involved in the override ontrol re relted to the sme wF roweverD t low frequenies the qe elements for tive x re reltively lrge whih indites onsiderle intertions of the loops t stedyEstte opertionF st

ISP

SFRF vsww

ggvi
Magnitude (in dB) TP <= FP FS <= FP TN <= FP SH <= FP FR <= FP 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Magnitude (in dB) TP <= F1 FS <= F1 TN <= F1 SH <= F1 FR <= F1 5 -5 -15 -25 -35 -45 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 TP <= F2 FS <= F2 TN <= F2 SH <= F2 FR <= F2

Magnitude (in dB)

10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10

200 150 100 50 0 -50 -100 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

200 150 100 50 0 -50 -100 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

200 150 100 50 0 -50 -100 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

Phase (in deg)

Phase (in deg)

(a) FP

(b) F1

Phase (in deg)

(c) F2

pigure SFPX prequeny response from ws to ndidte gs for the vsww yle n e onluded tht the est piring of the gyx struture is given y

{x, h} pI
p pP

nd is referred to s the {gyxI, gyxP} strtegyD respetivelyF he seleted pirings re further supported from proess understnding y their physilly loseness nd good use nd e'etF woreoverD they re prtilly proven s they hve een frequently implemented in the pstF en dditionl onlusion whih n e drwn from the qe is tht the modE els of othD the gyxI nd gyxP strtegyD do not su'er from unertinty ner ndwidth s the lrgest qe entries hve mgnitudes round oneF por the stedyEstte model it holds lmost the sme exept for some pirings in the gyxI model whih hve lrger mgnitude ut smller thn seven whih is onsidered unritilF

5.4.3 COMB strategy

es for the gyx strutureD there is lso only one set of pirings given y p p pP r pI

ISQ

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

7 6 Real part 5 4 3 2 1 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

TP <= FP FS <= F2 TN <= F1

1.35 1.30 1.25 1.20 1.15 1.10 1.05 1.00 0.95 0.90 0.85 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

TP <= FP FS <= F2 SH <= F1

1.4 1.2 Real part 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)
(c) COMB

TP <= FP SH <= F1 FR <= F2

(a) CONV, TN active

Real part

(b) CONV, SH active

pigure SFQX yverll positive qe elements for ontrol strutures of the vsww yle

whih provides positive qe elements over the onsidered frequeny ndF he respetive qe elements of this so lled gywf strtegy re presented in pigure SFQF he gywf strtegy does not violte importnt requirements suh s physil loseness nd good use nd e'etF nfortuntelyD two elE ements of its rerrnged qe diverge from identity t rossover frequeny whih indites tht fst ontrol my use interferene etween two loopsF his ehvior is due to the ove mentioned e'et tht high gin from p towrds p is mintined t ndwidth frequeny nd thus interferes with the other seleted pirs p nd p pPF fesides qeD other resons n e identi(ed why other pirings suh s r pP nd pP re foridden for othD the gyx nd the gywf strutureF es suggested y the @sledA frequeny response plot in pigure SFPD t low frequenies the gin from pP towrds r nd is very smll inditing sturtion of the gt vlveF sn ontrst to pP towrds nd rD ll nominted pirings show onsiderly lrger stedyEstte ginsF wodel unertinty is not n issue s the mximum qe entries do not signi(ntly exeed the mgnitude of one within the investigted dominF

5.4.4 Comparison
p to frequenies of 104 rzD the w of the gyxI model is 2102 wheres the ws of the gyxP nd the gywf model re oth 101 F he ft tht ll ws re elow one indites tht stedyEstte w sturtion poses prolem for ll strtegies @most severely for gyxIAF he gxs of the gyxID the gyxP nd the gywf model re in the order of 102 D 101 nd 101 D respetivelyD for frequenies smller 104 rzF ith one order of mgnitude smller stedyE

ISR

SFRF vsww

ggvi
TP <= S TP <= TA TP <= Z FS <= S FS <= TA FS <= Z TN <= S TN <= TA TN <= Z 10 10 Magnitude 10 10 10
1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

10 10 10 10

2 1 0 -1 -2

TP <= S TP <= TA TP <= Z FS <= S FS <= TA FS <= Z SH <= S SH <= TA SH <= Z

10 10 10 10

1 0 -1 -2 -3

TP <= S TP <= TA TP <= Z SH <= S SH <= TA SH <= Z FR <= S FR <= TA FR <= Z

Magnitude

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(a) CONV1

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(b) CONV2

Magnitude

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(c) COMB

pigure SFRX histurne ompenstion for the vsww

yle

stte gxsD the gyxP nd the gywf strtegy re lso superior over the gyxI strtegy when onsidering dependene on sGy diretionsF he gyxI strtegy n e onsidered lmost illEonditionedF he stedyEstte hgxs given y gyxI gyxP p

[ [ [

7.7 2.1 3.7

e 7.0 2.1 4.4

1.7 2.6 3.8

] ] ]

indite tht the gyxP strtegy is the lest 'eted in its di0ult diretions y hsF he disturne ompenstion mesure G1 Gd is plotted in pigure SFR for ll strtegiesF he requirement G1 Gd ij < 1 is in ll ses violted when the h e is involvedF his suggests tht w onstrints pose prolem under in)uene of mient tempertureF xote tht the strongest violtion ours for the gyxI strtegy sD on the one hndD the violtion is of strongest mgnitude ndD on the other hndD ll three loops re 'etedF sn ontrstD for the gyxP nd gywf strtegy only one loop is signi(ntly out of rngeF he stedyEstte qes nd gvhqs Gd for the gyxID gyxP nd the gywf strtegy re given y

x p

4.9 44.4 7.4

x 0.6 6.9 1.8

p 0.3 3.1 1.8

0.0 0.2 0.0

e 1.7 17.7 2.7

0.2 0.5 0.8

ISS

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

10 10 10 10

2 1 0 -1 -2

TP <= TP TP <= FS TP <= TN FS <= TP FS <= FS FS <= TN TN <= TP TN <= FS TN <= TN

10 10 10 10

1 0 -1 -2 -3

TP <= TP TP <= FS TP <= SH FS <= TP FS <= FS FS <= SH SH <= TP SH <= FS SH <= SH

10 10 Magnitude 10 10 10

2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

TP <= TP TP <= SH TP <= FR SH <= TP SH <= SH SH <= FR FR <= TP FR <= SH FR <= FR

Magnitude

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(a) CONV1

Magnitude

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(b) CONV2

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

pigure SFSX qes for the vsww 1.3 4.7 3.2 r 0.1 1.3 0.3 p 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0

