Tourism, Travel and Hospitality

Tourism is travel for recreational, leisure or business purposes. The World Tourism

Organizationdefines tourists as people who "travel to and stay in places outside their usual environment for more than twenty-four (24) hours and not more than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited." Tourism has become a popular global leisure activity. In 2008, there were over 922 million international tourist arrivals, with a growth of 1.9% as compared to 2007. International tourism receipts grew to US$944 billion (euro 642 billion) in 2008, corresponding to an increase in real terms of 1.8%.
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As a

result of the late-2000s recession, international travel demand suffered a strong slowdown beginning in June 2008, with growth in international tourism arrivals worldwide falling to 2% during the boreal summer months.
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This negative trend intensified during 2009, exacerbated in some countries due to the outbreak

of the H1N1 influenza virus, resulting in a worldwide decline of 4% in 2009 to 880 million international tourists arrivals, and an estimated 6% decline in international tourism receipts. Tourism is vital for many countries, and such as France, Egypt, Greece, United nations, such as The

States, Spain, Italy,Croatia and Thailand,

many island

Bahamas, Fiji, Maldives, Philippinesand the Seychelles, due to the large intake of money for businesses with their goods and servicesand the opportunity for employment in the service industries associated with tourism. These service industries include transportation services, such as airlines, cruise

ships and taxicabs,hospitality services, such as accommodations, including hotels and resorts, and entertainment venues, such as amusement parks, casinos, shopping malls, music venues and theatres. Etymology Theobald (1994) suggested that "etymologically, the word tour is derived from the Latin, 'tornare' and the Greek, 'tornos', meaning 'a lathe or circle; the movement around a central point or axis'. This meaning changed in modern English to represent 'one's turn'. The suffix ism is defined as 'an action or process; typical behavior or quality', while the suffix, ist denotes 'one that performs a given action'. When the wordtour and the suffixes ism and ist are combined, they suggest the action of movement around a circle. One can argue that a circle represents a starting point, which ultimately returns back to its beginning. Therefore, like a circle, a tour represents a journey in that it is a round-trip, i.e., the act of leaving and then returning to the original starting point, and therefore, one who takes such a journey can be called a tourist." In 1941, Hunziker and Krapf defined tourism as people who travel "the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are not connected with any earning activity."In 1976, the Tourism Society of England's definition was: "Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destination outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during the stay at each destination. It includes movements for all purposes." In 1981, the International Association of Scientific Experts in

Tourism defined tourism in terms of particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home. In 1994, the United Nations classified three forms of tourism in its Recommendations on Tourism Statistics: Domestic tourism, involving residents of the given country traveling only within this country. Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling in the given country. Outbound tourism, involving residents traveling in another country.

History Wealthy people have always traveled to distant parts of the world, to see great buildings, works of art, learn new languages, experience new cultures and to taste different cuisines. Long ago, at the time of the Roman Republic, places such as Baiae were popular coastal resorts for the rich. The word tourism was used by 1811 and tourist by 1840. In 1936, the League of Nations defined foreign tourist as "someone traveling abroad for at least twenty-four hours". Its successor, the United Nations, amended this definition in 1945, by including a maximum stay of six months. Leisure travel Leisure travel was associated with the Industrial Revolution in the United Kingdom the first European country to promote leisure time to the increasing industrial population.
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Initially, this applied to

the owners of the machinery of production, the economic oligarchy, the factory owners and the traders. These comprised the new middle class. Cox & Kings was the first official travel company to be formed in 1758. The British origin of this new industry is reflected in many place names. In Nice, France, one of the first and best-established holiday resorts on the French Riviera, the long esplanade along the seafront is known to this day as the Promenade des Anglais; in many other historic resorts in continental Europe, old, well-established palace hotels have names like the Hotel Bristol, the Hotel Carlton or the Hotel Majestic reflecting the dominance of English customers. Many leisure-oriented tourists travel to the tropics, both in the summer and winter. Places of such nature often visited are: Bali in Indonesia,Brazil, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Malaysia, Mexico the various Polynesian tropical islands, Queensland in Australia, Thailand, SaintTropez and Cannes in France, Florida, Hawaii and Puerto Rico in the United States, Barbados, Sint Maarten, Saint Kitts and Nevis, The Bahamas, Anguilla, Antigua, Aruba, Turks and Caicos Islands and Bermuda. Winter tourism Although it is acknowledged that the Swiss were not the inventors of skiing it is well documented that St. Moritz, Graubnden, became the cradle of the developing winter tourism: Since that year of 1865 in St. Moritz, many daring hotel managers choose to risk opening their hotels in winter but it was only in the

seventies of the 20th century when winter tourism took over the lead from summer tourism in many of the Swiss ski resorts. Even in Winter, portions of up to one third of all guests (depending on the location) consist of non-skiers. Major ski resorts are located mostly in the various European countries (e.g. Andorra, Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, France, Germany,Iceland, Italy, Norway, Poland, Serbia, Sweden, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland ), Canada, the United States (e.g. Colorado, California, Utah, New York, New Jersey, Michigan, Montana, Vermont, New England) New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, Chile, Argentina, Kenya andTanzania. Mass tourism Mass tourism could only have developed with the improvements in technology, allowing thetransport of large numbers of people in a short space of time to places of leisure interest, so that greater numbers of people could begin to enjoy the benefits of leisure time. In the United States, the first seaside resorts in the European style were at Atlantic City, New Jersey and Long Island, New York. In Continental Europe, early resorts included: Ostend, popularised by the people of Brussels;Boulognesur-Mer (Pas-de-Calais) and Deauville (Calvados) for the Parisians; and Heiligendamm, founded in 1793, as the first seaside resort on the Baltic Sea. Adjectival tourism Adjectival tourism refers to the numerous niche or specialty travel forms of tourism that have emerged over the years, each with its own adjective. Many of these have come into common use by the tourism industry and academics.Others are emerging concepts that may or may not gain popular usage. Examples of the more common niche tourism markets include: Agritourism Culinary tourism Cultural tourism Ecotourism Extreme tourism Geotourism Heritage tourism LGBT tourism Medical tourism Nautical tourism Pop-culture tourism Religious tourism Slum tourism Space tourism War tourism Wildlife tourism

Recent developments There has been an upmarket trend in the tourism over the last few decades, especially in Europe, where international travel for short breaks is common.Tourists have high levels of disposable income, considerable leisure time, are well educated, and have sophisticated tastes. There is now a demand for a better quality products, which has resulted in a fragmenting of the mass market for beach vacations;

people want more specialised versions, quieter resorts, family-oriented holidays or niche markettargeted destination hotels.

The developments in technology and transport infrastructure, such as jumbo jets, low-cost airlines and more accessible airports have made many types of tourism more affordable. As of April 28, 2009 The Guardian article notes that, "the WHO estimates that up to 500,000 people are on planes at any time. There have also been changes in lifestyle, such as retiree-age people who sustain year round tourism. This is facilitated by internet sales of tourism products. Some sites have now started to offer dynamic packaging, in which an inclusive price is quoted for a tailor-made package requested by the customer upon impulse. There have been a few setbacks in tourism, such as the September 11 attacks and terrorist threats to tourist destinations, such as in Baliand several European cities. Also, on December 26, 2004, a tsunami, caused by the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, hit the Asian countrieson the Indian Ocean, including the Maldives. Thousands of lives were lost and many tourists died. This, together with the vast cleanupoperation in place, has stopped or severely hampered tourism to the area. The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In this context, travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited by tourists. Sustainable tourism "Sustainable tourism is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems." (World Tourism Organization) Sustainable development implies "meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987) Sustainable tourism can be seen as having regard to ecological and socio-cultural carrying capacities and includes involving the community of the destination in tourism development planning. It also involves integrating tourism to match current economic and growth policies so as to mitigate some of the negative economic and social impacts of 'mass tourism'. Murphy (1985) advocates the use of an 'ecological approach', to consider both 'plants' and 'people' when implementing the sustainable tourism development process. This is in contrast to the 'boosterism' and 'economic' approaches to tourism planning, neither of which consider the detrimental ecological or sociological impacts of tourism development to a destination. However, Butler (2006) questions the exposition of the term 'sustainable' in the context of tourism, citing its ambiguity and stating that "the emerging sustainable development philosophy of the 1990s can be viewed as an extension of the broader realization that a preoccupation with economic growth without

