2011

:.,.,.,,2011

1: EI ........................................................................................... 1-5
1.1

.................................................................................................. 1-5

1.2

........................... 1-5

1.3

................................................................................. 1-8

1.4

/ .................................................................................... 1-9

1.5

-............................................................................................................... 1-10

1.6

............................................................................................. 1-10

1.7

..................................................................... 1-11

1.8

.............................................................................................. 1-12

2: ............................................................ 2-15
2.1

......................................................................................... 2-15

2.2

........................................................... 2-16

2.3

........................................................................................ 2-17

2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3

2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3

............................................................ 2-17
..................................................................................... 2-20
............................................................................................................................ 2-22

........................... 2-23
....................................................................................... 2-23
............................................................................................... 2-24
......................................................................................................... 2-26

2.5

.............................................................................. 2-27

2.6

......................................................................... 2-27

2.7

.................................................................................................................... 2-29

2.8

........................................................................................................... 2-32

2.9

........................................................................................ 2-34

2.10

..................................................................... 2-35

3: ............................................................................................. 3-37
3.1

...................................................................................................... 3-37

3.2

.................................................................................................... 3-38

3.3

..................................................................................... 3-39

3.4

..................................................................................................................... 3-41

3.5

.................................................................................................................. 3-45

3.6

............................................. 3-46

1-2

:.,.,.,,2011

4: ................................................................. 4-47
4.1

............................................................................. 4-47

4.2

.............................................................................................................. 4-48

4.3

........................................................................... 4-49

4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3

....................................................................................................... 4-49
() ....................................................................................... 4-52
........................................................................................................ 4-52

5: I.................................................. 5-55
5.1

................................................................................................... 5-55

5.2

........................................................... 5-57

5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3

5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3

5.4
5.4.2

5.5
5.5.1
5.5.2

5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2

5.7

.................................................................................................. 5-57
..................................................................................... 5-61
.................................................................................. 5-62

...................................................................................................... 5-64
............................................................... 5-68
........................................................... 5-69
.......................................................................................................... 5-74

................................................................................................................... 5-77
......................................................................................... 5-82

............................................................................................... 5-83
................................................................................................................ 5-83
..................................................................................................................... 5-84

............................................... 5-85
....................................................................................................................... 5-85
......................................................................................................................... 5-86

.......................................................................................... 5-87

6: ............ 6-89
6.1

...................................................................................... 6-89

6.2

Fo................................................................................... 6-92

6.3

................................................................................ 6-95

6.4

............................................................. 6-97

7: LASER .... 7-99

7.1

.............................................................................................................................. 7-99

7.2

LIDAR ...................................................................................... 7-99

7.3 lidar lidar

Klett.............................................................................................................. 7-104
7.4

LIDAR ...................................................................................... 7-106

1-3

:.,.,.,,2011

8: ..... 8-107
8.1

............................................................................................................................ 8-107

8.2

........................................................................................................ 8-108

8.3

.......................................................... 8-108

8.4

........................................................ 8-110

9: ........................................ 9-113
9.1

......................................................................................... 9-113

9.2

............................. 9-115

9.3

- - ........................................... 9-117

9.3.1
9.3.2
9.3.3
9.3.4
9.3.5

9.4

.................................................................................................................................. 9-117
............................................................................................................. 9-117
.............................................................................. 9-118
....................................................................................................... 9-118
................................................ 9-119

................................................................................. 9-121

9.4.1
9.4.2
9.4.3
9.4.4
9.4.5
9.4.6

(SO2) ................................................................................................... 9-121

(x) .................................................................................................. 9-122
(3) ............................................................................................................................. 9-122
..................................................................................................... 9-122
........................................................................................ 9-122
........................................................................................................ 9-123

9.5

.................................................................................................. 9-123

9.6

........................................................................... 9-125

9.7

................................................................................. 9-127

9.7.1
9.7.2
9.7.3

............................................................................... 9-127
..................................................................... 9-127
........................................ 9-128

9.8

.................................................................... 9-129

9.9

(DOAS) ............................... 9-131

9.9.1

9.10
9.10.1
9.10.2
9.10.3

9.11
9.11.1
9.11.2
9.11.3
9.11.4

.................................................................................................................................. 9-131

DOAS .................................................................................... 9-132

.................................................................................................. 9-133
............................................................................................... 9-135
..................................................................................... 9-140

............................................................... 9-142
............................................................................................. 9-142
10 ......................................................................... 9-142
............................................................................... 9-143
........................................................................................................................ 9-144

1-4

:.,.,.,,2011

1: EI

1.1

:
,
, .

,
Kelvin, 1883

,
.

.

. .
.
, , ,
, ,
, ( )

1.2

. ,
,

. ,
,
.

1-5

:.,.,.,,2011

:

( )

.
,
...
.



.
(..
, ,
...).

, :

(..
, ...).

. ,
90%.

(
).

(
, ).

,
. '
, , ,
,
.

1-6

:.,.,.,,2011

.
. , , ,
.
1.1

1.1:
.

0.2 m/s + 5%

0.1 m/s

1.0

0.5 C

0.1 oC

0.1 oC

0.02 oC

1.5 oC

0.1 oC

3 mb

0.5 mb

5%

10 W/m2

1-7

:.,.,.,,2011

1.3

(representativeness)



. ,
-
, , ,
.


.


.

:

. ,
, .

.

10 m. '
.


.

(0.5 ms-1)
,
.

. ..
.
, .

1-8

:.,.,.,,2011

.

. ' ,
.

.
.

, :

, , ...

. , .. .

, .. , ...

1.4

,

.
QA/QC (Quality Assurance/Quality
Control, / ).


.
:

1-9

:.,.,.,,2011

,
, ,

.
(audits) , ,
.
:

(system audits).

,
, , ,
.

(performance audits).

1.5

,
.
,
.

.
,
..
. -
, .

. -
,
, .

1.6

1. :
(, )
.

1-10

:.,.,.,,2011

.
.
2. : (A/D)
.

.
3. : ,
(pc) (data logger). ,
. ,
, ,
. ,
,
,
. ,
.
,
, ,

.

:

.
.

.

.

1.7

:
1.
.
2. ,
.
.
:

, .

1-11

:.,.,.,,2011

.

.
1.1
,
,
, . ,
.
,
.

