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Network Topologies
A local area network (LAN) is a computer network that interconnects computers in a limited area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, or office building. The defining characteristics of LANs, in contrast to wide area networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates, smaller geographic area, and lack of a need for leased telecommunication lines. ARCNET, Token Ring and other technology standards have been used in the past, but Ethernet over twisted pair cabling, and Wi-Fi are the two most common technologies currently used to build LANs. Ethernet is by far the most commonly used LAN technology. A number of corporations use the Token Ring technology. Another LAN technology, ARCNET, once the most commonly installed LAN technology, is still used in the industrial automation industry. Typically, a suite of application programs can be kept on the LAN server. Users who need an application frequently can download it once and then run it from their local hard disk. Users can order printing and other services as needed through applications run on the LAN server. A user can share files with others at the LAN server; read and write access is maintained by a LAN administrator. A LAN server may also be used as a Web server if safeguards are taken to secure internal applications and data from outside access. Wi-Fi is a popular technology that allows an electronic device to exchange data wirelessly (using radio waves) over a computer network, including high-speed Internet connections. The Wi-Fi Alliance defines Wi-Fi as any "wireless local area network (WLAN) products that are based on the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers' (IEEE) 802.11 standards". However, since most modern WLANs are based on these standards, the term "Wi-Fi" is used in general English as a synonym for "WLAN". A device that can use Wi-Fi (such as a personal computer, video game console, smartphone, tablet, or digital audio player) can connect to a network resource such as the Internet via a wireless network access point. Such an access point (or hotspot) has a range of about 20 meters (65 feet) indoors and a greater range outdoors. Hotspot coverage can comprise an area as small as a single room with walls that block radio waves or as large as many square miles this is achieved by using multiple overlapping access points. In some situations, a wireless LAN may be preferable to a wired LAN because it is cheaper to install and maintain.
1.1.1 History
The increasing demand and use of computers in universities and research labs in the late 1960s generated the need to provide high-speed interconnections between computer systems. A 1970 report from the Lawrence Radiation Laboratory detailing the growth of their "Octopus" network gave a good indication of the situation. Cambridge Ring was developed at Cambridge University in 1974 but was never developed into a successful commercial product. Ethernet was developed at Xerox PARC in 19731975, and filed as U.S. Patent 4,063,220. In 1976, after the system was deployed at PARC, Metcalfe and Boggs published a seminal paper, "Ethernet: Distributed Packet-Switching For Local Computer Networks." ARCNET was developed by Datapoint Corporation in 1976 and announced in 1977. It had the first commercial installation in December 1977 at Chase Manhattan Bank in New York.
1.1.3 Cabling
Early LAN cabling had always been based on various grades of coaxial cable. However shielded twisted pair was used in IBM's Token Ring implementation, and in 1984 StarLAN showed the potential of simple unshielded twisted pair by using Cat3the same simple cable used for telephone systems. This led to the development of 10Base-T (and its successors) and structured cabling which is still the basis of most commercial LANs today. In addition, fiber-optic cabling is increasingly used in commercial applications. As cabling is not always possible, wireless Wi-Fi is now the most common technology in residential premises, as the cabling required is minimal and it is well suited to mobile laptops and smartphones.
A Wide Area Network (WAN) is a telecommunication network that covers a broad area (i.e., any network that links across metropolitan, regional, or national boundaries). Business and government entities utilize WANs to relay data among employees, clients, buyers, and suppliers from various geographical locations. In essence this mode of telecommunication allows a business to effectively carry out its daily function regardless of location. This is in contrast with personal area networks (PANs), local area networks (LANs), campus area networks (CANs), or metropolitan area networks (MANs) which are usually limited to a room, building, campus or specific metropolitan area (e.g., a city) respectively. The world's most popular WAN is the Internet. Some segments of the Internet, like VPN-based extranets, are also WANs in themselves. Finally, many WANs are corporate or research networks that utilize leased lines. WANs generally utilize different and much more expensive networking equipment than do LANs. Key technologies often found in WANs include SONET, Frame Relay, and ATM.