regard to it social and environmental consequences is self-defeating in the long term." Thus 'sustainable tourism development' is seldom considered as an autonomous function of economic regeneration as separate from general economic growth. Ecotourism Ecotourism, also known as ecological tourism, is responsible travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strives to be low impact and (often) small scale. It helps educate the traveler; provides funds for conservation; directly benefits the economic development and political empowerment of local communities; and fosters respect for different cultures and for human rights. Pro-poor tourism The pro poor tourism has to help the very poorest in developing countries has been receiving increasing attention by those involved in development and the issue has been addressed either through small scale projects in local communities and by Ministries of Tourism attempting to attract huge numbers of tourists. Research by the Overseas Development Institute suggests that neither is the best way to encourage tourists' money to reach the poorest as only 25% or less (far less in some cases) ever reaches the poor; successful examples of money reaching the poor include mountain climbing in Tanzania or cultural tourism in Luang Prabang, Laos. Recession tourism Recession tourism is a travel trend, which evolved by way of the world economic crisis. Identified by American entrepreneur Matt Landau(2007), recession tourism is defined by low-cost, high-value experiences taking place of once-popular generic retreats. Various recession tourism hotspots have seen business boom during the recession thanks to comparatively low costs of living and a slow world job market suggesting travelers are elongating trips where their money travels further. Medical tourism When there is a significant price difference between countries for a given medical procedure, particularly in Southeast Asia, India, Eastern Europe and where there are different regulatory regimes, in relation to particular medical procedures (e.g. dentistry), traveling to take advantage of the price or regulatory differences is often referred to as "medical tourism". Educational tourism Educational tourism developed, because of the growing popularity of teaching and learning of knowledge and the enhancing of technical competency outside of the classroom environment. In educational tourism, the main focus of the tour or leisure activity includes visiting another country to learn about the culture, such as in Student Exchange Programs and Study Tours, or to work and apply skills learned inside the classroom in a different environment, such as in the International Practicum Training Program.

Creative tourism Creative tourism has existed as a form of cultural tourism, since the early beginnings of tourism itself. Its European roots date back to the time of the Grand Tour, which saw the sons of aristocratic families traveling for the purpose of mostly interactive, educational experiences. More recently, creative tourism has been given its own name by Crispin Raymond and Greg Richards, who as members of the Association for Tourism and Leisure Education (ATLAS), have directed a number of projects for the European Commission, including cultural and crafts tourism, known as sustainable tourism. They have defined "creative tourism" as tourism related to the active participation of travellers in theculture of the host community, through interactive workshops and informal learning experiences. Meanwhile, the concept of creative tourism has been picked up by high-profile organizations such as UNESCO, who through the Creative Cities Network, have endorsed creative tourism as an engaged, authentic experience that promotes an active understanding of the specific cultural features of a place. More recently, creative tourism has gained popularity as a form of cultural tourism, drawing on active participation by travelers in the culture of the host communities they visit. Several countries offer examples of this type of tourism development, including the United Kingdom, the Bahamas, Jamaica, Spain, Italy and New Zealand. Dark tourism One emerging area of special interest has been identified by Lennon and Foley (2000) as "dark" tourism. This type of tourism involves visits to "dark" sites, such as battlegrounds, scenes of horrific crimes or acts of genocide, for example: concentration camps. Dark tourism remains a small niche market, driven by varied motivations, such as mourning, remembrance, education, macabre curiosity or even entertainment. Its early origins are rooted in fairgrounds and medieval fairs. Doom tourism Also known as "Tourism of Doom," or "Last Chance Tourism" this emerging trend involves traveling to places that are environmentally or otherwise threatened (the ice caps of Mount Kilimanjaro, the melting glaciers of Patagonia, The coral of the Great Barrier Reef ) before it is too late. Identified by travel trade magazine TravelAge West editor-in-chief Kenneth Shapiro in 2007 and later explored in The New York Times, this type of tourism is believed to be on the rise. Some see the trend as related to sustainable tourism or ecotourism due to the fact that a number of these tourist destinations are considered threatened by environmental factors such as global warming, over population or climate change. Others worry that travel to many of these threatened locations increases an individuals carbon footprint and only hastens problems threatened locations are already facing.

Hospitality management studies

Hospitality management is the academic study of the hospitality industry. A degree inHospitality management is often conferred from either a university college dedicated to the studies of hospitality management or a business school with a department in hospitality management studies. Degrees in hospitality management may also be referred to as hotel management, hotel and tourism management, or hotel administration. Degrees conferred in this academic field include Bachelors of Arts, Bachelors of Business Administration, Bachelors of Science, Masters of Science, MBA, and Doctorate of Philosophy. Hospitality management studies provides a focus on management of hospitality operations including hotels, restaurants, cruise ships, amusement parks, destination marketing

organizations, convention centers, country clubs, and related industries. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council (1997), the economics of the 21 century will be dominated by three industries: telecommunications, information technology and tourism. The travel and tourism industries have grown by 500% in the last 25 years and it is estimated that by the year 2007 tourists will spend US$884 billion in foreign countries on tourism related activities. Travel and tourism represents a broad range of related industries. The growth of these industries has opened up many new job opportunities for graduates in areas such as: hotels restaurants retailing transportation travel agencies tour companies tourist attractions leisure, recreation and sport cultural industries
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It is interesting to realise that in 1997 travel and tourism provides 10.5% of the total world employment, with up to 25% of all employment, in some areas, such as the Caribbean. It has been estimated that, by 2007, more than 100 million people world-wide will be employed in this sector. Because of this, tourism is now seen to be of importance to most countries of the world. During this time, the nature of tourism has developed in scope and direction, away from traditional activities, such as the sunshine sand and sea holidays to a wide range of new activities such as cultural tourism, adventure tourism, sports and leisure activities and eco-tourism. Given the potential for interesting and rewarding careers in these industries many young people are looking for suitable courses which will help prepare them for careers in management within the tourism and hospitality industries. The UK higher education system has a well developed range of courses, at all levels from Higher National Diploma, BA or BSc degrees and MA/MSc/MBA Masters courses and using alternative methods of studying, (including full-time, part-time and distance learning). When looking at courses in hospitality and tourism, there can seem to be a bewildering variety of course titles covering the main employment areas of travel, tourism, hotels and restaurants. Typical titles include:

For hotels and restaurant management: hospitality management international hospitality management hotel and catering management

For travel and tourism: tourism management tourism studies travel and tourism

There are also joint degrees where it is possible to study combinations of subjects, such as tourism and hospitality, tourism and leisure, hospitality and marketing. Most undergraduate courses (HND/BSc/BA) will include a period of work experience as part of the course, varying in length from 6 months to one year. This work experience is seen to be a central part of the course, where the student gets the opportunity to practise what they have learned in college or university. Employers also see great value in this work experience when considering the employment of graduates. Given the international nature of these industries, another valuable part of any course is the study of languages. Most courses in hospitality and tourism provide access to language courses, either as core components or as options. Courses at Masters level are becoming increasingly important in tourism and hospitality. These Masters level courses are useful to two groups of people: - those who have completed a degree course in a subject other than hospitality or tourism but who are looking at ways of getting employment in the industry; - those who have a degree or sub-degree qualification in hospitality or tourism together with significant management experience within the hospitality or tourism industries and who wish to develop themselves to a higher level or to seek a more senior position in industry. There are many Masters courses in Hospitality Management, Hotel and Catering Management and Tourism Management in universities and colleges in the UK. In addition to the above courses, there are also more specialised Masters courses in Tourism covering areas such as Cultural Tourism, Tourism Marketing, Tourism Planning, Museum Management, Heritage Management, Cultural Tourism and Sustainable Tourism: these are suitable for people who have an interest in employment in a specific sector of the industry. Hospitality management is the academic study of the hospitality industry. A degree inHospitality management is often conferred from either a university college dedicated to the studies of hospitality management or a business school with a department in hospitality management studies. Degrees in hospitality management may also be referred to as hotel management, hotel and tourism management, or hotel administration. Degrees conferred in this academic field include Bachelors of Arts, Bachelors of Business Administration, Bachelors of Science, Masters of Science, MBA, and Doctorate of Philosophy. Hospitality management studies provides a focus on management of hospitality operations including hotels, restaurants, cruise ships, amusement parks, destination marketing organizations, convention centers, country clubs, and related industries.