1.1: :
) , ) , ) , )
, )
, ) , ) ) .

1.8

()
.

1-12

:.,.,.,,2011

. .. , ,


.
,
, . ,

.

, . (
)

.
.
(
) .

. ,


.
.
.. .

.

1-13

:.,.,.,,2011

1-14

:.,.,.,,2011

2:
2.1

, ,
(.
).
, ()

k BT =

2
1
M va
2

(2-1)

kB Boltzmann (1.3807 x 10-23 kg m2 s-2 K-1 -1), M

(4.8096 x 10-26 kg -1) va
(m s-1).

, .

.
Galileo

.
Galileo Ferdinand II,
.
ovv. v v o
v. v o v o
, v v o ovovo o v ,
v . ' ov o oo o v ov
o . o o
o o 1641

.

2-15

:.,.,.,,2011

2.1: Galileo ()
().

2.2

.

.
, , :
H2O (
):

Tr =0.00 C

H2O ( ) p (mm
Hg):

Tr =100.00 C + 0.0367 (p-760) -0.000023 (p-760)2

C2 p (mm Hg):

Tr =-78.5 C + 0.01595 (p-760) -0.000011 (p-760)2

,
.
.
. , :
- Celsius 1742,

2-16

:.,.,.,,2011

- Farenheit (1714),
- Kelvin (1850).
Anders Celsius 1742
0oC
100oC. ,
. Farenheit
212oF 32oF. , Kelvin,
, 273.15
373.15 .
. Kelvin,
Celsius Farenheit .
:

C o F o - 32
=
5
9

(2-2)

C o = K - 273.15

(2-3)

, 1990 (ITS-90)
T90.
(-80 +60 C)

273.16 Kelvin.

2.3

. , , :
) , .
( , )
) (, )
) ()

2.3.1

.
.

2-17

:.,.,.,,2011

, .

= Hg a

(2-4)

Hg,
(0.000182/ 0.00106/,
) (0.000018-0.000027/). ,

20C.
,
10C.
-114.6 oC 78 oC.
-38.9 oC 357 oC.

.
,
.

.

.

.
( 2.2). ,
. , ,

. ,
, . ,
.

2-18

:.,.,.,,2011

2.2: .
.

2.3: (),
().

( 2.2). ,

.

.
, , ""
.
. ,
.

6 7
.

.
, o .

2-19

:.,.,.,,2011

,
,
.
.

( 2.3).
20-30
0.2-0.3 oC 0 oC 0.3-0.5 oC
0 oC.

2.3: .

2.3.2

. :

.
, .
:
, , ,
.

. R
:

2
RT = R0 (1+ aT + bT )

2-20

(2-5)

:.,.,.,,2011

R0 ( 0oC) a, b
, R0, .

(2-3) . a
0.00385-0.00392 C-1.

. (thermistors):
( 2.4)

. ,
, (
).
. :

RT = R0 e

1 1
k( - )
T T0

(2-6)

R (), R0 T0 (K).
0 298.16 k 4000.

2.4: Pt100
.

. ( ) 10-20
.
0.1 oC 1 .

2-21

:.,.,.,,2011

2.5: .

2.3.3

,
.
,
.
:
2

= a(Tm - Tr ) + b ( T m - Tr )

(2-7)

(m)
(r).
(..
(0oC)).

.

, ,
. ,
0.1-3 .
, 40 V C-1 .
:

: costantan

J: costantan

: (10% ) costantan

V: (10% ) (5% )

2-22

:.,.,.,,2011

2.4

2.4.1

. ,
.
,
.
Tu
Tr Tr ,

(, ) ( , ...).
:

dT
1
= (T Tr )
dt

(2-8)

t .

2.6: . Tu
, Tr
.

Tr ,

2-23

:.,.,.,,2011

T Tr =

Tu Tr
et /

(2-9)

.
,

, u-r,
1/e, . 37%. 2.1

.

. ,
30 .
, (
)
( ).
,
.


.

2.1:

(s)

80-90

50-60

20-30

0.1-3

2.4.2

,
. , .. ,

.

2-24

:.,.,.,,2011

. , , :

) ,
( 2.7).

(, ...)
. 1.2
.
.

.
. , .
, , ( , ),
+1.5 oC
-0.5oC.

2.7: . /
.

2-25

:.,.,.,,2011

)
( )
.

.
.

2.4.3

,

. ,
.

2.8: (). /

().

2-26

:.,.,.,,2011

2.5

. .
'
, .
. ,

. '

.

, ,
. ,
,
.
, :
1. , ,
.
(
). ,

.
2. , ,
.. (. ). ,

.

2.6

, .
, .
,
. ,
.

:

2-27

:.,.,.,,2011

.
,
.
:

esw = 10

2353.38
T

9.40 -

(2-10)

esi = 10

10.55 -

2667.41
T

(2-11)

esw esi hPa

.

:

r = 100

e
es

(2-12)

r , e
es .
:
:

q= Mw
Ma

0.622e
p

(2-13)

Mw, Ma
V p .
:

m=

w 0.622e
=
p-e
d

(2-14)

w, d .

2-28

:.,.,.,,2011

Td =

240.97 ln (e / 6.1121)
17.502 ln(e / 6.1121)

(2-15)

, Td,
, e, millibars hPa.
http://hurri.kean.edu/~yoh/calculations/
,
.

2.7

(
).
( )
( ) (
).
. .

,
. ,

, 2.2.
(2-12)
(2-10) (2-11)
, w, Kelvin.
:

e = esw - 0.00066(1 + 0.00115 T w )p T w

(2-16)

e = esi - 0.00066(1 + 0.00115 T w )p T w

(2-17)

.
Assmann ( 2.9)
. Assmann 3-5
.

2-29

:.,.,.,,2011

2.9: Assmann.