The textbook definition of a WAN is a computer network spanning regions, countries, or even the world. However, in terms of the application of computer networking protocols and concepts, it may be best to view WANs as computer networking technologies used to transmit data over long distances, and between different LANs, MANs and other localised computer networking architectures. This distinction stems from the fact that common LAN technologies operating at Layer 1/2 (such as the forms of Ethernet or Wifi) are often geared towards physically localised networks, and thus cannot transmit data over tens, hundreds or even thousands of miles or kilometres. WANs necessarily do not just connect physically disparate LANs. A CAN, for example, may have a localised backbone of a WAN technology, which connects different LANs within a campus. This could be to facilitate higher bandwidth applications, or provide better functionality for users in the CAN. WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects the LAN on one side with a second router within the LAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods. Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service providers to deliver the links that are used in WANs. X.25 was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay. Academic research into wide area networks can be broken down into three areas: mathematical models, network emulation and network simulation. Performance improvements are sometimes delivered via wide area file services or WAN optimization.
Several options are available for WAN connectivity Option: Description Advantages Disadvantages Sample Bandwidth protocols range used PPP, HDLC, SDLC, HNAS 28 - 144 kbit/s PPP, ISDN
Point-to-Point connection between two computers or Local Area Networks (LANs) Circuit A dedicated circuit path switching is created between end points. Best example is dialup connections Packet Devices transport packets switching via a shared single pointto-point or point-tomultipoint link across a carrier internetwork. Variable length packets are transmitted over Permanent Virtual Circuits (PVC) or Switched Virtual Circuits (SVC) Similar to packet Cell switching, but uses fixed relay length cells instead of variable length packets. Data is divided into fixed-length cells and then transported across virtual circuits Leased line
Most secure
Expensive
Less Expensive
Call Setup
X.25 FrameRelay
Best for Overhead can simultaneous be use of voice considerable and data
ATM
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Transmission rates usually range from 1200 bit/s to 24 Mbit/s, although some connections such as ATM and Leased lines can reach speeds greater than 156 Mbit/s. Typical communication links used in WANs are telephone lines, microwave links & satellite channels. Recently with the proliferation of low cost of Internet connectivity many companies and organizations have turned to VPN to interconnect their networks, creating a WAN in that way. Companies such as Cisco, New Edge Networks and Check Point offer solutions to create VPN networks.
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A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A MAN usually interconnects a number of local area networks (LANs) using a high-capacity backbone technology, such as fiber-optical links, and provides up-link services to wide area networks (or WAN) and the Internet. The IEEE 802-2002 standard describes a MAN as being: A MAN is optimized for a larger geographical area than a LAN, ranging from several blocks of buildings to entire cities. MANs can also depend on communications channels of moderate-to-high data rates. A MAN might be owned and operated by a single organization, but it usually will be used by many individuals and organizations. MANs might also be owned and operated as public utilities. They will often provide means for internetworking of local networks.
Authors Kenneth C. Laudon and Jane P. Laudon (2001) of Management Information Systems: Managing the Digital Firm 10th ed. define a metropolitan area network as: A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) is a large computer network that spans a metropolitan area or campus. Its geographic scope falls between a WAN and LAN. MANs provide Internet connectivity for LANs in a metropolitan region, and connect them to wider area networks like the Internet.
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1.3.1 Implementation
Some technologies used for this purpose are Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), FDDI, and SMDS. These technologies are in the process of being displaced by Ethernet-based connections (e.g., Metro Ethernet) in most areas. MAN links between local area networks have been built without cables using either microwave, radio, or infra-red laser links. Most companies rent or lease circuits from common carriers because laying long stretches of cable can be expensive. DQDB, Distributed-queue dual-bus, is the metropolitan area network standard for data communication. It is specified in the IEEE 802.6 standard. Using DQDB, networks can be up to 20 miles (30 km) long and operate at speeds of 34 to 155 Mbit/s. Several notable networks started as MANs, such as the Internet peering points MAE-West, MAE-East, and the Sohonet media network.