Curriculum In America, Hospitality and Tourism Management curriculum follow similar core subject applications to that of a business degree but with a focus on hospitality management. Core subject areas include accounting, administration, finance, information systems, marketing, human resource management, public relations, strategy, quantitative methods, and sectoral studies in the various areas of hospitality business. Cornell University, University of Nevada, Las Vegas (UNLV), and University of Central Florida (UCF) are considered the top Hospitality Management undergraduate colleges in America. One of the newest graduate degree programs in hospitality management is offered by The George Washington University School of Business in Washington, D.C.. In addition to the core coursework above, degree-specific coursework normally includes: Restaurant Management (Examples: Management of Food and Beverage Operations, Food Science, Food Selection and Preparation, Food and Beverage Cost Control) Lodging Operations (Examples: Lodging Management, Hotel Operations, Resort Timeshare Management, Reservation Sales and Marketing, Hospitality Physical Plant) Global Tourism (Examples: Tourism Management, Airline Industry, Sustainable Tourism, Hospitality and Research Methods) Attractions Management (Examples: Theme Park Management, Entertainment Arts) Event Management (Examples: Event Industry, Catering Management, Hospitality Marketing Management) Food Preparation (Examples: Basic Food Preparation, Food Sanitation, Beer and Wine Labs)

Many hospitality programs require concurrent field experience within the industry in the form of internships or co-operative placements. In Philippines, Hospitality and Tourism curriculum are Emerging Studies in Philippine Education, It is called as Bachelor of Science in Hotel and Restaurant Management (BS-HRM). It follows the American curriculum of the Hospitality Management which Includes: Culinary Arts, Business Administration, Public Relations, Marketing, Tourism Management, Accounting and Human Resources Studies. The Philippine Women's University, Lyceum of the Philippines University, and De La Salle-College of Saint Benilde are considered top Hotel and Restaurant Management undergraduate Campuses in Philippines. The Philippine Women's University and Enderun Colleges offers Associate and Post-Graduate Courses in Hospitality Management. Graduate Placement Several large hospitality corporations such as Marriott, Hilton Worldwide, IHG, Hyatt, Sasi park, Wyndham, beeran international Parks and Resorts, and various management companies offer internship programs as well as management training programs and direct placements for students

majoring in Hospitality and Tourism Management. Similar to other business fields, management training programs and direct placement opportunities are highly competitive. Hospitality is the relationship between guest and host, or the act or practice of being hospitable. Specifically, this includes the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers, resorts, membership clubs, conventions, attractions, special events, and other services for travelers and tourists.

Global concepts Pakhtuns The Pakhtun people of South-Central Asia, pre-dominant in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan and Afghanistan have a strong code of hospitality. They are a people characterized by their use of Pakhtunwali, an ancient set of ethics, the first principle of which isMilmastiya or Hospitality. The general area of Pakhtunistan is also nicknamed The Land of Hospitality. Biblical and Middle Eastern In Middle Eastern Culture, it was considered a cultural norm to take care of the strangers and foreigners living among you. These norms are reflected in many Biblical commands and examples.
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The obligations of both host and guest are stern. The bond is formed by eating salt under the roof, and is so strict that an Arab story tells of a thief who tasted something to see if it was sugar, and on realizing it was salt, put back all that he had taken and left. Specialized networks Some networks offer specialised hospitality services. Warm Showers - Hospitality network for touring cyclists Dachgeber - Hospitality network for touring cyclists in Germany with about 3000 members Pasporta Servo - for Esperanto speakers WWOOF - "Worldwide Opportunities on Organic Farms", help on the property is exchanged for food, accommodation, education and cultural interaction Freagle - "Free Camping, worldwide!" - Uniting Outdoor Lovers Through Hospitality and Mutual Help. HelpX - "Help Exchange", help is exchanged for food, accommodation, experience and cultural interaction Homeshare International - charitable organization providing exchange of housing for help in the home Ridester - ride sharing for travelers in USA Jewgether - a hospitality network that connects Jewish people from all around the world and helps Jewish travelers find a place to stay.

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HOSPITALITY PROFESSIONAL SERVICES Hospitality services team provides installation and implementation support as well as ongoing services to ensure you get the most benefit from your software investment. We offer hospitality services to deliver a smooth transition and successful installation, including project organization and definition, system installation, customer training, go-live support, and post-installation reviews. Our expert software engineers also offer ongoing consulting services to meet your unique needs.

Ongoing services Corporate standardizationCreate and reinforce standardization across your enterprise with our hospitality services, including company-wide operational practices, setups, defaults, and codes for our systems installed in multiple locations. Site assessments and recommendationsDetermine the efficiency and effectiveness of your system as we conduct on-site assessments of system utilization and provides recommendations for improvements. InterfacesCustomize software to meet the needs of your business with our hospitality services, including on-site or remote installation, testing and support of interface products, and custom programming for developing interfaces to new, cutting-edge products.

Education and training E-LearningLower your staff training costs and increase the efficiency of your team using Epitome E-Learning, the self-paced learning tool that provides interactive training for our Epitome Property Management System. Whether called E-Learning, computer-based training (CBT), webbased training, or distance learning, this intuitive web-based solution allows your hotel staff members to be trained on consistent material and includes reporting results for your management team to monitor progress. Custom training programsBoost the efficiency of your staff by having us design custom hospitality services and training to meet the unique needs of your specific properties. Training facilitiesIncrease your staff's effectiveness through education sessions led by skilled consultants (former hospitality professionals) who tailor established class agendas to meet specific property needs. Training is conducted at our education centers equipped with fully operational systems and training aides for classroom use.

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Customer Service Tips by Hospitality Professionals 1. Be there There's nothing better than the good old fashioned personal touch. Answer your phone within 3 rings; give your name and be 'present' to the caller avoid sounding rushed or too busy. Every customer wants to feel special, really being listened to fosters this sense. If using voicemail or message bank, make the message clear and well spoken. Making your message day specific. 'Hello, it's Monday the 17th - can help alleviate fears that a message may go unnoticed. If you're using a mobile, try to avoid customers having to leave messages in two places as this can create the impression of being illusive and hard to reach. In these circumstances consider diverting your office phone straight to your mobile.

2. Don't park in the best spot Whether applied literally or metaphorically, this is a classic faux pas to avoid. How often do we see the best parking spots reserved for the owner or staff? What a signal to send a prospect! Take a look around your business and see if you're unnecessarily pinching the best spot.

3. Expand customer expectations Do more than is expected. The phrase 'under promise, over deliver' is the perfect maxim for customer service. Don't promise delivery schedules you can't meet, set a comfortable date and surprise by delivering early. Respond to messages promptly, remembering that any response is better than a long delay. Above all, communicate constantly - never leave a customer wondering what's happening. Communicate every step of the way. The more benefits you can identify for your product or service, the greater will be your customer's perception of value. Basic product/service, expected product/service and added product/service are covered in detail in 'How to Earn More Dollars with Customer Service' eBook.

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4. Ask permission The advent of email and the dislike of unsolicited mail or 'spamming', is a reminder of the importance of seeking permission in certain instances. Whether it's the use of nicknames, making a personal comment within a business conversation or divulging your customer's identity to others - show respect and caution and always ask permission.

5. Show understanding To truly cement a new relationship, demonstrate you fully understand the requirements of your customer. Sometimes we get stuck behind the language of our business and forget the outcome our clients are seeking. Listen out for indicators signaling what's wanted and reflect these back using plain English. Phrases like "let me see if I fully understand your requirements" followed by a clear summary will do much to make your customer feel comfortable and in the right hands. Take notes and listen for emotive language - heightened emotions are links to customer needs. Show that you've heard them and state how your product or service can fulfill their need.

6. Manage your image If you employ contractors, freelancers or temps within your business, your customers will always judge them as if they are your employees. Anyone representing your business adds to (or detracts from) your image. Control your image by establishing policies and procedures. Customer service should be seen as a business-building virus that permeates everywhere. Keep your virus healthy! It is easier to teach new skills than to change attitudes. If 30% of staff is more satisfied with their jobs, 25% of customers become more satisfied with the restaurant. Find out how to choose the right staff by downloading eBook 'How to Earn More Dollars with Customer Service'.

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7. Give business to others Occasionally what we have to offer is simply not what a customer is looking for, or our services do not encompass all that is required. In these instances it pays to be knowledgeable and to refer customers to others. Businesses that truly serve their customers don't rest until each customer is satisfied. Be generous with your referrals, it will pay dividends.

8. Watch the big boys Big business watches out for trends and looks to see where opportunities exist that small business is not satisfying. This also works in reverse. Keep abreast of big company customer service initiatives and look to translate them into your business or better still, improve them.