2-30

:.,.,.,,2011

2.2 : (%)
, w, , w
Tw

Tw
0

1 2

3 4

8 10

100 83 67 54 42 31 22 7 0

100 84 70 58 47 37 28 14 2

100 86 73 61 51 42 33 20 9

100 87 75 64 54 46 38 25 15

100 88 76 66 57 49 42 29 19

10

100 88 78 69 60 52 45 33 24

12

100 89 79 70 62 55 48 37 28

14

100 90 81 72 64 57 51 40 31

16

100 90 82 74 66 60 54 43 34

18

100 91 83 75 68 62 56 45 37

20

100 91 83 76 69 63 58 48 39

22

100 92 84 77 71 65 59 50 41

24

100 92 85 78 72 66 61 51 43

26

100 92 85 79 73 67 62 53 45

28

100 93 86 80 74 68 63 53 47

30

100 93 86 80 75 69 65 56 48

32

100 93 87 81 76 70 66 57 50

34

100 93 87 82 76 71 67 58 51

36

100 94 88 82 77 72 68 59 52

38

100 94 88 83 78 73 68 60 53

2-31

:.,.,.,,2011

2.10: .

2.8

.

. 0% 100%
2.0-2.5%. ,

. ()
.

.
.
(
2.10).

.
. ,

2-32

:.,.,.,,2011

,
. .
,
, , , .
,
.

2.11:
() ().

2.3 : ( )
(oC)

+25
10

+25

30

0
12

55

-30
30

-30

800

2-33

:.,.,.,,2011

2.12: .

2.9

, Beer

I
= exp( k d v x )
I0

(2-18)

, 0
, k (m2kg-1), dv
(kg m-3) x (m).
.
. Lyman-alpha
(~121.56 nm) 1000 nm
3000 nm (.. 2663
2734 nm)

. , ..
,
(~2600 nm) (~2300 nm).
2.13.

121.56 nm.
2-34

:.,.,.,,2011

,
.
.


,
.

2.13: .

2.10
) :

.
.
) :
.
.
,

.

, .

2-35

:.,.,.,,2011

2-36

:.,.,.,,2011

3:
3.1

..


. .

( ) .
,
- , ,
.
()
( 3.1).
(.. = , = )

(.. N = North = ).

3.1: .
.
16 .

3-37

:.,.,.,,2011

3.2

Beaufort 0
() 12 ()
. Beaufort

.
1800 1850
, .
, Beaufort
.

V = 0.836 B3

(3-1)

V (ms-1)
Beaufort..
H Beaufort
3.1.
,
(ms-1).
(knots), Beaufort
.
:
1 ms-1 = 2.237 / = 3.6 km/hour = 3.281 ft/s = 1.943 knots

3-38

(3-2)

:.,.,.,,2011

3.1: Beaufort
Beaufort

6 m
(ms-1)

<0.6

0.6-1.7

1.8-3.3

3.4-5.2

5.3-7.4

7.5-9.8

9.9-12.4

12.5-15.2

15.3-18.2

18.3-21.5

10

21.6-25.4

11

25.5-29.0

12

>29.0

3.3

, ,

,
.
0.5 m s-1. A ,

3-39

:.,.,.,,2011

.

.
,
.
.
:

) 10m (" "),

) .

10
.
( 50% 5m/s
25%).
.
5
, 50
100 .

, .
,
. ,


.

.

(.. , SODAR).

.

3-40

:.,.,.,,2011

3.4

.
: ( )
.

63% .

.
:
1)
,
2) )
Pitot .
)
Doppler
3)
(hot wire anemometer).

1
Fd = C d AV 2
2

(3-3)

Cd , (m2) V
(ms-1). O
.
0-1.
(cup anemometers) ( 3.2)
3 4 6

1 1.25
.

.
.

3-41

:.,.,.,,2011

3.2: ( ) ( ),
().

3-42

:.,.,.,,2011

,
2-3
. ,
,

.
( )
.

( )
.
,

.


.

3
4 .
, .
90 (
) ( 3.3).
-
-
.

V = ( u2x + u2y )

(3-3)

,
.

3-43

:.,.,.,,2011

3.3: :.
() ().

3.4: ()
.

3-44

:.,.,.,,2011

(sonic anemometers)
.

. 0 30 ms-1
0.3 ms-1.
Doppler (sodar)
' ( 2 km)
.
.

3.5

.

.

.
.1 5
1.

( 3.2) -
, ,
.
: ,
,
.
(
).

.
.



.

( )
(.. ).

3-45

:.,.,.,,2011

ux uy
:

d = arc[ tan( u y / u x )]

3.6

(3-5)

,

.
(..
) (.. ).
10 m
.
.
.
, ,
(power law).
:
u(z) = u(z1) (z/z1)p

(3-6)

u(z) z, z1 p

( 3.2).

3.2: p 3.5
zo,

,
,

(z0~0.0001 m)

(z0~0.05 m)

(z0~0.15 m)

(z0~1.0 m)

0.04

0.07

0.11

0.25

0.05

0.09

0.12

0.29

0.07

0.10

0.13

0.34

0.09

0.11

0.15

0.38

0.12

0.14

0.17

0.45

0.28

0.35

0.40

3-46

:.,.,.,,2011

4:
4.1

.
o .
:

p = gdz

(4-1)

,
.

1
p = CV 2
2

(4-2)

p Pa C
. ..
13 ms-1 , ,
. , ,
,
. ,


.
.

dp = - gdz

(4-3)

p , , g z
. ,

P= RT

4-47

(4-4)

:.,.,.,,2011

R 287 J kgr-1 K-1 , 0

z
m g R
:

Pz=P0exp(-gz/RTm)

(4-5)

P0 . ,

z1 =

p
R Tm
ln( 0 ) + z 0
g
p1

(4-6)

z1 , p0
(z0=0) p1 z1. (4-6)
.
, .
,
.
(
).
, ..
.

4.2

Pascal (Pa), :
1 Pa = 1 N m-2 = 10 dynes cm-2

(4-7)

(millibar, mbar) hPa (hectoPascal)
1 bar:

1mbar= 10-3bar = 1hPa = 102 Pa = 102 N m-2

4-48

(4-8)

:.,.,.,,2011

millimetres () (inches)
(Hg) (13.5951
gr cm-3) (9.8 m s-2)
.

1mbar = 1hPa = 0.750 mm Hg = 0.029530 in Hg

(4-9)

" " (1 atm ) () :

1 atm = 1.01325*105 N m-2 = 760 mmHg = 1013.25 mbar = 1013.25 hPa

4.3

(4-10)

, ,
:
) ,
,
) () ,
) .

4.3.1

Evangelista
Toricelli 1643 1 m 1
cm2, , .

.