yle
e 0.0 1.7 7.5

(c) COMB

nd

r p

0.3 1.4 0.9 0.3 1.4 0.0

respetivelyF prom the stedyEstte qes it n e resoned tht for the gyxI strtegy ll s nd gs hve signi(nt intertionsD while for the gyxP nd gywf strtegy ouplings re only dominnt for setpoint towrds ll gsF prom stedyEstte qe nd qvhq it is expeted tht the performne in setpoint trking nd disturne rejetion of oth the gywf nd the gyxP strtegy re superior to tht of the gyxI strtegyF roweverD more onlusive re the qes nd gvhqs ner ndwidth frequeny whih follow from the hrts in pigure SFS nd SFTD respetivelyF ith few exlusionsD ll strtegies hve similr qe nd gvhq entries ner ndwidth frequenyF he lrgest entries of the qe ner ndwidth re in eh se relted to the setpointF hey do not fll elow I nd onsequently put high requirements on the losedEloop ndwidthF gonsidering the gvhqD it is striking tht the h imposing the highest requirements on the losed loop ndwidth is e for ll sesF et ndwidthD ll gvhq entries for ll ses re less equl IF he h n e identi(ed s hving the lest e'et on ll gs for ll strtegies nd frequeniesF sh ontroller tuning ws performed sed on performne requirements for

r p

1.4 4.7 3.1

r 0.1 1.3 0.1

p 0.0 0.0 1.0

0.0 0.0 0.0

e 0.0 1.7 2.9

IST

SFRF vsww

ggvi
TP <= S TP <= TA TP <= Z FS <= S FS <= TA FS <= Z TN <= S TN <= TA TN <= Z 10 10 Magnitude 10 10 10
1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

10 10 Magnitude 10 10 10

2 1 0 -1 -2 -3

TP <= S TP <= TA TP <= Z FS <= S FS <= TA FS <= Z SH <= S SH <= TA SH <= Z

10 10 10 10

1 0 -1 -2 -3

TP <= S TP <= TA TP <= Z SH <= S SH <= TA SH <= Z FR <= S FR <= TA FR <= Z

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(a) CONV1

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(b) CONV2

Magnitude

10 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

pigure SFTX gvhqs for the vsww

yle

(c) COMB

setpoint trking nd disturne rejetion s proposed in eppendix SFfF por eh se the prolem @SFIHA through @SFIHA were solved for every individul loop susequentlyF e qw of two nd lower limittion on the integrtion time of THH s were imposedF he resulting loop trnsfer funtions Lii i re inluded s guide lines in pigures SFS nd SFTF st n e onluded tht setpoint trkE ing nd disturne rejetion n e hieved in time horizon of few hours @orresponding to losedEloop ndwidth of 104 rz nd time onstnt of (rst order lg of ITHH sAF he frequeny dependent hq @not plottedA reveled tht the intertions etween the loops inrese the e'et of hs to gs more severely for gyxI thn for the gyxP nd the gywf strtegyF wost striking is the stedyEstte inrese in the e'et from e towrds of one order of mgnitude for the gyxI strtegyF ell mesures used in the evlution up to now re sed on the liner model of the vsww yleF gonsequentlyD the drwn onlusions must not neesE srily hold in generlF hereforeD it is neessry to hek nonliner e'ets with rigorous dynmi simultion in yssw F his lso serves s (nl ssessE ment on the qulity of the deentrlized s ontrol strutureF pour losedEloop dynmi simultion runs were performedF por dynmi simultions set of heis is solved using fully impliit kwrd di'erentition formul methodF por either strtegy the performne of setpoint trking nd disturne reE jetion were investigtedF he results re presented in pigure SFU nd SFVD respetivelyF por veri(tion of setpoint trking of the gyx strtegyD the xD p nd setpoints were susequently hnged y +2 uD +145 mol/s nd 0.5 uD respetivelyD fter intervls of 104 sF st ws required tht r is lwys lrger thn IH in order to void swithing from gyxI to gyxP nd give etter omprison etween the gyxI nd the gywf strtegyF por p nd

ISU

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

2 1 Nominal deviation 0 -1 -2 -3 -4

FS <= {TN_SP,FS_SP,TP_SP} TP <= {TN_SP,FS_SP,TP_SP} TN <= {TN_SP,FS_SP,TP_SP}

5000

10000

15000 Time (in s)

20000

25000

30000

(a) CONV strategy

2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0

Nominal deviation

SH <= {SH_SP,FR_SH,TP_SH} FR <= {SH_SP,FR_SH,TP_SH} TP <= {SH_SP,FR_SH,TP_SH}

5000

10000

15000 Time (in s)

20000

25000

30000

(b) COMB strategy

pigure SFUX led simultion results of losedEloop responses due to setpoint steps for the vsww yle

D the setpoint trking ours fst nd tightF efter SHHH sD oth setpoints hieve their stedyEstte trgetF roweverD s indited y the smll wD the setpoint for x nnot e held fter the seond nd third setpoint step due to w sturtion of pI nd prtly pF snsted of the setpoint steps of x nd pD equivlent steps of r y +2 u nd p y +150D respetivelyD were performed for the gywf strtegyF he imposed setpoints were hieved fst nd tightlyF elso fter time intervls of 104 sD the disturne vritions of eD nd y +4 uD +40 nd CI were imposedF es in the setpoint trking results for the gyx strtegyD p nd ould e kept t their envisged trgets wheres x signi(ntly dropped out of sope due to w sturtion of pI nd pF he gywf strtegy mnged to reover the ontrol trgets t stedyEstteF ell trnsitions were ompleted in less thn SHHH s nd verify the estimted time onstnt of ITHH sF es suggested y the gvhq mesureD 'ets the proess only mrginllyF