9. Follow-up and feedback Service doesn't stop when the sale is concluded, this is when it's reinforced and expanded. Follow-up customers to ensure their needs have been met, ask for feedback on the key areas of your business dealings and show your sincerity by making changes whenever relevant. Listen to comment, make changes, experiment. Gathering information about your customers is a very profitable activity. You can use systems to keep customers and build their loyalty towards your business. Find out some ways of gathering this information by downloading eBook 'How to Earn More Dollars with Customer Service'.

10. Say thank you! Say it everywhere. Say it on your invoices, say it out loud, say it to your staff.

Never conclude a sale without a Thank You.

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Hospitality Admn And Manpower Development

Manpower development, now commonly referred to as human resource development, is an ongoing process that analyzes, forecasts and projects an organization's future manpower requirements. In other words, manpower development focuses on such issues as whether the organization is ready to compensate for the loss of experience from retiring employees and if employees are adequately prepared to implement organizational change.

1. Process Manpower development is a process that seeks to optimize an organization's usage of its human resources. It requires an integrated approach that addresses multidimensional aspects of employees, ranging from enhancing technical and interpersonal skills to creative thinking and leadership. Organizations with high productivity levels have made manpower development an integral part of their business culture. 2. Development and Training Act of 1962 o President Kennedy enacted the Manpower Development and Training Act of 1962 to help re-employ, through re-training, unemployed American workers who were displaced by automation and technology. At the organizational level, manpower development (training of workers) is associated with anticipating manpower shortages so adequate personnel are available to implement future organizational plans.

Individual Growth o In "Human Resource Development: Learning & Training for Individuals & Organizations," John P. Wilson says the term development implies an improved situation attained by an individual through learning. Thus, the growth of an individual impacts the collective growth of an organization.

Performance Enhancement o Richard A. Swanson and Elwood F. Holton in "Foundations of Human Resource Development" define human resource development (a more recent term for manpower development) as a process that helps develop human expertise through personnel development with the objective of enhancing performance.

Effectiveness o In "Principles of Human Resource Development," Jerry W. Gilley, Steven A. Eggland, and Ann Maycunich Gilley define the development of organizational personnel as "a dynamic and evolving practice used to enhance organizational effectiveness."

Workforce Development

For ManpowerGroup, social responsibility extends well beyond just writing a donation check to a charitable cause. It's about strengthening the diversity of our communities and creating opportunities for all people to participate in the workforce. It's about focusing on the long-term view and developing solutions that are sustainable. Whether it's helping an unemployed single mother return to the workforce,

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or giving a job to an immigrant when no one else will, our reward comes from knowing that we make a real difference - today and in the future. All over the world, ManpowerGroup employees, partnering with community organizations, businesses and government, engage in workforce development programs that make a difference in people's lives. Because of our relationships with both employers and individuals, we are uniquely positioned to determine where current and future skills gaps are, identify people who need help engaging with the workforce, and develop solutions that bring these two groups together, mutually benefiting both. In this way, we function as a "bridge" to employment for many who would otherwise be unemployed. Our systems, programs and policies are designed to make the connection to work a viable option for those who need it. Our industry leading skills assessment processes and hiring policies help us ensure that people are not discriminated against. Rather, we focus on people's abilities - not their disabilities. ManpowerGroup shared some of our disability awareness and workforce development programs with the International Labour Organization (ILO). The most costly part of operating a business is paying for labor in terms of wages, offering benefits and bonuses and developing training programs, which is why calculating manpower levels is so important. Many companies use a demand forecasting program that takes into consideration the past number of employees, the number of employees laid off and pending retirements. While the software can make a projection for current demand, it may not be applicable given the overall strategy of the company. To be sure, consider seasonal spikes, hourly needs, scheduled vacation times and market trends when calculating manpower levels. Manpower planning is very vital and critical to every organization. This is a process through which the HR department places the right number of employees with the right skill-sets in the correct department at the right time. At least once annually, the HR department studies the staffing levels across all functional departments in the organization. Through this exercise, they are able to ascertain which departments are overstaffed and which are understaffed. HR is also able to analyze future requirements of manpower. Manpower utilization refers to the hours of productive work as a percentage of the total work paid for. For example, in a production company, break time or time spent cleaning up a work station rather than actually producing goods for sale would not be counted towards manpower utilization. Manpower utilization is a good measure of the efficiency of your workforce. If manpower utilization is low, you may need to find ways to eliminate downtime or motivate employees more effectively. What Is the Meaning of Manpower Development? Manpower development, now commonly referred to as human resource development, is an ongoing process that analyzes, forecasts and projects an organization's future manpower requirements. In other words, manpower development focuses on such issues as whether the organization is ready to compensate for the loss of experience from retiring employees and if employees are adequately prepared to implement organizational change.

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The Manpower Development and Training Act The 1962 Manpower Development and Training Act (MDTA) launched the era of federal funding for employee training and development. In the 1950s, the growing automation and technology industries needed more skilled workers. By passing MDTA, Congress took steps to meet that need. Local public and private agencies used MDTA funds to identify and provide the necessary training. For the first time, Congress passed a jobs bill that did not include jobs creation or publicly funded job programs.

Human Resource Training in the Army Most human resources workers can't say that they've been trained in hand-to-hand combat or know how to use a gun, but if you're in the Army, that might be the case. While soldiers on the front lines are extremely important, no branch of the military could survive without soldiers willing to work office jobs as well. The training you'll receive in human resources will prepare you to help other soldiers make the most of their Army experience.

About Manpower Planning Manpower planning is the process of placing the most suitable number of employees at the most apt jobs in the most appropriate time frame. This is an exercise that is very critical to the survival of a business. Periodically, the organization's human resources department prepares lists of manpower working across all its functional departments with an aim toward analyzing whether each department has the correct number of employees, and to estimate the manpower required in the future. Without well functioning employees, no organization can make any kind of progress. They need to be planned for and managed well.

How to Manage Manpower Effective management of those working for you is a key component of running a successful business. Everyone has to carry out the duties of his job description consistently in order for goals to be reached, as you yourself can't do it all. Managing the number of people on your payroll is equally important. Management is a job that is never complete, as you need to be constantly alert to virtually every aspect of your operation.

How to Compute for Manpower When bidding on a project or providing an estimate to a client, you need to know how many hours will be required to get the job done. To do this, you'll need to compute the manpower needed for the project; that is, the number of hours each of your workers will need to put in to get the task from start to finish.

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HOSPITALITY PROJECT MANAGEMENT Definition of Project Management -- it is the discipline of defining and achieving finite objectives. The challenge of project management is the optimized integration and allocation of the inputs needed to meet those pre-defined objectives. The project, therefore, is a carefully selected set of activities chosen to use resources (time, money, people, materials, energy, space, provisions, communication, quality, risk, etc.) to meet the pre-defined objectives. Hospitality is the relationship between guest and host, or the act or practice of being hospitable. Specifically, this includes the reception and entertainment of guests, visitors, or strangers, resorts, membership clubs, conventions, attractions, special events, and other services for travelers and tourists. In the contemporary West, hospitality is rarely a matter of protection and survival, and is more associated with etiquette and entertainment. However, it still involves showing respect for one's guests, providing for their needs, and treating them as equals. Cultures and subcultures vary in the extent to which one is expected to show hospitality to strangers, as opposed to personal friends or members of one's in-group. The hospitality service industry includes hotels, casinos, and resorts, which offer comfort and guidance to strangers, but only as part of a business relationship. The terms hospital, hospice, and hostel also derive from "hospitality," and these institutions preserve more of the connotation of personal care. Hospitality ethics is a discipline that studies this usage of hospitality. Global concepts Pakhtuns The Pakhtun people of South-Central Asia, pre-dominant in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan and Afghanistan have a strong code of hospitality. They are a people characterized by their use of Pakhtunwali, an ancient set of ethics, the first principle of which isMilmastiya or Hospitality. The general area of Pakhtunistan is also nicknamed The Land of Hospitality. Biblical and Middle Eastern In Middle Eastern Culture, it was considered a cultural norm to take care of the strangers and foreigners living among you. These norms are reflected in many Biblical commands and examples.
[2]

The obligations of both host and guest are stern. The bond is formed by eating salt under the roof, and is so strict that an Arab story tells of a thief who tasted something to see if it was sugar, and on realizing it was salt, put back all that he had taken and left. Classical World To the ancient Greeks and Romans, hospitality was a divine right. The host was expected to make sure the needs of his guests were seen to. The ancient Greek term xenia, or theoxeniawhen a god was involved, expressed this ritualized guest-friendship relation.