.
.
( )
( ).
,

.
:

4-49

:.,.,.,,2011

F = m g

(4-11)

m = m h Ac

(4-12)

m , h Ac
. :

p=

F
Ac

(4-13)

(4-11)-(4-13) :

p = m h g

(4-14)

. (4-14)
:
)
)
) .


. 0C

(4-5).

4-50

:.,.,.,,2011

4.1: .
.

4.2: .
( ) mbar ( ).

+ 0.1 mbar.

0.2-0.3 mbar,
.
Fortin Kew.

4-51

:.,.,.,,2011

4.3.2

()

,
. , ( 4.2)

. ,
,
.
()
.
.
,
. , ,
(
4.3). .
Paulin.

4.3: () () .

4.3.3

.
(transducers)

, (..
DC AC ),
(.. ),
RS232 IEEE488.
.
.

4-52

:.,.,.,,2011

.

.

.
.

,
.


.
.

- .

Wheatstone.

4-53

:.,.,.,,2011

4-54

:.,.,.,,2011

5: I


, ,
.
,

.
, ,

.
,
.

5.1

,

,

.
.
(spectral radiance) [W m-2 nm-1 sr-1]

,
, . ,

(, )
.
L( , , ) =

d 3
d cos d d

(1)

( ) (
.
(spectral irradiance) [W m-2 nm-1]

.
(2)

5-55

:.,.,.,,2011

. , (..
) ,
. ,
,
.
E ( ) =

L( , , ) cos sin d d
0 0

(2)
(spectral actinic flux) [W m-2 nm-1]

. ,
(4).
()
. ,
.
F ( ) =

L( , , ) sin d d

(3)

0 0

,

() 1 2:
2

E = E ( ) d

(4)

s(),
( ) (.. ).
, :
E = E ( ) s( ) d

(5)

s() 0.
,
,
(). ,

5-56

:.,.,.,,2011

(t)
t.
H = E (t ) dt

(6)

5.2

, ,

.

.
.
,
.
:
) (),

.
) ,
.
) ,
,
) ,



. ,

.
.

5.2.1

.
,
.
, :

5-57

:.,.,.,,2011

( - irradiance)

(
- irradiance)

( - irradiance)

( - radiance)

( )
, .
' (, , )
.

(, ),
(, , , ), (.. , ,
).
(, ) .


.

,

.
()
(integrating sphere) (diffuser).

,
, .
,
(.. )
(.. )

.


. ,
.
.

5-58

:.,.,.,,2011

( )
. () .


().
( )

. , ,
.
,
,
.

. (
5.2).
.

.
.

.
, , ..
Teflon.
,

.
,
,
.
.


.

5%. ,

.
,
. ,

.
5-59

:.,.,.,,2011

,
,
, .

, .

, ,
, .

(.. ),

(.. ).
( ) ,
. ""
( )
.
.

.
( 0.5).
( )
.
-,
(
).
( )

.
,
.
,
,
, .
.

.
(..

5-60

:.,.,.,,2011

).

. ,
.
, , ,
,
.


:
Ed = E Eb cos

(7)

, b d , (
)
, (
) . (7)
:
E d ( ) = E ( ) E b ( ) cos

(8)

()

,
.
( )
,
. ,
,
(
)
. ,
,
.

5.2.2

,
,
.
( )
( )
, .

5-61

:.,.,.,,2011

.

,
.

( ) (
). ,
:

(broad-band),
20 nm

(narrow-band),
10 nm

(spectroradiometers)
( 2 nm)
.

,
.


.


. ,
.
.

,
. 5.3.3).
.
,
,
( ).

5.2.3

.
(.. , , ) (..

5-62

:.,.,.,,2011

)
.
, ,
.
.

.
( )
.

.
.
,
(4-6) .
.


( ).

.
.

,
.
.
,
.

.

,
.
,
.

.
( )
.

5-63

:.,.,.,,2011

,

.

5.3

.
,
, .

, ,
. , ,
.

,
.
,
, ,
,

.
,

.

5-64

:.,.,.,,2011

l
=1

=2

=3

=4

5.1
.

( ) ,
.

.
5.1,
(. 0).
,
: (
), (
) .
,
.

, .
,

, .

, .

5-65

:.,.,.,,2011

.
( )
.
5.1.
.
, l
( l
300 6000 ).
:

+ = l

(9)

5.3. .

( )
. , (9)
. = 0 ( )

. .
(9)
, .

1, =1
1/2, =2
1/3, =3
.........

, =1

/2, =2
/3, =3
.........

5.2.
.

5-66

:.,.,.,,2011

( 5.2).
, = 600 nm ()
( = 1) ( = 2)
/2 = 300 nm ().
,

. (
) '

.
,
,
.
.
,


. ,
.

, , .
,
.
.

.
.

5-67

:.,.,.,,2011

(diode arrays).
( 5.3), .
,

.
, ,
, .

,

.

5.3.1

.
,
. ,

.

.

:

1 (.. , , )
.

.
,
.
().

(fit).
,

.
1

, ( ) .

.

5-68

:.,.,.,,2011

5.3.2

,
.
:
5.3.2.1

(stray scattered light)

.
-
-
( ),
. ,

( (9)).


. ,

1, .. .
:

.

(.. 300 nm)
. (.. 340
nm 1000 ).
(.. 1 10000)
, 5%
. (
340 nm ), .

.


,
1

5-69

:.,.,.,,2011

.

.

.

.

. ,

.



.
5.3.2.2

:
,
.
,
(nm).
.

.

.

,
.
.

.
5.3.2.3

,
.

5-70

:.,.,.,,2011

(0)
.
, ()
, , .
E ( ) = E (0) cos

(10)

(
= 0). ,
(..
) , ,
.

, ()
( 5.4, ).
.
90.

(0) cos. fb() :
f b ( ) =

E ( )
E (0) cos

(11)

()
.

, .
fb() (11)
(10) (11) fb() 1.
(angular response error) (cosine error), fc(),
.

5-71

:.,.,.,,2011

1.0

(%)

() / (0)

0.5

0.0
0
-25
-50
-75
-100
0

30

60

()

90

5.4. :
() ( ). : .

E ( )

f c ( ) =
1 * 100
E (0) cos

(12)

5.1 (
). ,
,
20%.
,
.

() (
), (2).
( )
(
cos (10)). ,
( ) ,
( cos ).
,
,
( cos = 1).