ISV

SFSF wpg
1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0 Nominal deviation

ygi
FS <= {TA,Z,S} TP <= {TA,Z,S} TN <= {TA,Z,S}

5000

10000

15000 Time (in s)

20000

25000

30000

(a) CONV strategy

1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 -1.5 -2.0

Nominal deviation

SH <= {TA,Z,S} FR <= {TA,Z,S} TP <= {TA,Z,S}

5000

10000

15000 Time (in s)

20000

25000

30000

(b) COMB strategy

pigure SFVX led simultion results of losedEloop responses due to disturE ne 'etion for the vsww yle

5.4.5 Conclusions
prom n operility stndpointD the gyxP nd gywf strtegy re lmost equivlent with the tendeny tht gyxP strtegy performs slightly etterF foth n e onsidered superior to the gyxI strtegyF ht ws lredy indited from the stedyEstte onsidertions is tht the trgets of ontrolling nd x on)it with eh other with respet to the given set of wsF sf rrg seprtion t this position is neessryD ypss round the suooler my e n option for inresing verstility of the proessF

5.5 MFC process

sn this setionD the dynmi ehvior of lterntive ontrol strtegies of the wpg proess re investigtedF he ontrol strtegies relte to ontrol struE tures found in etion RFU omined with the est sGy piring yet to e idenE ti(edF he est piring of the gyx nd the gywf strtegy is identi(ed in etion SFSFP nd SFSFQF sn etion SFSFR oth re ompred with eh otherF

5.5.1 Dynamic model analysis

he dynmi model of the wpg proess disussed here grees with the one introdued in etion RFUF wo ontrol strutures re ompredD the gyx nd

ISW

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

Type MVs Var. FP F1 F2 F3 C1 C2 C3 N TA TP TN T3 F3 P1 P2 P3 S1 S2 S3 FR PL PS Description LNG ow rate (in mol/s) PC ow rate (in mol/s) LC ow rate (in mol/s) SC ow rate (in mol/s) PC compression ratio LC compression ratio SC compression ratio Compressor speed (in RPM) Ambient temperature (in K) LNG temperature (in K) Precooled natural gas temp. (in K) SC temp. after liqueer (in K) MVs PC discharge pressure (in bar) LC discharge pressure (in bar) SC discharge pressure (in bar) PC superheating (in K) LC superheating (in K) SC superheating (in K) PC & LC ow rate relation (mol/s) LC pressure relation (in bar) SC pressure relation (in bar) Nom. point 27411 36172 26464 17572 3.6 6.2 13.4 3000 298.15 109.3 256.5 202.9 23.2 25.5 46.2 10.0 10.0 10.0 9707.9 -1.72 6.96 Span 2700 3600 2600 1700 0.7 1.2 2.7 90 10.0 2.0 5.0 5.0 2.3 2.6 4.6 5.0 5.0 5.0 1000 2.6 4.6

DVs Cand. CVs

le SFQX sGy vriles of the stteEspe model of the wpg

yle

the gywf strutureF wsD hs nd gs of the proess t nominl operting point inluding their spn for sling purposes re summrized in le SFQF he ntelides lgorithm @ntelides et al.D IWVVA pplied to the yssw model reveled tht the model is indexEfreeF he yssw model ws exE ported into liner stteEspe model with UPP ordinry di'erentil equtionsF hree unontrollleGoservle nd WS unontrollleGunoservle modes were identi(ed y the pplition of the ulmn deompositionF st is noteworE thy tht eh of the three yles rries seven speies yielding PI unontrolE lleGoservle modes referring to the invrint totl hrge of eh speiesF eordinglyD IV of PI poleEzero pirs ner the origin were not identi(ed due to their reltive o'set of severl orders mgnitude@their solute mgnitudes of were distriuted within the intervl 1017 , 1011 rd/sAF his is due to the ft tht the solution of the yssw model hs ertin numeril E ury whih is trnsferred to the liner stteEspe modelF hisregrding the poleGzero pirs t the origin led to wwilln degree of UHRF en extrt of the poleGzero spetrum in the prtilly relevnt intervl [0, b ] is show in pigure SFWF he omplete poleGzero spetrum in the left hnd plne is disE

ITH

SFSF wpg
0.025 0.020 Imaginary axis (in rad/s) 0.015 0.010 0.005 0.000 -0.005 -0.010 -0.015 -0.020 -0.025 -0.05

ygi
Zeros Poles

-0.04

-0.03 -0.02 -0.01 Real axis (in rad/s)

-0.00

pigure SFWX oleEzero spetrum of the redued stteEspe model of the wpg proess

triuted within the intervl 10.03, 3.45 103 rd/sF wo rs our t 5.9 102 nd 0.27 rd/sF foth re outside the ndwidth ndD thusD do not impose dditionl fundmentl limittions on ontrol performne of the systemF

5.5.2 CONV
he gyx struture possesses three override ontrol loops to ensure tht omE pressor inlet is lwys ove minimum superheting oundF husD there re 3 3 i=1 Ci = 8 struturl omintions whih need to e veri(edF por the ske of simpliityD only oundry ses re onsidered hereD i.e.D the gyxI se in whih ll loops re in regulr opertion nd the gyxP se in whih ll loops re overridden suh tht ID P nd Q re tiveF prom the frequeny depenE dent qe of the gyxI nd the gyxP struture the prtilly proven pirings

{x, I} pI {Q, P} pP {pQ, Q} pQ

I gI P gP Q gQ

n e stisftorily on(rmedF he digonl entries of the rerrnged qe re indited in pigure SFIH nd F por the gyxI strutureD there is only

