Biology and Its Importance Biology - earlier study as Botany (study of plant) and Zoology (study of animals) but

now Modern Biology has many fields such as Genetic Engineering, Biotechnology and Bacteriology. Biology - the scientific study of life. Its Importance: 1. Education. 2. Knowledge 3. Control 4. Research 5. Economy 6. Quality of life 7. Diseases 8. Problem solving 9. Careers Scientific Investigation The following are steps involved in a scientific investigation: 1. Define the problem

2. Form a hypothesis 3. Plan the investigation 4. Control the variables 5. Collect the data 6. Analyse the data 7. Interpret the data 8. Make a conclusion 9. Write a report Berry Berry Teacher would like to recommend young berries to follow these rules inwriting their report: 1. Aim / Objective 2. Statement of problem (must be in the form of question) 3. Hypothesis 4. Variables (Manipulated, Responding and Fixed) 5. Materials 6. Apparatus 7. Technique 8. Procedure / Method of the experiment 9. Results / Record of data 10. Discussion / Presentation of data 11. Conclusion (accept of not accept the hypothesis)

Cell Structure and Function Comparison between Animal Cell (AC) and Plant Cell (PC) 1. Mitochondrion (pl: Mitochondria): AC and PC

spherical / rod-shaped organelles two membranes: Inner membrane form cristae & Outer membrane regular and smooth an energy source site of cellular aerobic respiration produces ATP (adenosine triphosphate) contains the genetic material regulates and controls the activities of the cell an organelle bounded by double (2) layers of nuclear membrane with pores and selectivelypermeable responsible for all cellular structure, chemical functions, growth and reproduction separates the genetic materials (chromatin) from cytoplasm spherical structure within the nucleus consists of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid) and proteins visible when the cell is not dividing synthesis RNA which is needed to make ribosomes fluid contained within the nucleus highly viscous solid made up of the chromatin and the nucleolus thread-like structures (consists of genetic material) appears as chromatin spread throughout the nucleus in the form of tiny granules chromatin condenses into chromosomes (during cell division) carry genetic information in its DNA small dot-like organelles protein synthesis consist of RNA (ribonucleic acids) smallest cellular organelles attached on the surface of ER and occur freely in cytoplasm connected to the nuclear membrane synthesises proteins, steroids and lipids collects, stores and distributes protein, steroids and lipids

2. Nucleus (pl: Nuclei): AC and PC

3. Nucleolus: AC and PC

4. Nucleoplasm: AC and PC

5. Chromosomes

6. Ribosomes: Ac and PC

7. Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): AC and PC

exists as rough ER and smooth ER Rough ER: covered with ribosomes, flat sealed sac which continued from the nuclear membrane, transports protein, and have a large surface area for chemical reactions. Smooth ER: does not have ribosomes, transports lipids and presents in large amounts of cells. cell membrane thin membrane surround the cytoplasm of a cell selectively permeable / semi permeable a protective and selective outer barrier consists of phospholipids and protein molecules

8. Plasma membrane: AC and PC

To be continued.. Upcoming post involves Golgi apparatus/body, Cytoplasm, Lysosome, Centriole, Vacuole, Cell wall, Chloroplast. Keys:

AC and PC = similarities AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch) bound sacs processes, packages and transport molecules synthesised in the cell forms lysosomes transports and stores lipids synthesis of carbohydrate from hormone changes protein into glycoprotein excretes waste products out of the cell aqueous solution (except nucleus) stores water, enzymes, nutrient, salts and dissolved gases provided support, shape and protects the cell organelles medium for metabolic reactions provides substances sac-like organelle with one membrane digest proteins, lipids and carbohydrates removes undigested materials releases enzymes to digest external materials are paired cylindrical organelles nine tubes with three tubules each produces spindle during cell division (mitosis and meiosis)

9. Golgi apparatus / Golgi body: AC and PC

10. Cytoplasm: AC and PC

11. Lysosome: AC

12. Centriole: AC

migrate to the opposite poles of the cell (during cell division will be discussed in Chapter 5 Cell Division)

13. Vacuole: AC (temporary / lower class species) and PC

small cavity in the cytoplasm bound by a single membrane filled with cell sap storage of food (protein, oil and water) some vacuoles remove metabolic waste functions as cell expansion Amoeba: food vacuoles (phagocytosis) Paramecium: contractile vacuoles (expel water) rigid and tough cellulose layer surrounding the plasma membrane (cell membrane) protects and supports the cell maintains the shape prevents the cell from busting (excessive intake of water) allows substances to move freely through the cell wall disc / lens-shaped organelle have two membranes: inner and outer membrane contains chlorophyll in the grana to trap sunlight energy carry out photosynthesis in the chlorophyll storage of food and pigments AC and PC = similarities AC or PC = differences (Carbohydrates storage: AC = Glycogen / PC = Starch)

14. Cell Wall: PC

15. Chloroplast: PC

Keys:

Organelles (little organ) tiny structures inside a cell that perform specific functions for a cell. Example: mitochondria, lysosome and chloroplast. Mitochondria

Animal: High density at sperm cells (at middle piece to provide sufficient energy for motive power), flight muscle cells (bird / avian), liver cells, meristematic / meristemic cells (involve with cell division), kidney cells, heart muscle cells, brain cells.