5-72

:.,.,.,,2011

. ,
(-

)

, 1-2%.


.
5.3.2.4

(5.2.2),
,

,
.
.

.
, , (slit function).
,
1.0

1

()
()
()

0.1
0.6
FWHM

0.4
0.01

0.8

0.2

0.001

0.0
-3

-2
-1
0
1
2
(nm)

5.5.
.

5-73

:.,.,.,,2011

FWHM (Full Width at Half Maximum).

5.5

.
.
, ()
()
1 2 ( w() ),
. :
2

E ( ) = C E ( ' ) w( ' ) d '

(13)

C :
2

C = w( ')d '
1

5.3.3

(14)

,
.
, ( )
.
,
,
.


.
.
( )
.

,
.
, (
),

5-74

:.,.,.,,2011

.
, National Institute of
Standards and technology (NIST), , National Physical Laboratory (NPL),
, PTB.
,
0.5%.

70-100 .

.

( 50-70 ).

DC

5.6. .

.

(4.000 - 8.000 ).


.
(.. )

.

.
,

5-75

:.,.,.,,2011

,
.

. 5.6.
(. ) S()
(),
C() :
C ( ) =

S ( )
E ( )

(15)

() :
E ( ) =

S ( )
C ( )

(16)

( )

. ,

.

,
. (15)
(16) .
,
,
. :

( 0.1 %)

( 1 )

( )

( 2)

5-76

:.,.,.,,2011

,

.
,
.
,

(.. )
. ,

.

,
.

5.4

,

( 5.2).
,

.
,

.

.
.

, ,
.
. ,
0.8
0.7, 0.80.7=0.56
.
,
, .

5-77

:.,.,.,,2011

,
(
) (, ).
.

" "
,
.
.

.
( )
,

,
.
,
.

1.0

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0
250

300

350

(nm)

400

450

5.7.
UV-A.

5-78

:.,.,.,,2011

.
,
.


(.. ).
. ()

S() ,
s() :
S ( )
Eo ( )
s ( ) =
S (max )
Eo (max )

(17)

max .
s(max)=1.

.
.

(..
, ).

. ,

. 5.7
. ,
,
.

,
,

.

.
.
(.. ),

5-79

:.,.,.,,2011

S,
.
C :
C=

S
E

(18)

(.. Volts / Wm-2).

, .
,
,

( 5.8).
,

( )
.

( ) . ,

.

(mW m-2)

250

E = 214.482 * S + 3.3808 [Volt / (mW m-2)]

200

150

100

50

0
0

0.4

0.8

(Volt)

1.2

5.8.
( ).

5-80

:.,.,.,,2011

. ,
.
()
s() ,
:

(19)

E = E ( ) s( ) d

S .

.
, ()
.
,
.
,
.
,
() .

(W m-2 nm-1)

5.9.

1

0.1

0.01

0.001

E = 0.21 W m-2
0.0001
280

300

320

(nm)

340

360

5.9.
.

5-81

:.,.,.,,2011

290 nm,
,
.


.
,
( 5.4).
,

.

5.4.2

,
, .

, 280 nm 3.000 nm (
) .

.

,
, .
(..
) .
,
,
. ( )
,
. ,

.
46 ,
( )
.
, .
( )
.

5-82

:.,.,.,,2011

,
() .

5.5

( )

( , )

5.5.1

.

,
,
.

, (..
) (.. ).
" "
. ,
:

. ,
t :

Qt = Tt4 + h(Tt - Ta) + (Tt -Tb) / l

(20)

, Qt
, ,
Stefan-Boltzmann, h ,
l . Ta
Tt, Tb .
:
5-83

:.,.,.,,2011

Qb = Tb4 + h(Tb - Ta) + (Tb Tt) / l

(21)

Q*
:

Q* = (Qt - Qb) = (Tt4 - Tb4) + h(Tt -Tb) -2 (Tt -Tb) / l(22)

(22),
,
(
).
G = (Tt -Tb) / l,
. ,
, D = C (Tt -Tb), C .
(Tt4 - Tb4) 4 Tt3 (Tt - Tb) :

Q* = (4 Tt3 + 2 / l) (Tt -Tb)

(23)

Q* = (4Tt3 + 2 / l) (D / C) = g D

(24)

g ,
.
4Tt3 (2 / l) .

,

.

5.5.2

,

.
"" ,
.
.
,
.

,
. ,
5-84

:.,.,.,,2011

,
.

.
, ,
.
.
,
.
.



. ,
( ). ,
,

().
,
106. Einstein
h>e, h Plank,
, e
.
.
.

1 m (
).
,
() ""
.
(),
.

5.6

5.6.1

.
( )
.
5-85

:.,.,.,,2011

,
. , , ,
,
.
(.. ),
.
.
""
,
, .
(
(18))
.

5.6.2

.
( , ).
.

, .
.
5.6.2.1

,
.
.

, ,
.
,
Peltier.
.
,
,
.

.
, .

5-86

:.,.,.,,2011

Peltier, .
5.6.2.2

,

.
I T, :
I I
Io

= c + aT

(25)

. T = To,
= , (25) c:

c = -

(26)

:
I I
Io

= a (T T )

I
= 1 + a (T T )
Io

(27)

, .
,
.
( / ),
( - )
.
. ,
,
( / ) .

,
, .

5.7

, ,
() .
.
,
,

5-87

:.,.,.,,2011

. ,

. , ,

, .
,
.
. :

,
,
.

.
,
.

5-88

:.,.,.,,2011

6:




.
.
,
.

, ,
,
.
1927
Dobson Brewer (1973),

.

.

6.1

,
, .


.

1
2,
2 , 1
. ,
,
1.

. ,
.
,

6-89

:.,.,.,,2011

,
.
I
.
Beer, , I, :

= exp ( ) = exp i

(28)

.
i

.
, (28)
, i
:

R
= exp sec dz sec dz sec dz
a

(29)

(29)
I (
) ,
.
R M
, ( Rayleigh)
( Mie), .

. , ,
(STP).


.
(29) :
= exp[- a - m - m]

(30)

sec
=
dz

dz

m=

sec dz

dz
a

6-90

sec
, m' =
dz
M

dz

:.,.,.,,2011

dz, =

R
dz, = dz

(31)

, m m
,
.
, 70.