ITI

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

1.5

Real part

Real part

1.0

1.0

Real part

TP <= FP TN <= F1 T3 <= F2 P1 <= C1 P2 <= C2 P3 <= C3

1.5

TP <= FP S1 <= F1 S2 <= F2 S3 <= F3 P1 <= C1 P2 <= C2 P3 <= C3

2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6

TP <= FP S1 <= F1 S2 <= F2 S3 <= F3 FR <= C1 PL <= C2 PS <= C3

0.5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2

0.5
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2

10

10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

10

10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

0.4 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(a) CONV1

(b) CONV2

(c) COMB

pigure SFIHX higonl qe elements of the est pirings for the wpg

yle

one resonle lterntiveD given y Q pID x pP whih provides etter stedyEstte qe entriesF roweverD the entries drop shrply towrds zero t ndwidth nd re thus not fvorleF he openEloop frequeny responses for the seleted pirings re presented in pigure SFII nd F hose responses with frequeny invrint gins or no sGy e'et re ignoredF he pir p is the only whih shows signi(nt lgD i.e.D gin redution ner ndwidthF his is resonle s othD ompression rtio nd refrigernt )ow rtesD hve fst e'ets on sution pressure nd the sution pressure in turn hs fst e'et on the shellEside refrigernt tempertures in ll ri undles simultneouslyF he sensile het of the ri metl hs minor e'et on the shellEside temperturesF sn ontrstD the e'et of p towrds is slow s only het trnsfer nd het pity rte of the nturl gs strem re 'eted whih tke e'et initilly t the inlet of the (rst ri nd propgte through ll susequent ri undles with veloity determined y mss nd het pity of the metlF he sGy gins orresponding to the ws pI nd pP re onsiderly smller for gyxI thn for gyxPF elso interesting to remrk is the ft tht the sGy gins of equivlent pirsD e.g.D I gI nd P gPD show similr frequeny responses in terms of mgnitude nd phseF he gyxI nd the gyxP struture inluding the seleted pirings re referred to s gyxI nd gyxP strtegyD respetivelyD in the followingF por oth modelsD gyxI nd gyxPD model unertinty is smll s none of the qe entries9 mgnitudes grow lrger thn twoF

ITP

SFSF wpg

ygi
Magnitude (in dB)
TP <= FP TN <= F1 T3 <= F2 P1 <= C1 P2 <= C2 P3 <= C3

Magnitude (in dB)

10 0 -10 -20 -30 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 200 88 -25

TP <= FP S1 <= F1 S2 <= F2 -10 S3 <= F3 P1 <= C1 -20 P2 <= C2 -30 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 P3 <= C3 10 10 10 10 10 200 100 0

10 0

Magnitude (in dB)

10 0 -10 -20 -30 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 200 100 0

TP <= FP S1 <= F1 S2 <= F2 S3 <= F3

Phase (in deg)

Phase (in deg)

-138 -250 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

-100 -200 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(b) CONV2

Phase (in deg)

-100 -200 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 10 10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

(a) CONV1 (eects of F3 disregarded)

(c) COMB (eects of C1, C2, C3 disregarded)

pigure SFIIX prequeny response from ws to ndidte gs for the wpg proess

5.5.3 COMB
prom the frequeny dependent qe only one resonle piring omintion n e onludedF st is given y

p I pI P pP p gI v gP gQ Q pQ

nd is referred to s gywf strtegyF he openEloop frequeny responses of the digonl elements of the gywf strtegy whih re frequeny dependent re shown in pigure SFIIF hey re very similr to those of the gyxP strtegyF st is noteworthy tht model unertinty is not n issue s ll qe elements re smller thn two over the onsidered frequeny ndF

ITQ

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

10

Magnitude

Magnitude

10

Magnitude

10

TP <= TP TN <= TP TN <= T3 T3 <= TP P1 <= TP P2 <= TP P3 <= TP

10

10

TP <= TP S1 <= TP S1 <= P1 S2 <= TP S3 <= TP S3 <= S3 P1 <= TP P2 <= TP P3 <= TP

10

10

TP <= TP S1 <= TP S1 <= C1 S2 <= TP S2 <= C2 S3 <= TP S3 <= S3

10

10

-1

10

-6

10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

-5

-4

-3

-2

10

-1

10

-6

10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

-5

-4

-3

-2

10

-1

10

-6

10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

-5

-4

-3

-2

(a) CONV1

(b) CONV2

pigure SFIPX qes for the wpg

proess

(c) COMB

5.5.4 Comparison
he stedyEstte ws for ll strtegies re in the order of 101 F hile the w delines towrds 102 t ndwidth for the gyxI strtegyD it is lmost frequeny independent for the gyxP nd the gywf strtegyF gonsequentlyD stedyEstte w sturtion sttes prolem for ll strtegiesF he gx of the gyxI strtegy is 101 t stedyEstte nd rises to 102 ner ndwidthF eordinglyD strong dependeny on plnt diretions is only expeted t smll time slesF he gyxP nd gywf strtegy hve frequeny independent gxs of 5 101 nd 3 101 D respetivelyD nd re thus not onsidered illEonditionedF he stedyEstte hgx for the three strtegies re given y gyxI gyxP gg x 2.3 4.3 4.9 e 4.1 2.7 1.7

[ [ [

] ] ]

where the vlues for the gyxI strtegy tend to higher vlues towrds ndE width nd vie vers for the gyxP nd the gywf strtegyF he hgx (gures suggest tht none of the strtegies re severely 'eted in their di0ult diretions y hsF por ll strtegiesD the disturne ompenstion mesure G1 Gd hs only one element whih is signi(ntly lrger thn I within the frequeny ndF he pir x e @gyxI strtegyA hs vlue of RFS nd the pir I e @gyxP nd gywf strtegyA hs vlue of PFT nd IFSF hose qe nd gvhq elements whih re signi(ntly ove one within the frequeny nd re indited in the hrts of pigures SFIP nd SFIQD reE spetivelyF por ll strtegiesD the mjority of qeGgvhq elements hve mgnitudes elow one nd it n thus e expeted tht setpoint trking nd

ITR

SFSF wpg

ygi
TN <= TA 10
1

10

Magnitude

Magnitude

10

10

Magnitude

S1 <= N S1 <= TA S2 <= N S2 <= TA S3 <= N P1 <= TA

10

S1 <= N S1 <= TA S2 <= N S2 <= TA S3 <= N

0

10

10

-1

10

-6

10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

-5

-4

-3

-2

10

-1

10

-6

10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

-5

-4

-3

-2

10

-1

10

-6

10 10 10 10 Frequency (in Hz)