Chloroplasts

Plant: High density at palisade mesophyll (leaf: below upper epidermis). It functions to trap sunlight to synthesise sugar during photosynthesis.

The Uniqueness of The Cell A cell is unique: 1. Specialisation

2. Division of labour 3. Coordination and integration Example of specialisation of cells :

Animal smooth muscle cell, neuron (nerve cell), white blood cell, red blood cell (erythrocyte), cheek cell (lining epithelial cell), sperm, ovum cell (the biggest cell in human) Plant palisade mesophyll cell, xylem, phloem, guard cell.

Cell Organisation Unicellular A single cell performs all the basic life process. Example: Amoeba sp.,Paramecium sp., Chlamydomonas, Bacteria and Euglena. Multicellular An organism consists of more than one cell. Each group of cell specialized to carry our life processes. Example: Homo sapien (human), animals and plants. It has five levels of organisation 1. Cells: basic units of structure and function. Example: Red blood cells and xylem vessel cells. 2. Tissues: made up of cells with similar in structure and function. Example: Epithelial tissues and vascular tissues. 3. Organs: made up of tissues that perform a specific function. Example: Heart and flower. 4. System: two of more organs that perform a specific function. Example: Digestive system and root system. 5. Organisms: whole living thing that carry out all the basic life processes. Example: Human and durian tree. Cell Organisation (Unicellular) in Amoeba sp. (lives in freshwater ponds) andParamecium sp. (lives in soil and moist area) 1. Cell structure

Amoeba sp.: plasma membrane, food vacuole, contractile vacuole, pseudopodium, nucleus, ectoplasma, endoplasm. Paramecium sp.: food vacuole, posterior contractile vacuole, cytostome, gullet, oral groove, cilia, macronucleus, micronucleus, anterior contractile vacuole.

2. Locomotion

Amoeba sp.: Pseudopodium (false foot) helps it to move forward slowly and it is known asamoeboid movement. Paramecium sp.: Hair-like cilia to beat against water. It beats its cilia backwards diagonally (swim forward) and it rotates on its axis. It beats its cilia forward (swim backwards).

3. Feeding

Amoeba sp.: Omnivore. Eat bacteria, plant cells, algae and other microscopic organisms. Entrapment extend pseudopodium.

1.

2. Engulfment engulf tiny food (phagocytosis) with its pseudopodia.

3. Digestion food enclosed in food vacuole 4. Absorption enzyme digests the bacteria 5. Egesting expel indigestible material.

Paramecium sp.: Eat bacteria, organic material and other microscopic organisms. Sweeping movement of cilia. Food moves along the oral groove into the gullet and cytostome.

1.

2. Digestion food vacuole circulates round the cell. 3. Elimination undigested food is eliminated at the anal pore. 4. Reproduction

Amoeba sp.: two types of reproduction. Binary Fission nucleus divides (favourable condition) and then follows by division of cytoplasm. Two daughter cells are formed (mitotic division).

1.

2. Spore Formation spores form (bad condition) and germinate into new amoeba under favourable condition.

Paramecium sp.: two types of reproduction. Binary Fission micronucleus undergoes mitosis (favourable condition). Macronucleus begins to elongation and form two. Cell content divide and two daughter cells are formed.

1.

2. Conjugation (Sexual reproduction) two same species parent paramecia exchange genetic material of their micronuclei. Each parent divides and forms four daughter cells. 5. Osmoregulation

Amoeba sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has a contractile vacuole. Paramecium sp.: water moves into the cell by osmosis and prevention of bursting, it has two contractile vacuoles.

6. Respiration

Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): exchange gases throughout the whole cell membrane Amoeba sp. and Paramecium sp. (both): waste products are ammonia and carbon dioxide by diffusion. Solid waste in paramecium is expelled through its anal pore.

7. Excretion

Cell Organisation (Multicellular) in Human 1. Cells: Epithelial cells, muscle cells, white blood cells, red blood cells, sperm, nerve cells. 2. Tissues: Epithelial tissue, smooth muscle tissue, connective tissue, skeletal tissue, nerve tissue. 3. Organs: Stomach, heart, kidney, lung, liver. 4. Systems: Circulatory system, respiratory system, digestive system, excretory system, muscular system, lymphatic system, integumentary system, skeletal system, nervous system, endocrine system, reproductive system. 5. Organisms: Human. Cell Organisation in Plant 1. Cells: Parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, sclerenchyma cells, epidermal cells. 2. Tissues: Epidermal tissue, meristem tissue, vascular tissue.