,
.
, , m m :

dz
= sec
,
dz

dz , m ' = sec dz
m = sec
dz
dz
R

(32)

sec,
, ,
(. )
(. ).
, m
p/po, p
p, (1013.15 hPa).
(31)
( )
.
,
( )
. (31) .

.

, DU (Dobson unit) atmcm. DU Dobson ,
, 1920.

Rayleigh .
,
(2 2) ,
. (.. 2, H2,

6-91

:.,.,.,,2011

C2, 3, ...),
, .

, ,
.
(30) ',
( ).
,
:
(ln ln ' ) = (ln ln ' ) + ( ' ) + ( ' )m + ( ' ) sec

(33)

F = Fo + + m + sec

(34)

,
. (34) :
=

F m Fo

(35)

, (

), m ( sec )
,
. F ,
, F
.

6.2

Fo

F (35)
:
(35) :

F m = Fo +

(36)

y = + x,

y = F m, x = , = Fo , =

6-92

(37)

:.,.,.,,2011

.
-
(31)-
y x, (
).
y
, ( m).
,

. x
,
.
,
x sec .
30000

F - m

20000

10000

Fo
0.0

2.0

sec

4.0

6.0

6.1. Fo ( Langley).
sec 0 4.

F
( )
, y x,

( 6.1). ,
F ( (37).
, (36) = X
.
,

6-93

:.,.,.,,2011

. B
, .
F
(35).



.

.
, ..
.
(35)
, ,
, , . ,
Fo,
.
,
.
,

. Fo
.

,

Fo.
.
, 6.1
( .. sec > 4). ,
, -
-
.
F F,
(I)
(I) ( (30)). F F

[()=S() C()].
()
.

6-94

:.,.,.,,2011

,
.
C() C()
(33), .

(
) . '
F
(.. ).
F
,
()
.
,

.
(33)

. (33),
(30)
wi , .
n

w ln
i =1

n
n

= wi ln o i + wi a i + wi i m + wi i sec
i =1
i =1

i =1

i =1

(38)

(34)
.

, (30)
.
,
.

6.3

,


. (
)

6-95

:.,.,.,,2011

.
.

.


( )
.
:

,
.

.

.

.
,
.
.

.

, ,

.

.
Brewer
.


. ,
.

6-96

:.,.,.,,2011

6.4

F
.
,
, , ,
.
, ,
. '


.

. F ,
,

, ' F
.
,
(.. )
,
.

6-97

:.,.,.,,2011

6-98

:.,.,.,,2011

7:
LASER
7.1

laser
1962 Fiocco Smullin (1963)
20 km.
' laser,
,
, laser
, .
LIDAR

7.2

LIDAR

LIDAR
laser,

, laser, '
lidar, Light Detection and
Ranging, ' radar.
LIDAR ,

.
laser Rayleigh, Mie, Raman,
, ,
/ .
laser, 7.1(Measures,
1988).

7.1: laser .

7-99

:.,.,.,,2011

Rayleigh

laser
,

Mie

laser
(
),

Raman

laser

, (h-h* = )

laser

, ,
,

laser

,

laser ,

laser,

,

,

.

Lambert-Beer (.. , 1984).
I = I 0 e aR

7-100

(7-1)

:.,.,.,,2011

R,
I0 .

, 7.1:
a = a Ray + a Mie + a Raman + a abs

(7-2)

7.2 (Killinger and Menyuk, 1987),

,
, .

7.2: ,
laser.

(m)

(km-1)

UV

107

106
105

10

Rayleigh

Mie

UV

2, 2

10-3

10

10-7

UV

10-1

10-1
10-2

10
Raman

10-1

UV

10-5

10-7

10

10-11

laser
, "
lidar". lidar , laser,
(single scattering),
(Collis and Russell, 1976, Klett, 1981),

7-101

:.,.,.,,2011

P(r ) = P0

c ( r )

r2

2 a ( r )dr

(7-3)

P( r) t, P0
t0, c ,
laser, (volume backscattering coefficient)
, R , Ar
(volume extinction coefficient) .
,
c.
t,
, :
R = c(t t 0 ) 2

(7-4)

, ,
(Km-1sr-1).
.
(g)
(p) .
= g + p

(7-5)

laser,
, ,
Rayleigh (e.g. Van de Hulst, 1957, Nicolet 1984), :
g = R = N g d R ( ) d

(7-6)

g d R ( ) d
Rayleigh, = , "" .
100 km (.. McCartney, 1976):
d R ( ) d=5.45[ (m ) .55] 10 28 cm 2 sr 1
4

7-102

(7-7)

:.,.,.,,2011

-4 (7-7)
(Elterman, 1968).
(
)
p > g.
, .

.
- :

p ( ) = B ( a , ,m)N p (a )da

(7-8)

B (a , ,m)
m, N p ( a )da
+da.
, / 0.1, Mie,
Mie 1908 (Mie, 1908, Van de Hulst, 1957, .). ,
:
B (a , ,m) = a 2 QB ( x ,m)

(7-9)

QB (backscattering efficiency),
2.
,
, x2/ m
x mx (.. Kerker, 1969).
R

2 adr

e 0 ()
lidar R.
,
, (
7-2).
,
.

7-103

:.,.,.,,2011

r (7-3) r/R2
"" R.
(7-3) (Klett, 1981,
1983, 1985, Fernald 1984) .

7.3

lidar
lidar Klett

lidar
(Klett 1981,1983, 1985,
Fernald 1984, Krichbaumer and Werner 1994) .
lidar,
,
lidar. lidar,
,
:
P(r ) = P0

c (r )
A 2 e
2
r

2 a ( r )dr
0

(7-10)

, :
S ( r ) ln[ r 2 P( r ) ]

(7-11)

S = S ( r ) S 0 = S (r0 ) , r0 ,
7-10, ,
:

S S 0 = ln
2 adr
0 r
r

(7-12)

0 = (r0 ) . (7-12) :

dS 1 d
=
2a
dr dr

(7-13)

7-13 , /, d/dr 0.
d/dr = 0,
:

a hom =

1 dS
2 dr

7-104

(7-14)

:.,.,.,,2011

7-10,
714, 1 d dr << 2a S.

, lidar (Klett, 1981).

