The processes by which dye is transferred from the liquor to the fibre are discussed briefly.

Dyes and fibres are complex in structure and most dyeing systems are multicomponent; thus any attempt to correlate the chemical structure of a fibre and the chemical structure of the dyes that are used to dye it will probably have limited success. A simplified classification of some dyeing systems is given. In general, dye-fibre systems may be divided into non-ionic and ionic systems, the latter being subdivided into ionic systems with like and those with unlike charges. These systems are discussed. Structural features of the fibre that may influence the equilibrium sorption of dye are given and the effects of fibre structure on the kinetics of dyeing are considered. The dye-fibre system is analysed. There is no theory of dyeing that can adequately describe practical behaviour.
(Ill) Diffusion: Accelerating the rate of diffusion of dye inside the fiber by piercing the insulating layer covering the fiber and interaction between dye and fiber.

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What is Textile? Textile is a very widely used term which includes... What is Textile Fiber? Textile fibers are the materials at natural or artificials... Properties of Textile Fiber Fiber should have some properties to be a textile fiber... Textile Manufacturing Process Textile manufacturing is a complex process. It starts from fiber... Different Textile Mechineries In normal concept"Engineering" means gathering of different kinds... Textile Ebooks for Textile Students Now I will give several download links of famous textile books for B.Sc. in Textile Engineering Students... Textile Calculation Calculate the length of a package of 80/1 and cone weight 2.083 lb...

Bamboo Fiber | Bamboo Fabric | Production Process of Bamboo Fabric | Uses of Bamboo Fabric
Bamboo fibres are cellulosic fibres produced from Bamboo Plants a type of grass. There are two methods of producing bamboo fibres namely Mechanical method & Chemical method. Mechanical methods are similar to Flax production ( retting, enzyme treatment, boiling, scutching, cutting etc.,) and this gives Natural bamboo fibres. There are two types of Chemical methods namely Bamboo Viscose Rayon method & Bamboo Lyocell method.Bamboo Viscose Rayon method produces Bamboo fibres in the same way as Viscose Rayon production methods. Bamboo Lyocell method produces Bamboo fibres in the same way as Lyocel / Tencel production methods. But the majority of the bamboo fibres for textile application is produced by the Viscose Rayon Production methods.Bamboo Fibres & Textiles are used in bed linen,...

Modern Concepts of The Theory of Dyeing

The general theory of dyeing explains the interaction between dye, fiber, water and dye auxiliary. But the modern concept are some difference from general concept which are given below. It appears that the mechanism of dyeing depends on the nature of both the dye and the fibre. Textile fall into two main groups : vegetable and animals vegetable fibre is cellulose fibre, e.g. cotton, lined, flax, hemp and jute. Animal fibres are protein fibre, e.g. wool, silk and leather. There is also a third type of fibres, the artificial and synthetic fibres e.g. rayons (cellulose-type) and nylons (protein-type). Dyeing was already practiced inn ancient times and has undergo many changes in its development. The first hypothesis of purely mechanical character attempting to explain the processes underlying...

Application of Dyeing Auxiliaries with Different Dyes | Uses of Dyeing Auxiliaries

Reactive Dyes (Anionic): They can be dyed on cellulosic fibers. The mechanism is nearly the same as described in direct dyes. Advantage: high wet fastness due to covalent bonding (Chemical Bonding) between fibers and dyes, easily dyed on fibers. Disadvantage: Expensive. Dyeing Conditions: A. Continuous Process: 1 Pad-dry-bake This is very easy method for cotton or cotton blends fibers. 2 Pad-dry-Pad (Chemical)-Steam This will give brighter and more intense color than method 1. 3 Pad-batch This will put the goods into the dye solution and squeeze with 2 rubber rollers to get rid of excess water and then batch at room temperature for 1-2 days. B.

Exhaustion Process: This method will be used in small factory. Dyeing conditions will be 408OoC for 30-90 mm depending...

Historical background of textile Production in Bangladesh

Textiles play an important role in the economic life of Bangladesh. The sector, in addition to meeting the demand of fabrics and apparel domestically, contributes significantly to the textiles and clothing (T&C) export trade. At present, more than 78 per cent of the countrys export earnings come from T&C. The sector provides employment to a workforce of 4.5 million and contributes 40 per cent value addition to the manufacturing sector. Textiles as a whole play the most significant role in the alleviation of poverty,provision of employment to rural women and economic empowerment of women. Thesector provides 200,000 jobs in the waste recycling industry related to ready-madegarments (RMG), contributes 10.5 per cent to GDP, provides indirect employment for an800,000-workforce in accessories...