18

Celtic cultures Celtic societies also valued the concept of hospitality, especially in terms of protection. A host who granted a person's request for refuge was expected not only to provide food and shelter to his/her guest, but to make sure they did not come to harm while under their care. India In India, hospitality is based on the principle Atithi Devo Bhava, meaning "the guest is God." This principle is shown in a number of stories where a guest is literally a god who rewards the provider of hospitality. From this stems the Indian approach of graciousness towards guests at home, and in all social situations. Cultural value or norm Hospitality as a cultural norm or value is an established sociological phenomenon that people study and write papers about (see references, and Hospitality ethics). Some regions have become stereotyped as exhibiting a particular style of hospitality. Examples include: Minnesota nice Southern hospitality
[3]

Functioning Membership in the organization is free and is obtained simply by registering on the website. The core activity of the organization is exchange of accommodation. Acting as a host, a member offers the possibility of accommodation at his leisure. As a guest, a traveler may find possible hosts and contact them through the website. No money is involved guests and hosts do not pay each other. The duration of the stay, whether food is provided for free, for a fee or not at all, and all other conditions are agreed on beforehand to the convenience of both parties. After meeting, the host and guest may comment about each other. This provides a means to establish reputation which is the main security measure. Users have to provide their real identity, which is screened by volunteers, and protected against changes. Apart from accommodation, members exchange other forms of hospitality, such as guiding visitors or providing travel-related advice. There are also wiki-like Travel Guide sections and forums where members may seek partners for travels, hitchhiking etc. Volunteers within the club often arrange meetings or camps which are events that last several days that bring people together.

19

Organization and policies The club is based on the work of hundreds of volunteers around the world. The motivation behind it is the idea that bringing people together and fostering international friendships will increase inter cultural understanding and strengthen peace. It is one of the largest hospitality networks, and there is a mission to find 1,000,000 friendly people. The policy of the club explicitly forbids alternative uses, such as dating, job-seeking, commercial use, and website promotions.
[4]

In order to protect members' mailboxes from spam and to keep trust in the network

at high levels a volunteer team scans the messages being sent across the site. Members may also optout of this service and receive all messages directly. Hospitality Club was founded by Veit Khne in 2000 with the help of friends and family
[2]

as a general-

purpose Internet-based hospitality exchange organization. The organization, open to anybody, followed from a similar network organized by Veit Khne exclusively for members of the student exchange organization AFS. The concept for Hospitality Club was inspired by the SIGHT hospitality network of Mensa and it is the successor of Hospex, the first Internet based hospitality exchange network, established in 1992 and with which it joined forces in 2005. dramatically. Benefits Monetary savings As these networks provide accommodation at no charge, monetary savings can be significant. Local contact Hospitality exchange gives travelers the chance to experience what life is like for people living in other places. In addition, making interpersonal connections and fostering understanding of different cultures may in the long run also be important to international relations. During hospitality exchanges, hosts may show off their local knowledge and exciting places off the tourist map. Not only may travelers get a distinct experience, but they will also get a feel for the everyday lives of local residents. Reciprocity The concept behind Hospitality services is based on the pay it forward philosophy, gift economy, and reciprocal altruism. Drawbacks Lack of guarantee There is no contractual agreement between users in these systems. Reservations are made, but if they are for some reason broken, there is no higher authority to which one could plead for a refund or other
[3]

Membership has since increased

20

compensation. The only repercussion will be the poor rating you give that user and your only consolation will be that your warning will deter others from visiting or hosting them. For those who feel insecure unless their travel arrangements are written in stone before departure, this system will not be comforting. Potential interpersonal conflict or awkwardness There is a chance that guest and host will not get along. Perhaps there will be scheduling or ideological conflicts. Maybe you will find that hosts or visitors have misrepresented themselves. Perhaps the experience will not live up to your expectations. Intense interpersonal communications in advance and a flexibility once you have arrived is your best bet. These experiences require additional planning and courtesy towards the demands of your host. Thus, your living conditions, length of stay, and overall experience will be circumscribed by the living conditions you enter into. Digital divide and demographic segregation As use of these services generally requires access to the internet and knowledge of the English language, the sample population found in searches of these databases is really much less diverse than a geographical representation of worldwide users might suggest. Security Staying in someone's house, or inviting people into your house leaves open the possibility of being taken advantage of. Home Hospitality in Scouting In the Scout Movement, home hospitality (hoho) refers to Scouts living for a few days with a host Scouting family to experience everyday life in that community. This often takes place before or after a jamboree and is usually organized by the organization running the jamboree.
[1]

21

HOSPITALITY MANAGEMENT:TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

Hospitality sector is growing at a very fast rate in India. The sector is growing at a rate of approximately 8%. This sector can be classified into hotel industry, travel and tourism, restaurants, pubs, clubs and bars, contract catering, and aviation. Other than that, opportunities also exist in universities, sporting venues, exhibition centers and smaller events management companies.

The major challenge of this sector is shortage of skilled employees along with the challenge of attrition rate. Skilled chefs and managers are in great demand. Managers require huge range of competencies such as, people management, viable skills, business insights, analytic skills, succession planning, and resource development in order to get success in this sector. In addition to that, employees are not enough trained on Business Etiquettes, Courtesy, and Business Communication. Hospitality is all about handling people. So an employee must have right attitude, tolerance, and listening skills in order to move up the hierarchy. There is still a long way to go to inculcate good public relation, interpersonal skills.

With the increase in competition due to the coming up of major players like Four Seasons, ShangriLa, Aman Resorts, etc the need to train employees has increased more than ever before. The major players are now strategizing to increase the turnover of the customers by training their employees on Communication, Dining and Business etiquettes, etc. Some of the essentials required by this sector are: Good infrastructure

Trained trainer

Quality of content

Certification of training course

22

Effective Training evaluation

Training and Development Programs are available for the following areas: Food Production

Food and Beverage Service

Front Office

Housekeeping

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ECOTOURISM AND ENVIRONMENT Ecotourism is responsible travel to fragile, pristine, and usually protected areas that strive to be low impact and (often) small scale (as an alternative to mass tourism). Its purpose is to educate the traveler; provide funds for ecological conservation; directly benefit the economic developmentand political empowerment of local communities; and foster respect for different cultures and forhuman rights. Since the 1980s ecotourism has been considered a critical endeavor by environmentalists, so that future generations may experience destinations relatively untouched by human intervention. programs use this description as the working definition of ecotourism.
[2] [1]

Several university

Generally, ecotourism focuses on volunteering, or voluntourism, personal growth and environmental responsibility. Ecotourism typically involves travel to destinations where flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the primary attractions. One of the goals of ecotourism is to offer tourists insight into the impact of human beings on the environment, and to foster a greater appreciation of our natural habitats. Responsible ecotourism includes programs that minimize the negative aspects of conventional tourism on the environment and enhance the cultural integrity of local people. Therefore, in addition to evaluating environmental and cultural factors, an integral part of ecotourism is the promotion ofrecycling, energy efficiency, water conservation, and creation of economic opportunities for local communities. reasons, ecotourism often appeals to environmental and social responsibility advocates. Negative impact of tourism Ecotourism has become one of the fastest-growing sectors of the tourism industry, growing annually by 10-15% worldwide (Miller, 2007). One definition of ecotourism is "the practice of low-impact, educational, ecologically and culturally sensitive travel that benefits local communities and host countries" (Honey, 1999). Many of the ecotourism projects are not meeting these standards. Even if some of the guidelines are being executed, the local communities are still facing other negative impacts. South Africa is one of the countries that are reaping significant economic benefits from ecotourism, but negative effects including forcing people to leave their homes, gross violations of fundamental rights, and environmental hazards - far outweigh the medium-term economic benefits (Miller, 2007). A tremendous amount of money is being spent and human resources continue to be used for ecotourism despite unsuccessful outcomes, and even more money is put into public relation campaigns to dilute the effects of criticism. Ecotourism channels resources away from other projects that could contribute more sustainable and realistic solutions to pressing social and environmental problems. "The money tourism can generate often ties parks and managements to eco-tourism" (Walpole et al. 2001). But there is a tension in this relationship because eco-tourism often causes conflict and changes in land-use rights, fails to deliver promises of community-level benefits, damages environments, and has plenty of other social impacts. Indeed many argue repeatedly that eco-tourism is neither ecologically nor socially beneficial, yet it persists as a strategy for conservation and development (West, 2006). While several studies are being
[3]