-5

-4

-3

-2

(a) CONV1

(b) CONV2

pigure SFIQX gvhqs for the wpg

proess

(c) COMB

disturne rejetion performne is reltively goodF tedyEstte loop interE tions re more dominnt for the gyxP nd the gywf strtegy thn for the gyxI strtegy s the mgnitudes of the lrgest qe elements vry y one order of mgnitudeF roweverD ner ndwidth this di'erene vnishes s intertions for gyxI inreseF ell in llD one n sy tht the strong intertions re dominted y the loop for ll strtegiesF por the gyxI strtegyD the mgnitude of only one gvhq entryD nmely tht of the pir x eD is mrginlly ove oneF sn ontrst for the gyxP nd the gywf strtegyD severl entries re more signi(ntly lrger thn oneF st is interesting to note tht for othD the gyxP nd the gywf strtegyD the I nd the P loops re mjorly 'eted y the disturnesF elso inluded in the qe nd gvhq plots re loop trnsfer funtions Lii iF he respetive sh ontroller prmeters were lulted sed on performne requirements for setpoint trking nd disturne rejetion s proposed in eppendix SFfF por eh se the prolem @SFIHA through @SFIHA ws solved for every individul loop susequentlyF e qw of two nd lower limittion on the integrtion time of THH s were imposedF por ll strtegiesD the lrgest loop trnsfer funtion reltes to the g F por the gyxI strtE egyD it n e onluded tht losedEloop ndwidth round 104 rz n e hieved @orresponding to time onstnt of (rst order lg of ITHH sA s t smller frequenies ll loop trnsfer funtions hve lrger mgnitudes thn their relted qe nd gvhq entriesF por the gyxP nd the gywf strtegy similr onlusion n e drwn lthough some of their qe nd gvhq entries re slightly lrgerF he three highest qe elements refer to loop whih hs the highest loop trnsfer funtion nd n thus e ompensted t ndwidth of 104 rzF he remining qe elements re rossed y the remining trnsfer loops ner the sme frequenyF roweverD the e'et of oth

ITS

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii disturnes on I n only e ompensted t somewht smller ndwidths thn for the gyxI strtegyD i.e.D somewhere in etween 105 nd 104 rzF he hq @not plottedA ws inspeted for ll strtegies in order to hek how the loop intertions 'et the disturne ginsF por the gyxI strtegyD it ws (gured out tht the loop intertions redue the disturne e'et for lmost every hGg pirF hose who re not redued re only inresed mrginlly y less thn ftor IFSF por othD the gyxP nd the gywf strtegyD most of the hq elements in the olumn for x re etween one nd twoF he lrgest element is the one of the pir Q x nd hs mgnitude of IHF portuntelyD the solute disturne gin of this struture is omprly smll s my e seen in pigures SFIQ nd F sn order to onsider nonliner e'ets nd for the veri(tion of the deentrlE ized s ontroller designD rigorous dynmi simultion of the losedEloop plnts were performed in yssw F he two hs ndD for the ske of reduing the e'ortD only two setpoint vriles were ltered for eh strtegyF por the gyx strtegyD the vxq setpoint temperture @A ws inresed y I uD the setpoint of the nturl gs temperture fter the preooler @xA ws inresed y P uD the mient temperture @eA ws inresed y S u nd the ompressor speed x ws inresed y TH wF he simultion reE sult is presented in pigure SFIRF pQ is feedEforwrd vrile nd thus not inditedF es the sfety mrgins for superheting hve not een violted the ontrol strtegy ws not swithed nd only the gyxI strtegy ws tiveF es suggested y the ontrollility mesuresD setpoint trking nd disturne rejetion shows very good performneF sn less thn SHHH s fter the setpoint or disturne 'etion @three times the proposed time onstntAD the ontrol gols n e onsidered s reoveredF por the gywf strtegyD similr experiment ws performed with the difE ferene tht insted of the setpoint step in the nturl gs tempertureD the setpoint of the superheting temperture of the g mixed refrigernt ws inresed y P uF he simultion result is presented in pigure SFIRF es sugE gested y the qe plot in pigure SFIPD there re signi(nt loop intertions etween nd I through QF his n e veri(ed y oservtion of step reE sponse used y the 'etion of F hile the setpoint of is hieved fst nd tightlyD I through Q re onsiderly devited nd need three times longer for returning to their nominl vlues s in the gyxI strtegyF

5.5.5 Conclusions
st ws shown tht from ontrollility stndpointD the gyxI strtegy shows eptle dynmil ehvior nd performs slightly etter thn the gyxP nd the gywf strtegyF gompring the gywf with the gyx strtegy

ITT

SFTF gyxgvsyx
1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 -0.2 -0.4 -0.6 -0.8 -1.0 TP <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N} TN <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N} T3 <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N} P1 <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N} P2 <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N} P3 <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N}

Nominal deviation

5000

10000

15000

20000 Time (in s)

25000

30000

35000

40000

(a) CONV strategy

2.0 1.5 Nominal deviation 1.0 0.5 0.0 -0.5 -1.0 TP <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N} S1 <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N} S2 <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N} S3 <= {TP_SP,TN_SP,TA,N}

5000

10000

15000

20000 Time (in s)

25000

30000

35000

40000

(b) COMB strategy

pigure SFIRX led simultion results of losedEloop responses due to setpoint trking nd disturne 'etion for the wpg proess

@gyxP overrides gyxIAD the di'erene in the dynmi ehvior is lmost negligileF prom the uthor9s point of viewD the loss in dynmil performne of the gywf strtegy is more thn ompensted y the eonomi dvntge outlined in setion RFUF elthough plnt sle etween the vsww nd the wpg se study vried drmtilly @ftor RHAD the plnt dynmis re in the sme order of mgnitudeF his indites tht ompeting e'ets on plnt dynmis ompenE ste eh otherF E.g.D equipment metl mss grows proportionlly with the het pity rte of the nturl gs nd mixed refrigernt stremsF

5.6 Conclusions
st ws proven y mens of dynmil mesures tht newly proposed ontrol strutures for the vsww yle @etion RFTA nd the wpg proess @eE tion RFUA n serve s proper replements of onventionl ontrol struturesF por eh strutureD the est piring in terms of intertions nd integrity hve een identi(ed yielding the orresponding ontrol strtegyF st ws (gured out tht the gywf strtegy for the vsww yle n e seen s etter replement due to etter setpoint trking nd disturne rejetion perE