Methods of Dyeing | Different Dyeing Methods | Direct Dyeing | Stock Dyeing | Yarn Dyeing | Piece Dyeing | Garment Dyeing
Colour is applied to fabric by different methods of dyeing for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile production process. Dyeing can be done during any stage in the textile manufacturing process. Textiles may be dyed as fibre, as yarn, as fabric, as garments, depending upon the type of the fabric or garment being produced. These methods include direct dyeing; Stock dyeing; top dyeing; Yarn dyeing; Piece dyeing; Solution pigmenting or dope dyeing; Garment dyeing etc. Of these Direct dyeing and Yarn Dyeing methods are the most popular ones. Direct Dyeing When a dye is applied directly to the fabric without the aid of an affixing agent, it is called direct dyeing. In this method the dyestuff is either fermented (for natural dye) or chemically reduced (for synthetic...

Dyeing Process | Process of Dyeing Technique

The dyeing process can thus be considered as taking place in three phasesAttachment of the dye molecule to the surface of the fiber Penetration into the intermolecular spaces as well as diffusion through the fiber & Orientation (and fixation) along the long chain molecules. Dyeing is

governed by three factors, the dye, the fiber and the dye liquor. All the three lead an independent assistance which influences the technique of dyeing. A dye must be water soluble in order to dye textile materials. It may be soluble by nature of its chemical interference. The solution of the dye from which it is applied is called the dye bath. A dye may have direct affinity for a fiber (or vice versa) i.e., it is held by the fibre either physically (absorption) or chemically (combination) as soon as the...

Functions of Dyeing Auxiliaries | Sequestering Agent | Dye Fixing Agent | Optical Brightener | Lubricating Agent or Anticreasing Agent | Levelling and Dispersing Agent | Antifoamers | Desizing Agent | Mercerizing Agent | Soaping Agent / Washing off Agent | Finishing Chemicals
There are different dyeing auxiliaries. They will be classified according to their functions and various uses. Dyeing auxiliaries provide high dyeing quality, process safety and increased reproducibility on all kinds of substrates and machines, in a variety of processes and with all classes of dyestuffs. Function of different dyeing auxiliaries are given below: Sequestrant: The most undesirable impurities in Fibre, Common salt, Glauber salt, Caustic Soda and Soda ash are the di- and tri-valent cations, e.g., Ca++, Mg ++ Cu ++, Fe+++ etc. These ions increase hardness of the process bath and generate iron oxides in the bath. Calcium and Magnesium reacts with alkali and precipitates as a sticky substance on the textile material, which creates patchy dyeing and discoloration of the fibre. The...

Dyeing Auxiliaries | Classification of Dyeing Auxiliaries According to Function

Dyeing auxiliaries mean a chemical or formulated chemical product which enables a processing operation in preparation, dyeing, printing or finishing to be carried out more effectively, or which is essential if a given effect is to be obtained. Classification of Dyeing Auxiliaries According to Function Dyeing Auxiliaries 1. Sequestrant. 2. Lubricants / Anticreasant. 3. Pretreatment Chemicals 4. Levelling and Dispersing Agent. 5. Sewuestering, Dispersing and Levelling Agentfor Reactive dyeing. 6. Antifoam. 7. pH Control and buffer system. 8. Desizing Agent 9. Yarn Lubricant 10. Mercerising agent 11. Dyefixing agent 12. Optical Brightener. 13. Soaping Agent / Washing off Agent. WQ762U88Z2W7 ...

Dye | Classification of Dye According to Application

By definition Dyes can be said to be coloured, ionizing and aromatic organic compounds which shows an affinity towards the substrate to which it is being applied. It is generally applied in a solution that is aqueous. Dyes may also require a mordant to better the fastness of the dye on the material on which it is applied. The dyes were obtained from animal, vegetable or mineral origin with no or very little processing. By far the greatest source of dyes has been from the plant kingdom, notably roots, berries, bark, leaves and wood, but only a few have ever been used on a commercial scale. Classification of Dye According to ApplicationReactive Dyes Acid Dyes Premetallized Dyes Direct Dyes Azoic (Napthol) Dyes Disperse Dyes Vat Dyes Sulfur Dyes Basic Dyes 1. REACTIVE DYES Reactive dyes are...