For these

24

done on ways to improve the ecotourism structure, some argue that these examples provide rationale for stopping it altogether. The ecotourism system exercises tremendous financial and political influence. The evidence above shows that a strong case exists for restraining such activities in certain locations. Funding could be used for field studies aimed at finding alternative solutions to tourism and the diverse problems Africa faces in result of urbanization, industrialization, and the over exploitation of agriculture (Kamuaro, 2007). At the local level, ecotourism has become a source of conflict over control of land, resources, and tourism profits. In this case, ecotourism has harmed the environment and local people, and has led to conflicts over profit distribution. In a perfect world more efforts would be made towards educating tourists of the environmental and social effects of their travels. Very few regulations or laws stand in place as boundaries for the investors in ecotourism. These should be implemented to prohibit the promotion of unsustainable ecotourism projects and materials which project false images of destinations, demeaning local and indigenous cultures. Direct environmental impacts Ecotourism operations occasionally fail to live up to conservation ideals. It is sometimes overlooked that ecotourism is a highly consumer-centered activity, and that environmental conservation is a means to further economic growth.
[14]

Although ecotourism is intended for small groups, even a modest increase in population, however temporary, puts extra pressure on the local environment and necessitates the development of additional infrastructure and amenities. The construction of water treatment plants, sanitation facilities, and lodges come with the exploitation of non-renewable energy sources and the utilization of already limited local resources.
[15]

The conversion of natural land to such tourist infrastructure is implicated in deforestation

[16]

and habitat deterioration of butterflies in Mexico and squirrel monkeys in Costa Rica.

In other cases,

the environment suffers because local communities are unable to meet the infrastructure demands of ecotourism. The lack of adequate sanitation facilities in many East African parks results in the disposal of campsite sewage in rivers, contaminating the wildlife, livestock, and people who draw drinking water from it.
[5]

Aside from environmental degradation with tourist infrastructure, population pressures from ecotourism also leaves behind garbage and pollution associated with the Western lifestyle.
[17]

Although ecotourists

claim to be educationally sophisticated and environmentally concerned, they rarely understand the ecological consequences of their visits and how their day-to-day activities append physical impacts on the environment. As one scientist observes, they "rarely acknowledge how the meals they eat, the toilets they flush, the water they drink, and so on, are all part of broader regional economic and ecological systems they are helping to reconfigure with their very activities."
[5]

Nor do ecotourists recognize the great

consumption of non-renewable energy required to arrive at their destination, which is typically more

25

remote than conventional tourism destinations. For instance, an exotic journey to a place 10,000 kilometers away consumes about 700 liters of fuel per person.
[18]

Ecotourism activities are, in of itself, issues in environmental impact because they disturb fauna and flora. Ecotourists believe that because they are only taking pictures and leaving footprints, they keep ecotourism sites pristine, but even harmless sounding activities such as a nature hike can be ecologically destructive. In the Annapurna Circuit in Nepal, ecotourists have worn down the marked trails and created alternate routes, contributing to soil impaction, erosion, and plant damage.
[5] [5]

Where the ecotourism

[5]

activity involves wildlife viewing, it can scare away animals, disrupt their feeding and nesting sites, acclimate them to the presence of people.
[5]

or

In Kenya, wildlife-observer disruption drives cheetahs off

their reserves, increasing the risk of inbreeding and further endangering the species. Environmental hazards

The industrialization, urbanization, and unsustainable agriculture practices of human society are considered to be having a serious effect on the environment. Ecotourism is now also considered to be playing a role in this depletion. While the term ecotourism may sound relatively benign, one of its most serious impacts is its consumption of virgin territories (Kamuaro, 2007). These invasions often include deforestation, disruption of ecological life systems and various forms of pollution, all of which contribute to environmental degradation. The number of motor vehicles crossing the park increases as tour drivers search for rare species. The number of roads has disrupted the grass cover which has serious effects on plant and animal species. These areas also have a higher rate of disturbances and invasive species because of all the traffic moving off the beaten path into new undiscovered areas (Kamuaro, 2007). Ecotourism also has an effect on species through the value placed on them. "Certain species have gone from being little known or valued by local people to being highly valued commodities. The commodification of plants may erase their social value and lead to overproduction within protected areas. Local people and their images can also be turned into commodities" (West, 2006). Kamuaro brings up a relatively obvious contradiction, any commercial venture into unspoiled, pristine land with or without the "eco" prefix as a contradiction in terms. To generate revenue you have to have a high number of traffic, tourists, which inevitably means a higher pressure on the environment. Local people Most forms of ecotourism are owned by foreign investors and corporations that provide few benefits to local communities. An overwhelming majority of profits are put into the pockets of investors instead of reinvestment into the local economy or environmental protection. The limited numbers of local people who are employed in the economy enter at its lowest level, and are unable to live in tourist areas because of meager wages and a two market system.
[5]

In some cases, the resentment by local people results in environmental degradation. As a highly publicized case, the Masai nomads in Kenya killed wildlife in national parks to show aversion to unfair

26

compensation terms and displacement from traditional lands.

[19]

The lack of economic opportunities for

[5]

local people also constrains them to degrade the environment as a means of sustenance.

The presence

of affluent ecotourists encourage the development of destructive markets in wildlife souvenirs, such as the sale of coral trinkets on tropical islands and animal products in Asia, contributing to illegal harvesting and poaching from the environment. In Suriname, sea turtle reserves use a very large portion of their budget to guard against these destructive activities. Displacement of people One of the most powerful examples of communities being moved in order to create a park is the story of the Masai. About 70% of national parks and game reserves in East Africa are on Masai land (Kamuaro, 2007). The first undesirable impact of tourism was that of the extent of land lost from the Masai culture. Local and national governments took advantage of the Masais ignorance on the situation and robbed them of huge chunks of grazing land, putting to risk their only socio-economic livelihood. In Kenya the Masai also have not gained any economic benefits. Despite the loss of their land, employment favours better educated workers. Furthermore the investors in this area are not local and have not put profits back into local economy. In some cases game reserves can be created without informing or consulting local people, who come to find out about the situation when an eviction notice is delivered (Kamuaro, 2007). Another source of resentment is the manipulation of the local people by their government. "Eco-tourism works to create simplistic images of local people and their uses and understandings of their surroundings. Through the lens of these simplified images, officials direct policies and projects towards the local people and the local people are blamed if the projects fail" (West, 2006). Clearly tourism as a trade is not empowering the local people who make it rich and satisfying. Instead ecotourism exploits and depletes, particularly in African Masai tribes. It has to be reoriented if it is to be useful to local communities and to become sustainable (Kamuaro, 2007). Threats to indigenous cultures Ecotourism often claims that it preserves and "enhances" local cultures. However, evidence shows that with the establishment of protected areas local people have illegally lost their homes, and most often with no compensation (Kamuaro, 2007). Pushing people onto marginal lands with harsh climates, poor soils, lack of water, and infested with livestock and disease does little to enhance livelihoods even when a proportion of ecotourism profits are directed back into the community. The establishment of parks can create harsh survival realities and deprive the people of their traditional use of land and natural resources. Ethnic groups are increasingly being seen as a "backdrop" to the scenery and wildlife. The local people struggle for cultural survival and freedom of cultural expression while being "observed" by tourists. Local indigenous people also have strong resentment towards the change, "Tourism has been allowed to develop with virtually no controls. Too many lodges have been built, too much firewood is being used and no limits are being placed on tourism vehicles. They regularly drive off-track and harass the wildlife. Their

27

vehicle tracks criss-cross the entire Masai Mara. Inevitably the bush is becoming eroded and degraded" (Kamuaro, 2007). Mismanagement While governments are typically entrusted with the administration and enforcement of environmental protection, they often lack the commitment or capability to manage ecotourism sites effectively. The regulations for environmental protection may be vaguely defined, costly to implement, hard to enforce, and uncertain in effectiveness.
[20]

Government regulatory agencies, as political bodies, are susceptible to

making decisions that spend budget on politically beneficial but environmentally unproductive projects. Because of prestige and conspicuousness, the construction of an attractive visitor's center at an ecotourism site may take precedence over more pressing environmental concerns like acquiring habitat, protecting endemic species, and removing invasive ones.
[5]