:

= const a k

(7-15)

k
0.67 k 1.
7-15, 7-13 :

dS k da
=
2a
dr a dr

(7-16)

Bernoulli
:
1 dS

dr
k dr
r

C 2
dr
k

a 1 = e

1 dS
dr
k dr

(7-17)

C . k ,
(7-16) :
a=

e[

( S S0 ) k ]
r

1 2 [ ( S S0 ) k ] dr
e

a 0 k r0

(7-18)

0 = (r0). H 7-18 rr0 .

7-18 , Klett (1981),
7-18 , rm ""
, m = (rm), rrm :

a=

e[

( S Sm ) k ]
r

1
2 m ( S S ) k dr
e[ m ]
am k r

(7-19)

7-19

7-105

:.,.,.,,2011

7.4

LIDAR

LIDAR ,
,

laser .
LIDAR , ,
.
laser.
,
.

(, ),
( , , , ),
( ).
Laser
Nd:YAG

Telescope

Spectrometer

Raman cell

Acquisition
system

PC

7.1: lidar.

,
laser.
(PMT),
.
(analog mode)
(photon counting).
( ),
.

7-106

:.,.,.,,2011

8:

8.1

.

. (..
, lidar, ), (in-situ)
.
,
-
, ,

.
8.1

8.1 .

8-107

:.,.,.,,2011

8.2

.
,
,
. ,
,
, .
,
.
8.2.

8.2: .

.
.
. R
. 1% KI,
KI.
pH ,
(KBr, NaH2PO4*H2, Na2HPO4*12H2) (. =7).

8.3

8.2.
.

8-108

:.,.,.,,2011

.
3 , :

2 KI + O3 + H2O 2 KOH + I2 + O2

(8-1)

I2, 2
. , (8-1)
:

3- 3- + 2e-

(8-2)

2 + 2e- 2I-(8-3)
:

3- + 2 3- + 2-

(8-4)

(8-2) (8-3) ,
.
.
(8-4)
:
E

0.0591
log K
2

(8-5)

( 25C)
:

= (1)3- (3)2- (4)2 (2)3-

(8-6)

i .
.
:
(8-1)
, K
, (8-2) (8-3),
, .

8-109

:.,.,.,,2011

.
,
.
(.. 2).

8.3: .

8.4

.
,
:
c =

I t
F 2 100ml

(8-7)

C=

m mol l-1

F=

9.6487 104 C (mol)-1 ( Faraday)

I=

T=

100 ml

(8-7) :

p3

= c R Tair

R
I Tair t
F 2 100ml

p3=4.30710-4 (I-IBG)TptCefCref
:

8-110

(8-8)

:.,.,.,,2011

p3=

mPa

R=

8.31431 JK-1mol-1

I=

BG=

To ( O2)

p=

K.

t=

100 ml

Cef=

Cref= 1,
, p3 .
IBG

. 8.1
.

8.1: .
hPa

BG

1070-951

0.25

0.20

0.15 0.10

0.05

950-830

0.23

0.18

0.14 0.09

0.05

829-711

0.20

0.16

0.12 0.08

0.04

710-596

0.18

0.14

0.11 0.07

0.04

595-485

0.15

0.12

0.09 0.06

0.03

484-379

0.13

0.10

0.08 0.05

0.03

378-279

0.10

0.08

0.06 0.04

0.02

278-191

0.08

0.06

0.05 0.03

0.02

190-114

0.05

0.04

0.03 0.02

0.01

113-57

0.02

0.02

0.02 0.01

0.01

,
. Cef
8.2

8-111

:.,.,.,,2011

8.2:
hPa

Cef

2.0

1.160

3.0

1.124

5.0

1.087

10.0

1.054

20.0

1.033

30.0

1.024

50.0

1.015

100.0

1.010

200.0

1.007

300.0

1.005

500.0

1.002

1000.0

1.000

8-112

:.,.,.,,2011

9:
9.1

1.
.
.
. '
:

( ),

.
,
' .

:

( , , , ,
),

( , , , , , ),

( , ,

).

. ,

. ' ,
:

, ...

9-113

:.,.,.,,2011

9.1: .

. ' :

'
, . .

:

, ...

.
.. ,
...

9-114

:.,.,.,,2011

.
.

...

9.2

'
(ppm) g m-3.
:

i ppm = ci / c x 106
ci i c
p
T.
ppm A
g m-3 :

i g m-3 = A

100 p M
8.314 T

(9-1)

p (mb),
Kelvin (K) i i.
ppm
. ' ,
, (ppb)
(ppt). ' :
i ppb =103 x ppm
i ppt =103 x ppb
: 3 180 g m-3.
ppm ppb 1013 mbar
25 oC.

(9-1) :
Mi=48 ( 3)
p=1013 mbar
T=298.2 K

9-115

:.,.,.,,2011

:
3 ppm= 180 x 0.00051 = 0.0918
3 ppb =103 x 0.0918 92
9.1 : g m-3 ppm
.
g m-3 ppm

ppm
g m-3

0.51 x 10-3

1960

0.53 x 10-3
(2)

1880

Ozo (O3)

()

0.81 x 10-3

1230

0.56 x 10-3
(C2)
1800

(C)

0.87 x 10-3
1150

0.38 x 10-3
(S2)
2620
(NH3)

1.44 x 10-3
695

9-116

:.,.,.,,2011

9.3

- -

9.3.1

,


.

:
.
.
.

9.3.2

.
,

.
:
. .

, ( )
.
analog to digital. (software)

.
. (data loggers).

,
.
- -

. data
logger

.

9-117

:.,.,.,,2011

. .

. ,
,
.
.

.
,

.

9.3.3

, , :
.
.
.
. , ,
(,
, )
. .

9.3.4

.

.
- - .
:
. (2), (SO2) (H2S)
.
. (3) .
.
. (NO) (CO)
.

9-118

:.,.,.,,2011

( )
.

9.3.5

9.3.5.1

,

:
.
,
, ..
. .
.

.

, .
9.3.5.2

.
. ,

, .
.
.
, ,
.
. - - ,
, ,
.


,
.
:

9-119

:.,.,.,,2011

. 1-10
. 1
. 1
. 1
. 1
. -
. 1 -
9.3.5.3

,
,
(raw data).

,
.
:
.
.
.
.
(, )
. , .
.
.
.
. (normals)
9.3.5.4

, ,
. ,

.

, .