Dyestuff | Characteristics for a Suitable Dyestuff | Classification of Dyestuffs

Dyestuff is organic or inorganic substances which can absorb light and reflect some lights to show color. Actually, the dyestuff is water soluble substances. Criteria for a Suitable Dyestuff 1. Cheap 2. Non-toxic 3. Compatible to other dyes and chemicals 4. High color strength 5. Better brightness 6. Better fastness 7. Good levelness on the materials Exhaustion of the dye stuff to the fibers is as follows: 1. Moving of dyestuff from dye bath to surface of the fiber 2. Adsorption of the dyestuff into the surface of the fiber 3. Diffusion of the dyestuff into the center of the fiber. Classification of Dyestuffs Dyestuffs can be classified according to two ways 1. According to common parent structure 2. According to application Classification according to common parent...

Necessity of Auxiliaries in Textile Dyeing

A chemical or formulated chemical product which enables a processing operation

Read more: http://textilelearner.blogspot.com/2011_12_01_archive.html#ixzz1q8tRnVab accelerating the

AVITERASE
Revolutionary Textile Dyeing Products Save Water The next time you slip on a polo shirt from Lacoste or Marks & Spencer, you can take comfort in knowing the process used to dye the fabric is contributing to the sustainability of one of our most precious resourceswater.

The mills that these two clothing brands buy fabric from are using revolutionary product AVITERA SE, created by Huntsman to significantly reduce water and energy consumption, as well as carbon dioxide(CO2) emissions during the dyeing and washing-off process. Why it matters By 2030, the world demand for fresh water will increase by 40 percent. Textile dyeing and finishing processes consume vast amounts of water in the very parts of the world where it is most scarce. As environmental awareness grows, so does demand for textiles produced in more sustainable ways yet at low cost. Up to 26 gallons (100 liters) of water is needed to dye just two pounds (one kilogram) of cotton fabric. With AVITERA SE, water usage is reduced to just three to five gallons (15 to 20 liters) per two pounds of material. With the new dyeing technology, one quart (1.3 liters) of fresh water per person per day could potentially be saved in the major Asian textile processing countries such as China, India and Bangladesh. How it works Cellulose fibers, such as cotton, viscose or linen, are the most widely used textile fibers. Depending on the year and crop yields, about 30 millions tons of cotton are produced annually. By far the largest part of cellulose fibers is cotton. Pure cotton is mostly dyed using reactive dyes.

The dyeing process takes place in three distinct phases:

Adsorption and Diffusion The reactive dye is adsorbed onto the cellulose surface and then diffuses into the fiber matrix. Fixation If conditions are favorable (high temperature and/or high pH), the reactive dye reacts with active sites in the cellulose during this phase (fixation), resulting in a strong covalent bond. Washing Off To obtain the required fastness properties, all these forms of unfixed, adsorbed dye molecules must be washed off the fiber.

Industrial practice has shown that with AVITERA SE, nearly 90 percent of the dye applied to cotton during dyeing is fixed, as opposed to 60 to 80 percent with conventional reactive dyes. This ensures higher yield. Fabrics can be dyed and washed off at different temperatures and different quantities of water. Hot dyeing systems require a temperature of 176F (80C) to make the bond between dyestuff and fabric permanent. These systems also require boiling water and several rinsing baths to completely remove unfixed dyestuffs. Conventional warm dyeing systems already offer the benefit of creating the necessary bonds at a lower temperature 140F (60C)but still require a lot of water and high temperature for an appropriate wash-off. AVITERA SE dyes help significantly reduce water and energy consumption and CO2 emissions since dyeing and the washing-off process never exceeds 60C.With only five percent or less unfixed dye needing to be removed, instead of the usual 15 to 30 percent, the number of rinsing baths to obtain the required fastness properties is greatly reduced. To ensure that AVITERA SE dyes achieve the targeted resource and cost savings, they must be correctly applied. Huntsman Textile Effects works closely with textile mills to adapt their production processes and guarantee excellence in operation, strict cost control and a sustainable system. Helping brands and retailers to coordinate with mills and communicate with consumers improves cooperation throughout the textile value chain, resulting in greater environmental awareness and more sustainable textile process

What kinds of chemical bonds attach dyes to fibers?