Finally, influential groups canpressure and

sway the interests of the government to their favor. The government and its regulators can become vested in the benefits of the ecotourism industry which they are supposed to regulate, causing restrictive environmental regulations and enforcement to become more lenient. Management of ecotourism sites by private ecotourism companies offers an alternative to the cost of regulation and deficiency of government agencies. It is believed that these companies have a self interest in limited environmental degradation, because tourists will pay more for pristine environments, which translates to higher profit. However, theory indicates that this practice is not economically feasible and will fail to manage the environment. The model of monopolistic competition states that distinctiveness will entail profits, but profits will promote imitation. A company that protects its ecotourism sites is able to charge a premium for the novel experience and pristine environment. But when other companies view the success of this approach, they also enter the market with similar practices, increasing competition and reducing demand. Eventually, the demand will be reduced until the economic profit is zero. A cost-benefit analysis shows that the company bears the cost of environmental protection without receiving the gains. Without economic incentive, the whole premise of self interest through environmental protection is quashed; instead, ecotourism companies will minimize environment related expenses and maximize tourism demand.
[5]

The tragedy of the commons offers another model for economic unsustainability from environmental protection, in ecotourism sites utilized by many companies.
[21]

Although there is a communal incentive to

protect the environment, maximizing the benefits in the long run, a company will conclude that it is in their best interest to utilize the ecotourism site beyond its sustainable level. By increasing the number of ecotourists, for instance, a company gains all the economic benefit while paying only a part of the environmental cost. In the same way, a company recognizes that there is no incentive to actively protect the environment; they bear all the costs, while the benefits are shared by all other companies. The result, again, is mismanagement.

28

Taken together, the mobility of foreign investment and lack of economic incentive for environmental protection means that ecotourism companies are disposed to establishing themselves in new sites once their existing one is sufficiently degraded. Improving sustainability Regulation and accreditation Because the regulation of ecotourism is poorly implemented or nonexistent, ecologically destructive green washed operations like underwater hotels, helicopter tours, and wildlife theme parks are categorized as ecotourism along with canoeing, camping, photography, and wildlife observation. The failure to acknowledge responsible, low impact ecotourism puts these companies at a competitive disadvantage. Many environmentalists have argued for a global standard of accreditation, differentiating ecotourism companies based on their level of environmental commitment. A national or international regulatory board would enforce accreditation procedures, with representation from various groups including governments, hotels, tour operators, travel agents, guides, airlines, local authorities, conservation organizations, and non-governmental organizations.
[22]

The decisions of the board would be sanctioned by governments, so

that non-compliant companies would be legally required to disassociate themselves from the use of the ecotourism brand. Crinion suggests a Green Stars System, based on criteria including a management plan, benefit for the local community, small group interaction, education value and staff training.
[8]

Ecotourists who consider

their choices would be confident of a genuine ecotourism experience when they see the higher star rating. In addition, environmental impact assessments could be used as a form of accreditation. Feasibility is evaluated from a scientific basis, and recommendations could be made to optimally plan infrastructure, set tourist capacity, and manage the ecology. This form of accreditation is more sensitive to site specific conditions. Guidelines and education An environmental protection strategy must address the issue of ecotourists removed from the cause-andeffect of their actions on the environment. More initiatives should be carried out to improve their awareness, sensitize them to environmental issues, and care about the places they visit. Tour guides are an obvious and direct medium to communicate awareness. With the confidence of ecotourists and intimate knowledge of the environment, they can actively discuss conservation issues. A tour guide training program in Costa Rica's Tortuguero National Park has helped mitigate negative environmental impacts by providing information and regulating tourists on the parks' beaches used by nesting endangered sea turtles. Small scale, slow growth and local control

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The underdevelopment theory of tourism describes a new form of imperialism by multinational corporations that control ecotourism resources. These corporations finance and profit from the development of large scale ecotourism that causes excessive environmental degradation, loss of traditional culture and way of life, and exploitation of local labor. In Zimbabwe and Nepal's Annapurna region, where underdevelopment is taking place, more than 90 percent of ecotourism revenues are expatriated to the parent countries, and less than 5 percent go into local communities. The lack of sustainability highlights the need for small scale, slow growth, and locally based ecotourism. Local peoples have a vested interest in the well being of their community, and are therefore more accountable to environmental protection than multinational corporations. The lack of control, westernization, adverse impacts to the environment, loss of culture and traditions outweigh the benefits of establishing large scale ecotourism. The increased contributions of communities to locally managed ecotourism create viable economic opportunities, including high level management positions, and reduce environmental issues associated with poverty and unemployment. Because the ecotourism experience is marketed to a different lifestyle from large scale ecotourism, the development of facilities and infrastructure does not need to conform to corporate Western tourism standards, and can be much simpler and less expensive. There is a greater multiplier effect on the economy, because local products, materials, and labor are used. Profits accrue locally and import leakages are reduced.
[19]

However, even this form of tourism may require

foreign investment for promotion or start up. When such investments are required, it is crucial for communities for find a company or non-governmental organization that reflects the philosophy of ecotourism; sensitive to their concerns and willing to cooperate at the expense of profit. The basic assumption of the multiplier effect is that the economy starts off with unused resources, for example, that many workers are cyclically unemployed and much of industrial capacity is sitting idle or incompletely utilized. By increasing demand in the economy it is then possible to boost production. If the economy was already at full employment, with only structural, frictional, or other supply-side types of unemployment, any attempt to boost demand would only lead to inflation. For various laissez-faire schools of economics which embrace Say's Law and deny the possibility of Keynesian inefficiency and under-employment of resources, therefore, the multiplier concept is irrelevant or wrong-headed. As an example, consider the government increasing its expenditure on roads by $1 million, without a corresponding increase in taxation. This sum would go to the road builders, who would hire more workers and distribute the money as wages and profits. The households receiving these incomes will save part of the money and spend the rest on consumer goods. These expenditures in turn will generate more jobs, wages, and profits, and so on with the income and spending circulating around the economy. The multiplier effect arises because of the induced increases in consumer spending which occur due to the increased incomes and because of the feedback into increasing business revenues, jobs, and income again. This process does not lead to an economic explosion not only because of the supply-side

30

barriers at potential output (full employment) but because at each "round", the increase in consumer spending is less than the increase in consumer incomes. That is, the marginal propensity to consume (mpc) is less than one, so that each round some extra income goes into saving, leaking out of the cumulative process. Each increase in spending is thus smaller than that of the previous round, preventing an explosion.Ecotourism has to be implemented with care. Natural resource management Natural resource management can be utilized as a specialized tool for the development of eco-tourism. There are several places throughout the world where the amount of natural resources are abundant. But, with human encroachment and habitats these resources are depleting. Without knowing the proper utilization of certain resources they are destroyed and floral and faunal species are becoming extinct. Ecotourism programmes can be introduced for the conservation of these resources. Several plans and proper management programmes can be introduced so that these resources remain untouched. Several organizations, NGO's, scientists are working on this field. Natural resources of hill areas like Kurseong in West Bengal are plenty in number with various flora and fauna, but tourism for business purpose poised the situation. Researcher from Jadavpur University presently working in this area for the develeopment of eco-tourism which can be utilized as a tool for natural resource management. In South-East Asia government and Non-Government Organisations are working together with academics and industry operators to spread the economic benefits of tourism into the kampungs and villages of the region. A recently formed alliance, the South-East Asian Tourism Organisation - SEATO is bringing together these diverse players to allay resource management concerns.

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TOURISM PLANNING : APPROACHES AND TECHNIQUE INTRODUCTION Planning for tourism has been an oft-cited concept. It is yet to be properly operationalised. The ideological foundations of society influence the planning process. This has its strengths and limitations. For example, market-based economies rely on the private sector and elements of capitalism for economic growth and development. Planning, in that context is often s een as a tool for the enhancement of the developmental opportunities. However, the profits of development in market based economies are unevenly shared. On the other hand, in centrally planned economics where the state holds all property rights, well formulated plans may fail to produce expected results. The reason given for this is the absence of individual incentives. To be effective, planning involves a commitment from diverse interest groups which could be many. These groups may even have conflicting interests. The Challenge here is to see tourism development planning process move in an orderly direction. This, at times, would require taking a compromising position without giving up the overall developmental objective. In this Unit we discuss the various levels and types of planning in tourism. This Unit also deals with the role of both, public and private sectors in this regard. LEVELS AND TYPES OF TOURISM PLANNING Ideally, tourism should be planned as one element in a comprehensive manner. More commonly, however, tourism planning is done independently without recognising it as an integrated sector. Tourism plans are, thus, prepared at various levels. Each of these levels focusses on a different degree of specificity. Although, not always possible to achieve, planning should be done in a sequence from general to specific. This is because general levels provide the framework and guidance for preparing specific plans. In the following Sub-sections we discuss the various levels of tourism planning.40 International Level This level of planning is concerned mostly with: international transportation services, the flow and tour programming of tourists among different countries, development of major attraction features and facilities in nearby countr ies, and multi country marketing strategies and promotion programmes.