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References
"A Review of the Basic Components of a Local Area Network (LAN)". NetworkBits.net. "Ethernet Prototype Circuit Board". Smithsonian National Museum of American History. Gary A. Donahue (2007-06). Network Warrior. O'Reilly. Groth, David and Skandler, Toby (2009). Network+ Study Guide, Fourth Edition. Sybex, Inc. IEEE Std 802-2002, IEEE Standard for Local and Metropolitan Area Networks: Overview and Architecture, page 1, section 1.2: "Key Concepts", "basic technologies". Lamont Wood (2008-01-31). "The LAN turns 30, but will it reach 40?". Computerworld.com. McQuerry, Steve (November 19, 2003). 'CCNA Self-Study: Interconnecting Cisco Network Devices (ICND), Second Edition'. Cisco Press. Samuel F. Mendicino (1970-12-01). "Octopus: The Lawrence Radiation Laboratory Network". Rogerdmoore.ca. "THE LAWRENCE RADIATION LABORATORY OCTOPUS". Courant symposium series on networks. Wayne Spivak (2001-07-13). "Has Microsoft Ever Read the History Books?"
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Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is a type of digital (or rarely analog) multiplexing in which two or more bit streams or signals are transferred apparently simultaneously as sub-channels in one communication channel, but are physically taking turns on the channel. The time domain is divided into several recurrent time slots of fixed length, one for each sub-channel. A sample byte or data block of sub-channel 1 is transmitted during time slot 1, sub-channel 2 during time slot 2, etc. One TDM frame consists of one time slot per sub-channel plus a synchronization channel and sometimes error correction channel before the synchronization. After the last sub-channel, error correction, and synchronization, the cycle starts all over again with a new frame, starting with the second sample, byte or data block from sub-channel 1, etc.
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The plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) system, also known as the PCM system, for digital transmission of several telephone calls over the same four-wire copper cable (T-carrier or E-carrier) or fiber cable in the circuit switched digital telephone network The synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH)/synchronous optical networking (SONET) network transmission standards that have replaced PDH. The RIFF (WAV) audio standard interleaves left and right stereo signals on a per-sample basis The left-right channel splitting in use for stereoscopic liquid crystal shutter glasses
TDM can be further extended into the time division multiple access (TDMA) scheme, where several stations connected to the same physical medium, for example sharing the same frequency channel, can communicate. Application examples include:
The GSM telephone system The Tactical Data Links Link 16 and Link 22
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In its primary form, TDM is used for circuit mode communication with a fixed number of channels and constant bandwidth per channel. Bandwidth Reservation distinguishes time-division multiplexing from statistical multiplexing such as packet mode communication (also known as statistical time-domain multiplexing, see below) i.e. the time slots are recurrent in a fixed order and pre-allocated to the channels, rather than scheduled on a packet-by-packet basis. Statistical time-domain multiplexing resembles, but should not be considered the same as time-division multiplexing. In dynamic TDMA, a scheduling algorithm dynamically reserves a variable number of time slots in each frame to variable bit-rate data streams, based on the traffic demand of each data stream. Dynamic TDMA is used in
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2.3 History
Time-division multiplexing was first developed in telegraphy; see multiplexing in telegraphy: mile Baudot developed a time-multiplexing system of multiple Hughes machines in the 1870s. For the SIGSALY encryptor of 1943, see PCM. In 1953 a 24 channel TDM was placed in commercial operation by RCA Communications to send audio information between RCA's facility at Broad Street, New York and their transmitting station at Rocky Point and the receiving station at Riverhead, Long Island, New York. The communication was by a microwave system throughout Long Island. The experimental TDM system was developed by RCA Laboratories between 1950 and 1953. In 1962, engineers from Bell Labs developed the first D1 Channel Banks, which combined 24 digitised voice calls over a 4-wire copper trunk between Bell central office analogue switches. A channel bank sliced a 1.544 Mbit/s digital signal into 8,000 separate frames, each composed of 24 contiguous bytes. Each byte represented a single telephone call encoded into a constant bit rate signal of 64 Kbit/s. Channel banks used a byte's fixed position (temporal alignment) in the frame to determine which call it belonged to.