This isn't just a trivia question. The types of bonds directly determine the properties of the dyes. The most permanent, wash-fast dyes are the most tightly attached to the fiber molecules. In addition, the requirements for forming the chemical bonds are what determine the ingredients and method for each recipe for dyeing.

Fiber Reactive Dyes Fiber reactive dyes, such as the dichlorotriazines (Procion MX type dyes), are attached to the fiber by the same strong covalent bonds that hold the atoms within the dye molecule together. The dye actually becomes one molecule with the fiber molecule to which it attaches. Covalent bonds are formed by electron sharing between atoms. Direct Dyes Direct dyes, including that portion of "all purpose" dyes that is left in cotton that has been dyed with them, are only loosely associated with the fiber molecule through the property called substantivity, which is the tendency of the dye to associate with the dye without strong bonds. This substantivity is increased by increasing the size of the dye molecule, so direct dyes tend to be large. Small dye molecules tend to be bright, while large dye molecules tend to be duller (as there are more parts that can absorb additional wavelengths of light), so direct dyes are generally much less bright in color than fiber reactive dyes. Substantivity is said to result from a combination of the relatively weak Van der Waals forces and some hydrogen bonding. Disperse Dyes Disperse dyes, used for synthetic fibers such as polyester, work by being vaporized by the heat of an iron or heat transfer press and then condensing onto and into the fiber. (They can also by induced to migrate into the fiber by boiling with a special carrier chemical.) Unsurprisingly, such loosely associated dye may rub off, though not visibly so. The fact that the dye can rub off on the wearer makes this class of dye more allergenic than other types of dye, though this is a problem for only a minority of people.

Such people are happier wearing natural fibers that have been dyed with fiber reactive dye.

Acid Dyes The attachment between acid dyes and the protein fibers that they join to are the most complex of all. Proteins are made of up to twenty different amino acids, each of which has a different side chain. At different pHs, different dyes can form rather strong hydrogen bonding to various of these side chains. Many acid dyes contain a sulfonic group, or, in some cases, a carboxylic group, which can form a strong 'salt linkage' to a basic group in the wool molecule. (See Ingamells, under "Further Reading", below.) A salt linkage is an ionic bond between fixed ions of opposite charges, due to Coulombic interaction. The strength of this bond is considered to be responsible for the washfastness of good acid dyes.
Note that certain specialized fiber reactive dyes are also used for wool, though the fiber reactive dyes commonly used for cotton, such as Procion MX dye, is said to not react appreciably with wool under acid conditions; instead, the types of fiber reactive dyes used on cotton can be used simply as acid dyes with wool, even if the reactive groups on the dye have 'gone bad' by reacting with water. (The alkaline conditions normally used with Procion MX dye on cotton will damage wool, though they work fine on silk.)

Vat Dyes Vat dyes, such as indigo, are trapped within the fiber by having been converted to a form that is insoluble in water. The vat dye is insinuated into the fiber while in a water-soluble form. This is a purely physical form of attachment, and not a chemical bond at all. Vat dyes are very wash-fast, but have the opposite reputation due to ring-dyeing. Ring dyeing is what happens when the dyer fails to make sure that the dye thoroughly penetrates the fiber shaft, but leaves only the surface of each fiber coated, so that even a little bit of wearing removes the dyed layer. Normally this is a sign of bad dye procedure, but the fading of blue jeans due to abrasion is generally appreciated, as it implies greater age for a garment than is actually the case.