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Some limited tourism planning, marketing and co-operative activities generally take place at the international level through organisations such as the WTO (World Tourism Organisation) and its regional commissions, the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO), some other United Nations agencies and their regional commissions, the International Air Transport Association (IATA), the Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA), the Caribbean Tourism Organisation (CTO), the Tourism Council of the South Pacific (TCSP), the Sub-Committee on Tourism (SCDT) of the Association of South-East Asian Nations (ASEAN), the Tourism Coordination Unit (TCU) of the South African Development Coordination Conference (SADCC) and the tourism committee of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). However, the major general purpose global tourism organisation is the WTO, an inter governmental organisation. The WTO has been designated by the United Nations as the executing agency for United Nations sponsored tourism related projects. The international planning level is rather weak because it depends on the cooperation of individual countries. However, it is nonetheless important for special function activities and is receiving encouragement from international agencies through their sponsorship of regional tourism projects. National Level The national level of tourism planning is what takes place within a country at the behest of its government. However, an ideal situation in this would be to involve the private sector, public sector and also public opinion. The national level of tourism planning is focused on several elements like: Defining tourism objectives; Tourism policy; A physical structure plan including identification of major tourist attractions, designation of tourism development regions, international access points and the internal transportation network of facilities and services; Establishing service standards for various components of tourism industry; The general amount, types and quality level of accommodation and other tourist facilities and services required; Establishing tourism information systems; The major tour routes in the country and their regional connections;

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 Tourism organisational structures, taxation, legislation and investment policies; Tourism marketing: research, strategies and promotion programmes; Human resource development, education and training programmes; Facility development and design standards; Socio-cultural, environmental and economic considerations and impact analysis; National level implementation techniques, including long term and short term development strategies and project programming; and Research to understand tourism impacts.41 Regional Level The regional level of tourism planning is for one region of a country. This can be a state, a province or a tourist circuit (like a group of islands, special areas like the Buddhist circuit, etc). However, regional plans are formulated within the broader framework of the national tourism policy and plan, provided it exists in a country. At the same time absence of a national level plan should not come in the way of regional planning. Regional planning focuses on the elements of: Regional policy; Regional access and the internal transportation network of facilities and services; Type and location of tourist attractions Location of tourism development areas including resort areas; Amount, type and location of tourist accommodation and other tourist facilities and services; Regional level environmental, socio -cultural and economic considerations and impact analyses; Regional level education and training programmes; Marketing strategies and promotion programmes; Organisational structures, legislations, taxations, regulations and investment policies; and Implementation techniques including project programming and regional regulations. Tourist facility development and design standards may also be accounted for at this level of planning. The regional level of tourism planning is, of course, more specific than the national level, although the degree of specificity at both levels depends on the size of the country or region. For a small country, the national plan may be at the same level of detail as regional plan in a larger country. Moreover, small countries may not need both national and regional planning. Much of regional planning is done

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for administrative regions. However, it should be based where possible, on logical tourism development regions. This should be regardless of whether these coincide with administrative boundaries or not. Destination Level In some countries or regions, there is need for sub-regional or local level planning. This is more specific than the regional level planning. This level of planning is also called destination/zonal planning. For planning purposes, a destination zone is defined as a geographic area containing critical mass of development that satisfies traveller objectives. A critical mass of tourism development implies a large and diverse enough amount of attractions and services to meet the needs and desires of several travel market segments. For example, a destination that contains attractions for both business and leisure markets would be most successful. The components of a destination plan will depend on the situation of the destination. However, it would include tourist attraction features, general location and services, access to the destination, its internal transportation network, other infrastructure considerations and relevant institutional factors. The role of local bodies is becoming increasingly important for this level of planning. PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR P. Pearce (The Social Psychology of Tourism Behaviour, 1982, Oxford) observed that the: Provision of services and facilities characteristically involves a wide range of agents of development. Some of these will be involved indirectly and primarily with meeting the needs of tourists, a role that has fallen predominantly to the private sector in most countries.... other agents will facilitate, contest or limit development. through the provision of basic infrastructure, planning or regulation. Such activities have commonly been the responsibility of the public sector with the government at various levels being charged with looking after the publics interest and providing goods and services whose cost cannot be attributed directly to groups or individuals. Pearces comments illustrate the essential distinction between the role of the private and the public sector in the provision of services and facilities for tourists. However, the tendency to privatise and commercialise functions that were once performed by government has been almost universal in western nations since the late 1970s. This has affected the nature of many national governments

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involvement in the tourism industry. Three major reasons for this trend can be easily identified. Governments are interested in: Reducing the dependency of public enterprises on public budgets; Reducing public debt by selling state assets; and Raising technical efficiencies by commercialisation. This has meant that there has been a much greater blurring in the roles of the public and private sectors. Let us see what exactly is the role of both these sectors in tourism planning. Public/Government Sector Contrary to tourism being an industry dominated by the business sector, it is developed and managed by a very important group, i.e., government. Generally, the primary role of government is governance, enactment an d implementation of laws and regulations. However, for tourism, most 43 countries have assured many very important functions other than regulation. In many countries, like India, governments provide a great number of visitor attractions. National Parks and monuments throughout the world not only protect valuable natural and cultural assets but also attract million of visitors. Most of the travel destination activities like sight seeing, skiing, trekking etc. take place on publicly owned and managed lands. In addition, the governmental sector owns and manages much of the infrastructure upon which tourism depends. From the community to the national level, this often includes water supply, sewage disposal, police and fire protection, streets and lighting, as well as electrical power and communications. Although the governing agencies may set policies and exercise practices primarily for the residents, these utilities are of critical importance to travellers. For example, some destinations are not popular with travellers because water supplies, police protection or even city planning is not adequate. In many countries, including India, tourism promotion and marketing have been accepted as roles of government. However, in most developing countries, like India, advertising makes up the largest share of the budget. Very little is left for research, planning, training and information systems. Certainly, understanding the many policies and practices of governmental agencies is essential to all forms of tourism pla nning and development. One can identify various reasons (form economic to political) for governments involvement in tourism: 1) Economic Reasons:

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 To improve the balance of payments in a country; To attract foreign exchange; To aid regional or local economic development; To diversity the economy; To increase income levels; To increase state revenue from taxes; and To generate new employment opportunities, etc. 2) Social and Cultural Reasons: To achieve social objectives related to social tourism to ensur e the well being and health of families and individuals; To protect cultural mores, traditions, resources and heritage; To promote a greater cultural awareness of an area and its people; and To promote international understanding. 3) Environmental Reasons: To undertake the stewardship of the environment and tourism resources to ensure that the agents of development do not destroy the future basis for sustainable tourism development; and To create a natural resource which will serve to attract tourists. 4) Political Reasons: To further political objectives by promoting the development of tourism in order to broaden the political acceptance of a government among visitors; To control the development process associated with tourism; To protect the public interest and the interests of minorities; and To further political ideology. The International Union of Tourist Organisations, the forerunner to the WTO, while discussing the role of state in tourism (1974) identified five areas of public sector involvement in tourism: Coordination , planning, legislation, regulation and entrepreneur stimulation.44 Private Sector The private sectors involvement in tourism is most likely to be motivated by profit, as tourism entrepreneurs invest in business opportunities. This gives rise to a complex array of large organisation and operators involved in tourism (e.g., multinational chain hotels, travel agencies, tour

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operators etc.) and an array of smaller businesses and operators, often employing less than ten people or working on a self employed basis. In a capitalist or mixed economy, development of tourist facilities and services such as hotels and other accommodation, tour and travel agencies, commercial type tourist attractions and activities and local infrastructure are usually the responsibility of the private sector, or in some areas, of public corporations. Initially, when tourism areas are commencing development, the government may need to take more of a lead role, including investment in commercial facilities and services. Later, when tourism is better established and proven to be successful, the private sector can take the primary investment role. Furthermore, in most developing countries, the private sector is small, private investment funds are limited and experience of tourism is negligible. Therefore cooperation is a must. Determining the respective roles of the public and private sectors in the development of tourism is a basic policy decision. Their respective roles may change through time, depending on changing circumstances, although the governments should maintain the basic policy, planning and implementation functions.

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