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Plesiochronous digital hierarchy (PDH) was developed as a standard for multiplexing higher order frames. PDH created larger numbers of channels by multiplexing the standard Europeans 30 channel TDM frames. This solution worked for a while; however PDH suffered from several inherent drawbacks which ultimately resulted in the development of the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH). The requirements which drove the development of SDH were these:
Be synchronous All clocks in the system must align with a reference clock. Be service-oriented SDH must route traffic from End Exchange to End Exchange without worrying about exchanges in between, where the bandwidth can be reserved at a fixed level for a fixed period of time. Allow frames of any size to be removed or inserted into an SDH frame of any size. Easily manageable with the capability of transferring management data across links. Provide high levels of recovery from faults. Provide high data rates by multiplexing any size frame, limited only by technology. Give reduced bit rate errors.
SDH has become the primary transmission protocol in most PSTN networks. It was developed to allow streams 1.544 Mbit/s and above to be multiplexed, in order to create larger SDH frames known as Synchronous Transport Modules (STM). The STM-1 frame consists of smaller streams that are multiplexed to create a 155.52 Mbit/s frame. SDH can also multiplex packet based frames e.g. Ethernet, PPP and ATM. While SDH is considered to be a transmission protocol (Layer 1 in the OSI Reference Model), it also performs some switching functions, as stated in the third bullet point requirement listed above. The most common SDH Networking functions are these:
SDH Crossconnect The SDH Crossconnect is the SDH version of a Time-Space-Time crosspoint switch. It connects any channel on any of its inputs to any channel on any of its outputs. The SDH Crossconnect is used in Transit Exchanges, where all inputs and outputs are connected to other exchanges. SDH Add-Drop Multiplexer The SDH Add-Drop Multiplexer (ADM) can add or remove any multiplexed frame down to 1.544Mb. Below this level, standard TDM can be performed. SDH ADMs can also perform the task of an SDH Crossconnect and are used in End Exchanges where the channels from subscribers are connected to the core PSTN network.
SDH network functions are connected using high-speed optic fibre. Optic fibre uses light pulses to transmit data and is therefore extremely fast. Modern optic fibre transmission makes use of Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM) where signals transmitted across the fibre are transmitted at different wavelengths, creating additional channels for transmission. This increases the speed and capacity of the link, which in turn reduces both unit and total costs.
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STDM is an advanced version of TDM in which both the address of the terminal and the data itself are transmitted together for better routing. Using STDM allows bandwidth to be split over 1 line. Many college and corporate campuses use this type of TDM to logically distribute bandwidth. If there is one 10MBit line coming into the building, STDM can be used to provide 178 terminals with a dedicated 56k connection (178 * 56k = 9.96Mb). A more common use however is to only grant the bandwidth when that much is needed. STDM does not reserve a time slot for each terminal, rather it assigns a slot when the terminal is requiring data to be sent or received. This is also called asynchronous time-division multiplexing[5](ATDM), in an alternative nomenclature in which "STDM" or "synchronous time division multiplexing" designates the older method that uses fixed time slots.
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References
General Services Administration document "Federal Standard 1037C" Nadeau, T., Ed., and D. Zelig, Ed., "Pseudowire (PW) Management Information Base", RFC 5601, July 2009. Nadeau, T., Ed., Zelig, D., Ed., and O. Nicklass, Ed. "Definitions for Textual Conventions for Pseudowire (PW) Management", RFC 5542, May 2009. Nicklass, O., Ed., "Definitions of Managed Objects for the DS1, J1, E1, DS2, and E2 Interface Types", RFC 4805,March 2007. Nicklass, O., Ed., "Definitions of Managed Objects for the DS3/E3 Interface Type", RFC 3896, September 2004. Vainshtein, A., Ed., and YJ. Stein, Ed., "Structure-Agnostic Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) over Packet (SAToP)", RFC 4553, June 2006. Vainshtein, A. and Y(J). Stein, "Control Protocol Extensions for the Setup of TimeDivision Multiplexing (TDM) Pseudowires in MPLS Networks", RFC 5287, August 2008
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HTML tags (otherwise known as "HTML elements"), and their respective attributes are used to create HTML documents so that you can view them in browsers and other user agents. Note that not all browsers/user agents support all HTML tags and their attributes, so you should try to test your pages in as many browsers as you can. HTML is written in the form of HTML elements consisting of tags enclosed in angle brackets (like <html>), within the web page content. HTML tags most commonly come in pairs like <h1> and </h1>, although some tags, known as empty elements, are unpaired, for example <img>. The first tag in a pair is the start tag, the second tag is the end tag (they are also called opening tags and closing tags). In between these tags web designers can add text, tags, comments and other types of text-based content. The purpose of a web browser is to read HTML documents and compose them into visible or audible web pages. The browser does not display the HTML tags, but uses the tags to interpret the content of the page. HTML elements form the building blocks of all websites. HTML allows images and objects to be embedded and can be used to create interactive forms. It provides a means to create structured documents by denoting structural semantics for text such as headings, paragraphs, lists, links, quotes and other items. It can embed scripts in languages such as JavaScript which affect the behavior of HTML webpages.