3. Organs: Leaf organ, flower organ, stem organ, root organ. 4. Systems: Shoot system, root system. 5. Organisms: Plant. 1. Uniqueness of Plasma Membrane (also known as cell membrane):

it is a semi-permeable cell membrane it allows water and certain substances to move in and out of the cell. - cells obtain nutrients and gases cells excrete metabolic wastes cells can maintain pH for enzyme activity cells can maintain ionic concentration of the cells for enzyme activity control the types and the amount of substances allow useful substance (hormones/enzymes) to secrete from cells protect cells a boundary between the inside and outside of cell. Phospholipid molecule: Head hydrophilic: a polar phosphate molecule (philic~loves water / attracted to water) Tail hydrophobic: two non-polar fatty acids (phobic~hates water / repelled to water)

2. Importance of Plasma Membrane:

3. Structure of the basic unit of plasma membrane

Formation: Hydrophilic heads pointing outwards Hydrophobic tails pointing inwards (Bilayer phospolipid)

Fluid Mosaic Model (Protein embedded in the bilayer) Carrier protein

carrier for some molecules (glucose, amino acids, proteins and nucleic acids) controls the movement of ions and particles (Na+, Ca2+ and K+) Glycoprotein combination of lipids and polysaccharides

Glycolipid 4. Permeability Permeable (allow to pass through)

small non-polar molecules (vitamins A, D, E, K, fatty acids, glycerol and steroids)

Impermeable (not allow to pass through but with help of carrier protein and cellular energy, it is allow to pass through)

large polar molecules (glucose, amino acids, mucleic acids and polysaccharides) charged ions (H+, Na+, K+, Cl- and Ca2+) CO2

Substances that are allowed to move in the cell:

O2 excess H2O waste: nitrogenous CO2 O2 amino acids ionic salts glucose

Substances that are allowed to move out of the cell:

Materials must be able to move through the plasma membrane in order for the cell cytoplasma to interact with the external environment. Therefore, the movement of soluble substances can occur in several mechanisms:

A. Process of Passive Transport B. Process of Active Transport

A. Passive Transport i) Simple Diffusion

not selective: lipid-soluble molecules, gases and water. not control by cell. movement of the molecules from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. Factors affecting the rate of diffusion are temperature, size of molecules/ions, diffusion gradient, surface area and diffusion medium. example: diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide at the alveolus. only water molecules. not control by cell. movement of water from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration and often occurs across a semipermeable membrane. strong sucrose solution = less water molecule = low water potential. weak sucrose solution = more water molecule = high water potential. example: absorption of water by root hairs. very specific: glucose, nucleic aicds, amino acids, protein and mineral ions. control by cell. transport of molecules (only certain molecules) across the outer membrane of living cell by a process of carrier protein (hydrophilic group) / channel protein (Ions: Na+, Ca2+, K+) within the cell membrane.

ii) Osmosis:

iii) Facilitated Diffusion:

normally take place from a region with higher concentration of molecules to a region of lower concentration. example: absorption of digested food in the villus. very specific: minerals ions and amino acids. control by cell. This process needs carrier proteins and energy (due to against concentration gradient) from a region of lower concentration to a region of higher concentration). Cell must expend energy that derived from ATP (adenosine triphosphate) example: human nerve cells (sodium ions are constantly transport out of the cell) / ions intake by root hairs of a plant.

B. Process of Active Transport

Type of Solution 1. Hypotonic 2. Isotonic 3. Hypertonic 1) Hypotonic

Solute concentration in the external solution is lesser than solute concentration inside the cell. Water concentration outside the cell is higher than the water concentration inside the cell. Solute concentration in the external solution is equal to the solute concentration inside the cell. Water concentration inside and outside of the cell is the same. Solute concentration in the external solution is greater than solute concentration inside the cell. Water concentration outside the cell is lower than the water concentration inside the cell. Hypotonic Isotonic Hypertonic

2) Isotonic

3) Hypertonic

Types of solutions: Type of Solution Animal Cell The cell inflates due to the No change in the The cell shrinks and water molecules enter the size of cell. Net cell. Eventually it bursts(thin plama blood cell in distilled water. Plant Cell The cell expands and to the water molecules movement of water is red blood cell in 0.85% sucrose solution. No change in the The cell becomes flaccid(plasmolysis occurs), vacuole and cytoplasmashrink due movement of becomes firm / turgid due size of cell. Net becomes soft anddehydrated due to the water molecule leave the cell. Example: red blood cell in 5% sodium chloride solution.

membrane). Example: red zero. Example:

enter the cell. expands slightly and prevents cell from potato in distilled water. Application 1.

water is

to the water molecules leave the cell. Example: strip of potato in 30%

The rigidcellulose cell wall zero. Example: 5% sucrose

strip of potato in sucrose solution.

bursting. Example: strip of solution.

Food is soaked in a concentrated salt solution to prevent bacteria and fungus to survive. soil. Therefore, water leaves from the cell sap of the plant which result the plant wither.

2. Chemical fertiliser (dissolved ions) increases solute concentration (decrease water molecules) in