ITU

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

ce Controller K c u d Plant [G G d] + nc _

cs

pigure SFISX gontrolled plnt formneF hue to override ontrolD the onventionl strtegy of the wpg proess onsists of eight struturlly di'erent on(gurtions nd is therefore di0ult to ssessF o keep the e'ort in hekD only two struturl lterntives representing the oundry ses were investigtedF st ws (gured out tht the newly proposed strtegy performs similrly ut not quite s good s the onventionl strtegyF

5.A Operability measures

fefore operility mesures n e introduedD the onept of ontrol needs to e lri(edF uppose the plnt is represented y the liner model

c = G (s) u + Gd (s) d + nc .
he sGy mtries of the plnt in the frequeny domin n e otined from liner stteEspe model vi the trnsformtion G (s) Gd (s) = C (s I A)1 B + D.

he plnt is ontrolled y feedk ontroller K (s) s illustrted in pigure SFISF fy simple lger the losedEloop response of the ontrol error

ce = S (s) cs + S (s) Gd d + T (s) nc

@SFIA

n e derivedF rereD the sensitivity nd omplementry sensitivity funtion re given y S (s) = (I + L (s))1 nd T (s) = I S (s) = (I + L (s))1 L (s)D respetivelyD where L (s) = G (s) K (s) is referred to s the loop trnsfer funtionF por the ske of simple nottionD the indition of the dependeny on s is dropped in the sequelF he idel se would e to hve S = 0D i.e.D vnishing setpoint devition nd perfet disturne rejetionD nd T = 0D i.e.D noise elimintionF es T + S = I lwys holdsD oth gols re ontrry nd for ontroller design ompromise etween oth must e mdeF portuntelyD noise nd ontrol usully t on

ITV

SFeF yiefsvs wiei di'erent nonEoverlpping time sles for hemil plnt opertionF I.e.D t short time sles @high frequeniesA where noise is presentD hemil plnt usully rets inertly nd ontrol is needlessF husD it is desirle to hve lim T = 0 whih is lwys provided s every rel system is stritly proper @kogestd nd ostlethwiteD PHHSD ppF VIAF et long time sles @low freE queniesAD it is desired tht ontrol is tiveD orresponding to lim0 S = 0F eording to kogestd nd ostlethwite @PHHSD ppF QVD VIAD ontrol is onsidE ered e'etive s long s the reltive error ce 2 / cs 2 (S) is resonly smllD preisely if (S) 21/2 F he smllest frequeny t whih (S) rosses 1/2 from elow is referred to s the ndwidth F et frequenies elow the 2 b ndwidthD the plnt n e ontrolled tightly s hnges in oth setpoints nd disturnes n e ompensted forF sn generlD the lrger the ndwidth of system the fster the time response ut the more vulnerle for noise it isF here re some other hrteristi frequenies nmely c D the rossover frequenyD nd bT D the ndwidth in terms of T F hey re oth de(ned for singleEinputEsingleEoutput @syA systems @kogestd nd ostlethwiteD PHHSD ppF QVERHA ut re sometimes used interhngely with b s they re loted lose to eh otherF ell mentioned hrteristi frequenies re properties of ontrolled plnt nd thus depend on ontroller designF roweverD properties of the open loop system impose restritions on the hievle ndwidth nd it is thus possile to predit losedEloop ehvior y studying the open loop plntF por this purposeD vrious mesures hve een proposedF en importnt seletion is rie)y relled in the sequelF st is importnt to stress tht with few exeptionsD the most mesures re prtiulrly meningful when they re evluted in the frequeny domin ner the ndwidthD i.e.D the upper frequeny ound t whih ontrol is supposed to e tiveF hereforeD it is prtiulrly vlule to hve good model of time delys nd dynmis ner ndwidthD espeilly r @ol'D IWWRD pF WAF

suresF lingof the sGy vriles is performed vi multiplitionof the ugE mented plnt G Gd with digonl sling mtriesD i.e.D diag 1/y , . . . 1 from the left nd diag u , . . . , d , . . . from the rightD where v represents 1 1 i the spn of the respetive vrile v i D suh tht the sled vrile v i /v is i within the intervl [1, 1]F sn this workD it is ssumed tht the llowed vriE tions of uD d nd y do not depend on frequeny nd therefore their spns n e onsidered frequeny independentF

Remark SFI. sGy sling is ruil for proper interprettion of the most meE

ITW

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii

5.A.1 RHPZ
e zero of multivrite system refers to frequeny z where the trnsfer funE tion G (s) or the osenrok mtrix of stteEspe system P (s) loses rnkF wore prtilly spokenD if system is stimulted y n w trnsient whih hs frequeny z D then the gs9 signls show liner dependeny whih mens tht the gs nnot e independently ontrolled from eh other nymoreF his e'et is due to internl ompeting e'ets whih my even use g sigE nl distintion s in the sy se where the rnk drops from I to HF st is importnt to note tht the prolem xz P (z) =0 uz n e trnsferred into generlized eigenvlue prolem whih my inlude solutions t in(nityF roweverD only (nite solutions re onsidered zeros of the systemF st must further e remrked tht zeros of multivrite systems re sometimes lled trnsmissionGmultivrile zeros in order to distinguish them from zeros of trnsfer funtion of n individul sGy pirF ight hnd plne zeros @rsA refer to zeros in the right hlf of the omE plex plneF wultivrile rs of plnt fundmentlly limit its hievle ndwidth regrdless of the pplied ontrollerF yne reson for this e'et is tht perfet ontrol is not possile s the ontroller would need n instle pole for r ompenstion whih is prtilly infesileF r in the trnsfer funtions of the digonl pirs of the rerrnged plnt re ostrutive if deentrlized ontrollers re usedD ut generlly do not pose prolem for multivrite ontrollersF he loser n r to the origin the more severe is its e'etF he losest r z domintes the upper limit on the hievle ndwidthD i.e.D b < z F wultivrile r re lwys relted to ertin sGy diretion nd re thus less severe s r of sy systemsD espeilly if they lie in g diretions where performne requirements re unritil @worri et al.AF