Naphthol Dyes Like Vat dyes, Naphthol dyes are held in the fiber in a water insoluble form. The technique is quite interesting: any of a range of diazo salts are combined on the fabric with any of a range of naphthols (azoic coupling agents). Their reaction results in the formation of a water insoluble dye, typically of a very different color than either of the two components. Various combinations result in different colors. These dyes are widely used in batik producting in southeast Asia; the use of wax in batik requires that dye reactions not involve heat, so both naphthol dyes and cool water fiber reactive dyes are suitable for this purpose. Naphtol dyes are less expensive than many fiber reactive dyes, and peculiarly suited to painting different colors immediately adjacent to one another on fabric. Unfortunately, naphthol dyes are quite toxic, and probably significantly carcinogenic, and are thus not considered suitable for use at home or in the artist's studio. Natural Dyes Natural dyes are, in most cases, acid dyes, which is why they will bond to wool and other animal fibers, but not to cotton. A way to improve attachment to wool, and to make some weak attachment to cotton possible, is to use metal ions, sometimes including toxic heavy metal ions, to form a bridge between the dye and the fiber; this is called mordanting. Cotton is typically mordanted with tannins in addition to metal ions
Indigo is a natural dye, but it is quite different from other natural dyes, in that it is a member (the very first member) of the class of dye known as vat dyes, see above.

Further Reading

This article is about the process of coloring using dyes. For dying and the end of life, see death.
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This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. (Consider using more specific cleanup instructions.) Please help improve this article if you can. The talk page may contain suggestions. (January 2011)

Pigments for sale at a market in Goa, India.

Cotton being dyed manually in contemporary India.

Dyeing is the process of adding color to textile products like fibers, yarns, and fabrics. Dyeing is normally done in a special solutioncontaining dyes and particular chemical material. After dyeing, dye molecules have uncut Chemical bond with fiber molecules. Thetemperature and time controlling are two key factors in dyeing. There are mainly two classes of dye, natural and man-made. For most of the thousands of years in which dyeing has been used by humans to decorate clothing, or fabrics for other uses, the primary source of dye has been nature, with the dyes being extracted from animals or plants. In the last 150 years, humans have produced artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors, and to render the dyes more stable to resist washing and general use. Different classes of dyes are used for different types of fiber and at different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers through yarn and cloth to completed garments. Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, Nylon and protein fibers such as wool and silk are dyed with acid dyes, polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a range of dye types, including vat dyes, and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.

Contents
[hide]

1 History 2 Methods

o o

2.1 Direct application 2.2 Yarn dyeing

3 Removal of dyes 4 See also 5 References

[edit]History Main article: Natural dye Archaeologists have found evidence of textile dyeing dating back to the Neolithic period. The earliest surviving evidence of textile dyeing was found at the large Neolithic settlement atatalhyk in southern Anatolia, where traces of red dyes, possibly from ochre, an iron oxide pigment derived [1] from clay), were found. In China, dyeing with plants, barks and insects has been traced back more [2] than 5,000 years. Early evidence of dyeing comes from Sindh (Pakistan), where a piece of cotton dyed with a vegetable dye has been recovered from the archaeological site at Mohenjo-daro (3rd [3] millennium BCE). The dye used in this case was madder, which, along with other dyes such [3] as indigo, was introduced to other regions through trade. Natural insect dyes such as Tyrian purple and kermes and plant-based dyes such as woad, indigo and madder were important elements of the economies of Asia and Europe until the discovery of man-made synthetic dyes in the mid-19th century. The first synthetic dyes was William Perkins's mauveine in 1856, derived from coal tar. Alizarin, the red dye present in madder, was the first natural pigment to be duplicated [4] synthetically, in 1869, a development which led to the collapse of the market for naturally grown [5] madder. The development of new, strongly colored synthetic dyes followed quickly, and by the 1870s commercial dyeing wth natural dyestuffs was disappearing.

[edit]Methods

Dyeing in Fes, Morocco.

Dyes are applied to textile goods by dyeing from dye solutions and by printing from dye pastes. [edit]Direct

application

This section requires expansion.

The term "direct dye application" stems from some dyestuff having to be either fermented as in the case of some natural dye or chemicallyreduced as in the case of synthetic vat and sulfur dyes before being applied. This renders the dye soluble so that it can be absorbed by the fiber since the insoluble dye has very little substantivity to the fiber. Direct dyes, a class of dyes largely for dyeing cotton, are water soluble and can be applied directly to the fiber from an aqueous solution. Most other classes of synthetic dye, other than vat and surface dyes, are also applied in this way. The term may also be applied to dyeing without the use of mordants to fix the dye once it is applied. Mordants were often required to alter the hue and intensity of natural dyes and improve their color fastness. Chromium salts were until recently extensively used in dying wool with synthetic mordant dyes. These were used for economical high color fastness dark shades such as black and navy. Environmental concern has now restricted their use, and they have been replaced with reactive and metal complex dyes which need no mordant. [edit]Yarn

dyeing

There are many forms of yarn dyeing. Common forms are the at package form and the at hanks form. Cotton yarns are mostly dyed at package form, and acrylic or wool yarn are dyed at hank form. In the continuous filament industry, polyester or polyamide yarns are always dyed at package form, while [6] viscose rayon yarns are partly dyed at hank form because of technology. The common dyeing process of cotton yarn with reactive dyes at package form is as follows: 1. The raw yarn is wound on a spring tube to achieve a package suitable for dye penetration.