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3.2 Elements
HTML documents are composed entirely of HTML elements that, in their most general form have three components: a pair of tags, a "start tag" and "end tag"; some attributes within the start tag; and finally, any textual and graphical content between the start and end tags, perhaps including other nested elements. The HTML element is everything between and including the start and end tags. Each tag is enclosed in angle brackets. The general form of an HTML element is therefore: <tag attribute1="value1" attribute2="value2">content</tag>. Some HTML elements are defined as empty elements and take the form <tag attribute1="value1" attribute2="value2" >. Empty elements may enclose no content, for instance, the BR tag or the inline IMG tag. The name of an HTML element is the name used in the tags. Note that the end tag's name is preceded by a slash character, "/", and that in empty elements the end tag is neither required nor allowed. If attributes are not mentioned, default values are used in each case.
Headings: HTML headings are defined with the <h1> to <h6> tags:
<h1>Heading1</h1> <h2>Heading2</h2> <h3>Heading3</h3> <h4>Heading4</h4> <h5>Heading5</h5> <h6>Heading6</h6>
Paragraphs:
<p>Paragraph 1</p> <p>Paragraph 2</p>
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Line breaks:<br>. The difference between <br> and <p> is that br breaks a line without altering the semantic structure of the page, whereas p sections the page into paragraphs. Note also that br is an empty element in that, while it may have attributes, it can take no content and it may not have an end tag. <p>This <br> is a paragraph <br> with <br> line breaks</p>
Comments: <!This is a comment Comments can help understanding of the markup and do not display in the webpage.
Anchor Tag: <a href=http://www.w3schools.com>Visit W3Schools.com!</a> Marks an area of the page that a link jumps to.
Frame Tag: <frame></frame> Assigns a name to a frame. This is useful for loading contents into one frame from another.
Heading Tags: <h1>Level 1 heading using the HTML h1 tag</h1> The <h1> to <h6> tags are used to define HTML headings. <h1> defines the most important heading. <h6> defines the least important heading.
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<tt> <i> <b> <big> <small> Tags: <tt>Teletypetext</tt> <i>Italictext</i> <b>Boldtext</b> <big>Bigtext</big> <small>Smal text</small> The <tt>, <i>, <b>, <big>, and <small> tags are all font-style tags. Font-style tags are defined in HTML4, but it is strongly recommended to use CSS styling instead. Tag <i> <b> <big> <tt> <small> Description Renders as italic text Renders as bold text Renders as bigger text Renders as teletype text Renders as smaller text
Font Tag: <font size=3 color=red>This is some text!</font> <font size=2 color=blue>This is some text!</font> <font face=verdana color=green>This is some text!</font> The <font> tag specifies the font face, font size, and font color of text.
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Fieldset Tag: <form> <fieldset> <legend>Personalia:</legend> Name: <input type=text /><br /> Email: <input type=text /><br /> Date of birth: <input type=text /> </fieldset> </form> The <fieldset> tag is used to group related elements in a form and also can be used to draw a box around the related elements.
Form Tag: <form action=form_action.asp method=get> First name: <input type=text name=fname /><br /> Last name: <input type=text name=lname /><br /> <input type=submit value=Submit /> </form> The <form> tag is used to create an HTML form for user input. The <form> element can contain one or more of the following form elements:
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Frameset Tag: <frameset cols=25%,*,25%> <frame src=frame_a.htm /> <frame src=frame_b.htm /> <frame src=frame_c.htm /> </frameset> The <frameset> tag defines a frameset. The <frameset> element holds one or more <frame> elements. Each <frame> element can hold a separate document. The <frameset> element specifies HOW MANY columns or rows there will be in the frameset, and HOW MUCH percentage/pixels of space will occupy each of them.