5.A.2 CN and DCN

he ondition numer @gxA of sled plnt G is de(ned s gx = (G) / (G) , where nd denotes the lrgest nd smllest singulr vlueD respetivelyF he gx indites the sensitivity from sGy diretions to sGy mgnitudeF por instneD if the gx is fr wy o' from its lower ound ID then n w vrition

IUH

SFeF yiefsvs wiei in one prtiulr diretion hs tiny e'et on the gs @in terms of PEnormA while in nother prtiulr diretion the g vrine my e hugeF e plnt with high gx is sid to e illEonditioned nd requires widely di'erent w mgnitudes depending on the diretion of the desired gsF kogestd nd worri @IWVUA introdued the disturne ondition numer @hgxA for h iD 1 X (Gd ) i 2 hgxi = (X) , (Gd )i 2

where X my e the openEloop gin G or the loop trnsfer funtion L nd (Gd )i indites the ith row of Gd F he disturne ondition numer hgxi revels how severe the h i 'ets the plnt in its di0ult diretionsF sn other wordsD it represents the rtio of w mgnitudes for disturne rejetion etween the ses when the ith unit disturne ts in the est nd in the worst diretion @orresponding to the gxAF he lower ound of the hgxi is I nd reltes to n esyEtoErejet hF es the gxD the hgx depends on slingF

5.A.3 Niederlinski index

xiederlinski @IWUIA proposed stedyEstte mesure for stility of deentrlE ized ontrolled plntsD the xiederlinski index xs = det G0 / (G0 )ii . @SFPA
i

he open loop stedyEstte plnt model G0 in @SFPA needs to e rerrnged suh tht the seleted pirings relte to the digonl entriesF e positive xs sttes neessry ut not su0ient ondition for stilityF he xs is therefore useful for exluding ndidte piringsF he xs is independent of ontroller prmetersF he only neessry ssumptions for derivtion of @SFPA is tht @iA the deentrlized ontrollers must inlude integrl ehvior @mostly the se in proess industryAD @iiA the open loop system is stle nd @iiiA eh loop is stle sujet to ll other loops openF

5.A.4 RGA
fristol @IWTTA introdued n importnt mesure of intertion in deentrlE ized ontrolled multivrite systemsD the reltive gin rry @qeA with the ompt expression = G GT . @SFQA

rereD denotes elementwise multiplition @rdmrdGhur produtAF he qe ws originlly de(ned for stedyEstteD ut ws extended to the frequeny

IUI

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii domin y wevoy @ep IWVQA who lso suggests referring to @SFQA s the fristol numerF st is importnt to stress tht the right hnd side of the produt is the regulr @not the onjugteA trnsposeF prom @SFQA it is evident tht the qe is only de(ned for squre plntsD ut @SFQA n e generlized for nonEsqure ones @kogestd nd ostlethwiteD PHHSD pF SPVAF gritis of the qe rgue tht the inverse of the plnt my e nonproper nd physil interprettion in terms of perfet ontrol is not stritly meningful exept t stedyEstteF he qe hs some interesting lgeri properties whih re omitted here for the ske of revityF he reder is referred to the work of kogestd nd rovd @IWWHGHSGPQEPSA or stndrd multivrite ontrol textooksD e.g.D kogestd nd ostlethwite @PHHSD pF SPUAF wore importnt is the interprettion of the qe nd the piring rule whih n e derived thereofF he {i, j} entry of the qe is mesure how the openEloop gin of the relted sGy piring @i.e.D uk = 0 k = j A is 'eted y losing other loops under the ssumption of perfet ontrol2 @i.e.D y k = 0 k = iAF his n e denoted y y i /uj |uk =0k=j G ij . ij = = y i /uj |y =0k=i 1/ G1 ji k

Denition 5.2.

st is preferred tht the open loop gins of seleted pirings of deentrlized ontrol struture re s lest s possile 'eted y losing other loopsF uh nonEinterting pirings refer to qe entries lose to oneF he more o' from one n qe entry3 D the more undesirle is the seletion of the relting pirF sf the o'Edigonl gins of @rerrngedA plnt re on oth sides of the digonl nonEzeroD then the plnt hs nonEidentity qe nd is lled intertiveF st is known tht intertive plnts with lrge qe elements re illEonditioned nd lose to singulr irrespetive of sGy slingF eording to kogestd nd rovd @IWWHGHSGPQEPSAD these plnts re fundmentlly di'erent to ontrol nd it is not reommended to use inverseEsed ontrollers @deouplersA for suh plnts s extreme sensitivity to w unertinty is expetedF he most unwnted sitution ours when the gins of prtiulr pirings hnge sign etween open nd losedEloop on(gurtionF his violtes integrity s instle opertion of the plnt my e used y ontroller sturtion or detivtion @due to filure or mnul mode opertionAF

Rule 5.3. Prefer pairings such that the rearranged system, with the selected
pairings along the diagonal, has an RGA close to identity at frequencies around
2 3
Note that the achievement of perfect control may only be sucient for frequencies smaller than the bandwidth. For nondiscriminatory judgment in each direction, it is recommended to measure the distance on a log scale.

IUP

SFeF yiefsvs wiei

the closed-loop bandwidth. For a stable plant avoid pairings that corresponds to negative steady-state RGA elements (Skogestad and Postlethwaite, 2005, p. 450).
eprt from piring seletion nd intertionD the qe provides further vluE le informtionF es pointed out y kogestd nd rovd @IWWHGHSGPQEPSAD smll vlues of the qe entries indite insensitivity to modeling errorF

5.A.5 PRGA, CLDG and RDG

hile the qe is very good for seleting promising piringsD it lks for pE propritely mesuring intertionsF his is due to the ft tht oneEwy inE terting plntsD i.e.D plnts with upperGlower tringulr sGy ginD possess n qe equl to identityF he performne reltive gin rry @qeA y rovd nd kogestd @IWWPAD = G G1 , @SFRA is etter mesure prtiulrly for oneEwy intertionsF por evlution of @SFRAD G must e rerrnged suh tht the seleted pirings relte to the diE gonl elementsF he digonl mtrix G possesses the sme digonl entries s GF yservtion of @SFRA revels tht the qe n e seen s normlE ized plnt inverseF he digonl entries of the qe gree with tht of the qe nd the o'Edigonls depend on g slingF he expression @SFRA n e motivted y onsidering the ftoriztion