9-120

:.,.,.,,2011

(report)
,
.
:
. , ,
(.. , )
. ,
.
. .
.
.
.
,
.
,

,
(.. ,
)

9.4

, .
.
:
. .
. .
,
.
:

9.4.1

(SO2)

. , (3% ) diesel
(0.05%).
(. H2SO4)
. SO2

9-121

:.,.,.,,2011

(SO3)- .
. .

9.4.2

(x)

(),
(NO2) .
.
.
,
. -
, . ,

.

9.4.3

(3)

1.6 .

. ,
, ,
.
.

9.4.4

, .
,
.
. .
CO.

9.4.5

, , , .
.
,
, .
(. ) .
,
.

9-122

:.,.,.,,2011

9.4.6

103
m 100 m. (fine)
, (coarse) ,
.
,
.
.


.

9.5

.
(
). ,
( DOAS).
, DOAS
.

253.7 nm,
.
,
253.7 nm.
.
Teflon.
Teflon Teflon
.
, .

, ,
nO2 .
Beer-Lambert
:

[O3] ppm= (106/aL)ln(Io/I)

Po ,

9-123

(9-1)

:.,.,.,,2011

[O3] ppm= (106/aL)ln(Io/I)(PoT/PTo)

(9-2)

o:
K=aL:
L:

a:

:
,

:


,
.
9.2.

9.2: .

4 .

Io

9-124

:.,.,.,,2011

4
.

I.

10 .

9.6

.

. .
O3 O2
.
.
O2
.
O2.
:

. NO2 (NOx channel)
NO (NO channel). NO

.
2 ,
.
.
2
, .

. ( 2
) .
2
,
, 2 .

.

,

9-125

:.,.,.,,2011

x , .

, .
9.3.

9.3: .

9-126

:.,.,.,,2011

9.7

9.7.1

22 0.3
.
. (..
) S2
,
_

S42 .
.
S2
.


S2.

80/779/EC.

9.7.2

S2 10
.

.

S2, S2 ,


.
,
S2.

:

.

.

9-127

:.,.,.,,2011

.

.

, 214 nm.
.
. 40 sec
40 sec
. ( )
40 sec 40 sec,
.
,
. 9.4.

9.7.3

H (DOAS)

.
, .
.

9.4: .

9-128

:.,.,.,,2011

9.8

. CO,
.


. ,
m.

4.7 m.
. 2,
, CO,
CO, .

,
, , .
, :
.
.
. 2 ,
CO,

. CO,
,
.

CO .
9.5.

9-129

:.,.,.,,2011

9.5:

9-130

:.,.,.,,2011

9.9

(DOAS)

9.9.1

.
(
UV) 70
.
.
, ,
.
1931, Dobson


.
.
.
Dobson,
,
. ,
,
Goetz Ladenburg.

.
, .
. laser

LIDAR (Killinger Mooradian) 1983. ,
, laser
.
. ,
.


.

, Mie
.

9-131

:.,.,.,,2011

.
, DOAS
.

. DOAS

, , . DOAS
Differential Optical Absorption Spectrometer,
.
Platt Perner (1980).
.


40 nm
.

.

.

, -
, .
.

.
100 m ,
,
. DOAS
(SO2),
(NOX), (O3), (
), (NH3), (HCHO) .

9.10 DOAS
DOAS (), ,
.
,
,
, .
,

9-132

:.,.,.,,2011

,
(software). DOAS
.

9.6: DOAS.

9.10.1

.
, .
, Xe,
.

200 500 nm .
, ,
. 9.7.

9-133

:.,.,.,,2011

9.7: Xe.

Xe,
,
(UV).
.
.
.
, ,
5 mrad.
,
.
.

. .

(.. )
, , ,
. ,
,
.

.
,

,
() , .

9-134

:.,.,.,,2011

9.10.2
9.10.2.1

,
, ()
UV,
.
,
,
. .

(), ,
.
Beer - Lambert:

I1 = I0 exp(- c a1 d)

(9-3)

0 1,
(.. )
c, d
1 1, .
, , .
.
g/m3, m2/g. Beer Lambert 2 :

I2 = I0 exp(-c a2 d)

(9-4)

(9-31) (9-42) 1, 2
1 / 2 :

ln(I2 / I1) = c (a1-a2) d

(9-5)

0
c 2 / 1,
, , = 1 - 2.

,

.
.
.

9-135

:.,.,.,,2011

, c
2 / 1 (9-5).
1, 2 1, 2 .

d, .

9.8: .

,



.
, , ,
. ,
.
9.10.2.2

. ,

,
. Xe
,

9-136

:.,.,.,,2011

. ,
, .

9-137

:.,.,.,,2011

9.9: .

9-138

:.,.,.,,2011

( 9.9.),
(9.9.) .
( 9.9.) ,
.
.

. , 9.7,
()
() .
(
9.9.), .
,
, .

( 9.9.)
.
, .

.

.


,
.
(i), i
,
(i)
(i). c

(i) d c = A(i)

(9-6)

[(i) - d c A(i)]2

(9-7)

(i)
:
) .
9-139

:.,.,.,,2011

)


.
() :

[ A(i) d c (i)]

2 =

(9-8)

n 1

n .

.
, ,
.
j(i)
( j ).
(9-6) (9-7) :

[1(i)c1 + 2(i)c2 + 3(i)c3 + ] d = A(i)

A(i) d c
i

j (i )

,

.
,
.
: (concentration),
(standard deviation) (light level).
.
, (%),
.
.

9.10.3
DOAS,
, .
, () ,
, DOAS
9-140

:.,.,.,,2011

.

. ,
,
.
.
DOAS


. , ,

.

. ,
,
(calibration procedures)
. DOAS

.
DOAS
.


.
, ,
(standard deviation).

.
.

.
, ,
.

.
,
.

.

9-141

:.,.,.,,2011

9.11
9.11.1

.
.
.

.
,
,
.
.
.

9.11.2 10

10 m.
... (...)
.
( 9.10).
.
10 m,
,
.
.
. 40
.

10 m.

9-142

:.,.,.,,2011

9.10: 10.

9.11.3

3 m. 9.11.

9-143

:.,.,.,,2011

.
.
Geiger - Muller. .
.

.
. C - 14
.

9.11.4


.
.

.
.
.

9.11:
' .

9-144