Image Tag: <img src=smiley.gif alt=Smiley face height=42 width=42/> The <img> tag defines an image in an HTML page. The <img> tag has two required attributes: src and alt. Note: Images are not technically inserted into an HTML page, images are linked to HTML pages. The <img> tag creates a holding space for the referenced image.
List Tag: <li>Coffee</li> The <li> tag defines a list item. The <li> tag is used in both ordered (<ol>) and unordered (<ul>) lists.
Meta Tag: <meta name=description content=Free Web tutorials /> Metadata is data (information) about data. The <meta> tag provides metadata about the HTML document. Metadata will not be displayed on the page, but will be machine parsable. Meta elements are typically used to specify page description, keywords, author of the document, last modified, and other metadata.
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Object Tag: <object width=400 height=400 data=helloworld.swf></object> The <object> tag defines an embedded object within an HTML document. Use this element to embed multimedia (like audio, video, Java applets, ActiveX, PDF, and Flash) in your web pages.You can also use the <object> tag to embed another webpage into your HTML document.
Ordered List Tag: <ol> <li>Coffee</li> <li>Tea</li> <li>Milk</li> </ol> The <ol> tag defines an ordered list. An ordered list can be numerical or alphabetical.
<s> and <strike> Tags: <p>Version 2.0 is <s>not yet available!</s> now available!</p> <p>Version 2.0 is <strike>not yet available!</strike> now available!</p> The <s> and <strike> tags define strikethrough text. Script Tag: <script type=text/javascript> document.write(Hello World!) </script> The <script> tag is used to define a client-side script, such as a JavaScript. The <script> element either contains scripting statements, or it points to an external script file through the src attribute. The required type attribute specifies the MIME type of the script. Common uses for JavaScript are image manipulation, form validation, and dynamic changes of content.
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<table border=1> <thead> <tr> <th>Month</th> <th>Savings</th> </tr> </thead> <tfoot> <tr> <td>Sum</td> <td>$180</td> </tr> </tfoot> <tbody> <tr> <td>January</td> <td>$100</td> </tr> <tr> <td>February</td> <td>$80</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> An HTML table consists of the <table> element and one or more <tr>, <th>, and <td> elements. The <table> tag defines an HTML table. The <tr> tag defines a row in an HTML table. A <tr> element contains one or more <th> or <td> elements. The <th> tag defines a header cell in an HTML table. The <td> tag defines a standard cell in an HTML table. The <tbody> tag is used to group the body content in an HTML table. It is used in conjunction with the <thead> and <tfoot> elements to specify each part of a table (body, header, footer).
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Title Tag: <html> <head> <title>HTML 4.01 Tag Reference</title> </head> <body> The content of the document... </body> </html> The <title> tag defines the title of the document. It is required in all HTML/XHTML documents. The <title> element:
defines a title in the browser toolbar provides a title for the page when it is added to favorites displays a title for the page in search-engine results
Underline Tag: <p>Do not <u>underline</u> text if it is not a hyperlink!</p> The <u> tag defines underlined text.
Unordered List Tag: <ul> <li>Coffee</li> <li>Tea</li> <li>Milk</li> </ul> The <ul> tag defines an unordered (bulleted) list. Use the <ul> tag together with the <li> tag to create unordered lists.