2. These softened packages are loaded on a dyeing carrier's spindle one on another. 3. The packages are pressed up to a desired height to achieve suitable density of packing. 4. The carrier is loaded on the dyeing machine and the yarn is dyed. 5. After dyeing, the packages are unloaded from the carrier into a trolly. 6. Now the trolly is taken to hydro extractor where water is removed. 7. The packages are hydro extracted to remove the maximum amount of water leaving the desired color into raw yarn. 8. The packages are then dried to achieve the final dyed package. After this process, the dyed yarn packages are packed and delivered. [edit]Removal

of dyes

If things go wrong in the dyeing process, the dyer may be forced to remove the dye already applied by a process that is normally known as stripping. This normally means destroying the dye with powerful reducing agents (sodium hydrosulphite) or oxidizing agents (hydrogen peroxide or sodium hypochlorite). The process often risks damaging the substrate (fiber). Where possible, it is often less risky to dye the material a darker shade, with black often being the easiest or last option. [edit]See

also
Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Dyeing

Glossary of dyeing terms

[edit]References

1. 2. 3.

^ Barber (1991), pp. 223-225. ^ Goodwin, Jill. A Dyer's Manual, Pelham, 1982. ISBN 0720713277p. 11. ^
a b

Bhardwaj, H.C. & Jain, K.K., "Indian Dyes and Industry During 18th-19th Century", Indian Journal

of History of Science 17 (11): 70-81, New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. 4. ^ Hans-Samuel Bien, Josef Stawitz, Klaus Wunderlich Anthraquinone Dyes and Intermediates in Ullmanns Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry 2005 Will;.,ey-VCH, Weinheim: 2005.doi:10.1002/14356007.a02 355. 5. 6. ^ Goodwin (1982), p. 65 ^ Farer Thread

2.4. Cation exchange capacity tests Bache [37] method was used in this study because of its simplicity. The soil samples, which dried at 105 0 C and weighed 4-5 gr, were saturated to Na

+ with sodium acetate (CH3COONa.3H2O) solution (1 N) at pH 8.2. When the samples were fully saturated with Na + , ethanol (95%) was used to wash out excess salt and the Na + cations were replaced with NH4 + by using a ammonium acetate (CH3COONH4) solution (1 N) at pH 7.0. Then, the amount of sodium in the solution was determined by the atomic adsorption method and the cation exchange capacity of the samples was calculate with below equation: N xD W CEC meq g f 4 10 ( / 100 ) = (1) Where Nf is concentration of sodium ion in extract, D is density coefficient of ammonium acetate solition, and W is oven-dry sample weight (g). 2.5. pH and zeta potential tests The pH of the samples were determined using the method of Eades and Grim [38], which involves mixing the solids with pure water (1:5 solid: water), periodically shaking samples, and then testing with a pH meter after 1 hour. The zeta potential of the samples were measured using a Zeta Meter 3.0 (Zeta Meter Inc.)

equipped with a microprocessor unit. The unit automatically calculates the electrophoretic mobility of the particles and converts it to the zeta potential using the

2.6. Swelling pressure tests The swelling pressure tests were performed on compacted soil samples using an oedometer apparatus with a diameter of 75 mm and heigth of 20 mm following Method C proposed ASTM (ASTM D4546). The samples were confined in the consolidation ring and they were saturated with water and allowed to swell freely. As the samples were swelling, the deflection of the dial gauge was set up to zero. As a result, the samples showed no further tendency to swell and the maximum surcharge load, P, was used for the calculation of the swelling pressure. 3. Results and Discussion In the following sections, the effects of additives on the variatons of the CEC, the pH, the zeta potential, and the swelling pressure in three expansive soils treated with additives are presented. The findings of the experimental tests are discussed and compared with the other studies in the literature