1 rereD the digonl mtrix S = I + G K hs the importnt property tht S 0 if ontrol is e'etiveD whih holds for frequenies elow ndwidthF eording to @SFSAD it holds S S in this frequeny nd nd @SFIA n e
written s

1 S = I + S ( I) S .

@SFSA

gonsequentlyD lrger thn one o'Edigonl qe entries men tht the interE tions interfere eh other nd slow down the overll response in omprison to individul loop performneF ie versD smll o'Edigonl qe entries in omprison to one indite tht the relted loops support eh otherF iqution @SFTA gives lue to nother performne mesureD the losedEloop disturne gin @gvhqA Gd = Gd , @SFUA whih relies on h nd g slingF he gvhq is useful for determining

ce = S cs + S Gd d + I S nc .

@SFTA

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grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii the neessry ndwidth for disturne rejetionF I.e.D in order to rejet the ith h within the desired ndwidthD the elements in the ith olumn of S Gd must e smller thn one for frequeny up to ndwidthF eordinglyD pirings whih relte to smller gvhq entries re preferredF e onvenient mesure for identifying the hGg pirs whose gins re mE pli(ed or deilitted y intertions is the reltive disturne gin @hqA y tnley et al. @IWVSAD Gd Gd .

xote tht the opertor indites elementwise divisionF e hq entry with mgnitude smller thn one indites tht the single loops support eh other in rejeting the hF

5.A.6 MSV
efter simple lgerD eqution @SFIA n e written s

c = T cs S G d d T nc .
sf ontrol is tiveD it is T I F husD cs = c = G u whih implies4 cs 2 (G) u2 F enlogouslyD one n write u = G1 cs whih implies u2 G1 cs 2 = 1 (G) cs 2 F gomining these results yields

u2 1 1 . (G) cs 2 (G)

eordinglyD smll minimum singulr vlue @wA (G) indites tht the mgnitude of ontrol tion my e undesirly lrge due to setpoint hnge in ertin @dA diretion @worriD IWVQAF xote tht some uthors refer to (G) s the worri resilieny index @wsAF sf G is ppropritely sledD the ft (G) < 1 indites prolems with w onstrintsF wostly unwnted is of ourse long term w sturtionD i.e.D (G0 ) < 1D s setpoint trking trgets nnot e hieved t stedyEstteF st is interesting to note tht the design of selfEoptimizing ontrol strutures fvors lrge ws s n e seen y oservtion of @QFIRAF

5.B PID controller tuning

emong other tehnologiesD proportionlEintegrlEderivtive @shA ontrollers re still most dominntly pplied in industry @pproxF WH 7 shreD uno nd
4
Multiplicative analog of Weyl's inequalities (Horn and Johnson, 1990, Problem 18, pp. 423f ).

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SFfF sh gyxyvvi xsxq ygwD PHHWAF roweverD there is onfusing spetrum of singleEloop tuning rules for sh ontrollers ville in litertureF strm nd rgglund @IWWSA give omprehensive overview of sh tehnology nd review the most estE lished tuning rules suh s the erly one y ieglerExiholsF e more prtil guide is presented y wwilln @PHHHAF ingleEloop sh tuning is to dte (eld of reserh s shown y reent works of vee et al. @PHHHAD kogestd @PHHQAD uno nd ygw @PHHWA nd hmsuzzoh et al. @PHIHGHUGHSEHUAD mong othE ersF e detiled omprison of dvned tuning rules is provided y poley et al. @eug PHHSAF sn this workD sh ontroller synthesis is sed on setpoint trking nd disturne rejetion performne s disussed in the textook of kogestd nd ostlethwite @PHHSD ppF RRVERSIAF eording to themD good performne is hieved if |1 + Lii | > max |ip | , Gd @SFVA
p,q iq

n e otinedF tisftion of @SFVA my on)it with othD stility requireE ments nd the version to fst nd strong w 'etionF gonsidering sy loopsD it is well known tht losed loop stility is stis(ed if the ondition @fode9s stility riterionD kogestd nd ostlethwiteD PHHSD pF PUA

is ful(lledD where Lii (j 180 ) = 180 F sf 180 is undetermined in the onsidE ered frequeny ndD then 180 my e repled y the ndwidth frequeny b s plnt ehvior is unpreditle eyond b due to model unertintiesF xote tht the mrgin etween left nd right hnd side of @SFWA is referred to s the gin mrgin 1/qwD whih is typilly desired to e of mgnitude IGP @kogestd nd ostlethwiteD PHHSD pF QQAF he stted trgets n e formulted in terms of n optimiztion prolem for the tuning the ith sh ontroller loopF he proportionl nd the integrl prtD i nd i D respetivelyD re otined y solving

|Lii (j 180 )| < 1

@SFWA

{i , i } = arg min c i ,i ,c Gd (j k ) |Lii (j k )| c k sFtF 0 max |ip (j k )| ,

p,q iq

@SFIHA @SFIHA @SFIHA

0 |Lii (j 180 )| 1 +

1 qw

for ertin frequeny nd of interestD i.e.D usully k [0, b ] k F he solution of the ontroller synthesis prolem @SFIHA through @SFIHA

IUS

grei SF yiefsvs exevs yp vxq vsF ygii does not gurntee stility of the overll systemD i.e.D Re (i (S)) < 0D s loop intertions re not tken into ountF eording to @kogestd nd ostlethwiteD PHHSD heorem IHFQAD overll stility is stis(ed if the following three @neessry nd su0ientA onditions hold simultneouslyF IF he plnt G is stleF PF ih individul loop Lii is stleF 1 I S < 1 D where is the spetrl rdiusF QF G G G

he (rst is ruil for integrity nd holds for plnts onsidered in this workF he seond is ensured y the ontroller synthesis onstrint @SFIHAF he third needs to e heked susequently fter the solutions to prolem @SFIHA through @SFIHA hve een otined for ll pirsF

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