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References
Berners-Lee, Tim; Connolly, Daniel (June 1993). Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) Internet Draft version 1.2. IETF IIIR Working Group. Retrieved 18 September 2010. Berners-Lee, Tim; Connolly, Daniel (28 November 1994). HyperText Markup Language Specification 2.0 INTERNET DRAFT. IETF. Retrieved 24 October 2010. Connolly, Daniel (6 June 1992). MIME as a hypertext architecture. CERN. Retrieved 24 October 2010. Connolly, Daniel (15 July 1992). HTML DTD enclosed. CERN. Retrieved 24 October 2010. Connolly, Daniel (18 August 1992). document type declaration subset for HyperText Markup Language as defined by the World Wide Web project. CERN. Retrieved 24 October 2010. Connolly, Daniel (24 November 1992). Document Type Definition for the HyperText Markup Language as used by the World Wide Web application. CERN. Retrieved 24 October 2010. See section Revision History Cs.Tcd.Ie. Cs.Tcd.Ie (2000-05-15). Retrieved on 2012-02-16. Doug Engelbarts INVISIBLE REVOLUTION. Invisiblerevolution.net. Retrieved on 2012-02-16. Freeman, E (2005). Head First HTML. OReilly. HTML 4.0 Specification. World Wide Web Consortium. April 24, 1998. Retrieved November 16, 2008. HTML 4.01 Specification. World Wide Web Consortium. December 24, 1999. Retrieved November 16, 2008. HTML Design Constraints, W3C Archives ISO/IEC 15445:2000 Information technology Document description and processing languages HyperText Markup Language (HTML). Retrieved December 26, 2009. Jakob Nielsen (January 3, 2005). Reviving Advanced Hypertext. Retrieved June 16, 2007. Sauer, C.: WYSIWIKI Questioning WYSIWYG in the Internet Age. In: Wikimania (2006) Ted Nelson (29 January 1999). Ted Nelsons Computer Paradigm, Expressed as OneLiners. Xanadu. Retrieved 26 July 2010. WWW:BTB HTML, Pris Sears Spiesser, J., Kitchen, L.: Optimization of html automatically generated by WYSIWYG programs. In: 13th International Conference on World Wide Web, pp. 355364. WWW 04. ACM, New York, NY (New York, NY, U.S., May 1720, 2004) XHTML Reference: blockquote. Xhtml.com. Retrieved on 2012-02-16.
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4. Query Transformation
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4.1 Steps
2. Semantic analysis Checking for global relations and attributes, view expansion, global access control
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Check if the global schema defines all attributes and relations referenced in the query. If the query is formulated on a view, replace references to relations/attributes with references to global relations/attributes. Perform simple integrity checks, e.g., are the types of attributes used in comparison predicates of the same type? Initial check if the query has the rights to access referenced relations/attributes.
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4.1.2 Normalization
Objective:
Simplification of the following optimization by transforming the query into a canonical format Selection and join predicates Conjunctive normal form vs. disjunctive normal form Conjunctive normal form:
(p11 ^ p12 ^ _ _ _ ^ p1n) _ _ _ _ _ (pm1 ^ pm2 ^ _ _ _ ^ pmn) Transformation based on equivalence rules for logical operators
Equivalence Rules
p1 ^ p2 () p2 ^ p1 and p1 _ p2 () p2 _ p1 p1 ^ (p2 ^ p3) () (p1 ^ p2) ^ p3 and p1 _ (p2 _ p3) () (p1 _ p2) _ p3 p1 ^ (p2 _ p3) () (p1 ^ p2) _ (p1 ^ p3) and p1 _ (p2 ^ p3) () (p1 _ p2) ^ (p1 _ p3) :(p1 ^ p2) () :p1 _ :p2 and :(p1 _ p2) () :p1 ^ :p2 :(:p1) () p1
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Example
SELECT EName from Employees e, Assignment a WHERE e.EID = a.ENo AND Duration _ 3 AND (PNo='P1' OR PNo='P2') Selection condition in conjunctive normal form EID = ENo ^ Duration _ 3 ^ (PNo='P1' _ PNo='P2') Selection condition in disjunctive normal form (EID = ENo ^ Duration _ 3 ^ PNo='P1') _ (EID = ENo ^ Duration _ 3 ^ PNo='P2')
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References
D. Kossmann. The State of the Art in Distributed Query Processing, ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 32, No. 4, 2000, S. 422-469. M. Tamer Ozsu, P. Valduriez. Principles of Distributed Database Systems. Second Edition, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ, 1999. P. Dadam. Verteilte Datenbanken und Client/Server-Systeme. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg 1996. Toby J. Teorey Database modeling and design Third Edition, Morgan Kaufmann Publishers, San Francisco, CA, 1999
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