CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1.

1 Current and Future Trends in the Energy scenario The high Indian population coupled with increase in industrial growth has resulted in an urgent need to increase the installed power capacity. Energy selfsufficiency was identified as the major driver for new and renewable energy in the country in the wake of the two oil shocks of the 1970s. Owing to problems related to uncertainty in pricing & supply, Commission for Additional Sources of Energy in the Department of Science & Technology was established in 1981 & India became the first country to set up a ministry for renewable energy. Currently research in the field of solar, wind, biomass etc is being extensively carried out. The solar insolation level in India is very high, thereby attracting the interest of government and private players in solar energy generation. A 35,000 km area of the Thar Desert has been set aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 Gigawatts. Under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission, plans have been made to generate 1,000 MW of power by 2013 and up to 20,000 MW grid-based solar power by 2020.

Wind power started to gain momentum during the 1990s and India currently stands at the fifth spot for production of wind energy in the world. Wind energy contributes to over 6% of the countrys total installed capacity, with the state of Tamil Nadu contributing the highest. Hydro electric power projects, although antiquated now, are still constructed as they are clean and green. The first hydro plant was constructed over Niagara Falls with barely a capacity of a few kilowatts and today, there are plants with capacities as high as gigawatts. The different generating modes of hydro plants are using Dams, Pumped storage, Run-of-the-river, Tide etc. India is blessed with immense amount of hydroelectric potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro-potential on global
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scenario. The installed capacity as on 30th June 2011 is approximately 37,367.4 MW which is 21.53% of total Electricity Generation in India. India also has geothermal units in its northern states, biomass generation scheme for rural use among other notable renewable resources. It has been estimated that the energy which can be generated from biomass obtained from cattle residue and molasses is as high as 25GW, given the fact that India has 28% of worlds cattle population making it the highest in the world in terms of livestock. 1.2 Challenges in grid connection of Renewable Resources The challenges in grid connection of renewable resources arise mainly due to their intermittent nature. This results in increased frequency deviations which is not desirable. This is so due to: AC machines at the utility, for instance an industrial exhaust fan, a home appliance like juicer might underperform at frequency other than the nominal frequency. Hence frequency is maintained virtually at a constant value. Electronic equipments depend on frequency for their timing.

Microcontroller based device like oven and washing machine needs accurate timing for good performance. Transformers are frequency sensitive and may get overloaded during high deviations. The auxillary electric motors in a power plant which feed fuel to boiler or remove ash may underperform thereby reducing the output of the power plant which is undesirable considering the high demand for quality power. Due to these challenges, one may be inclined to feel that renewable resources have more disadvantages than the advantages it offers. Also, in the case of certain renewable resources like wind, it is assumed that additional plant must be held in readiness to account for times when energy production from wind
2

ceases. But this is a misconception since such a problem would exist only in case of a standalone system (or islanding). When connected to a grid, the changes in output of wind farm will be accounted the same way as the changes in load are accounted for, by conventional plants. Hence the deviation in power output of renewable resources has low impact in the requirement of reserves. Other challenges include high installation cost, requirement of clearance of area as in case of wind mills. 1.3 Wind Energy Wind energy is seen as one of the most promising resources for the future. It is the fastest growing renewable resource. The differential heating of the earths surface drives wind hence wind energy is as an indirect solar energy. It has been estimated that between 18 to 68TW can be extracted from winds which is considerably higher than the total installed capacity in the world which makes it easier to tap. Several countries have already achieved relatively high levels of wind power penetration, such as 21% of stationary electricity production in Denmark, 18% in Portugal, 16% in Spain, 14% in Ireland and 9% in Germany in 2010. As of 2011, 83 countries around the world are using wind power on a commercial basis. India has installed capacities of over 15000MW most of which is in Tamil Nadu. Nowadays, offshore wind mills are gaining popularity. Offshore wind power refers to the construction of wind farms in bodies of water to generate electricity from wind. Better wind speeds are available offshore compared to on land, so offshore wind powers contribution in terms of electricity supplied is higher. Grid management of Wind Farms Induction generators, often used for wind power, require reactive

power for excitation so substations used in wind-power collection systems include substantial capacitor banks for power factor correction. Different types of wind turbine generators behave differently during transmission grid disturbances, so extensive modeling of
3

the

dynamic

electromechanical

characteristics of a new wind farm is required by transmission system operators to ensure predictable stable behavior during system faults. In particular, induction generators cannot support the system voltage during faults, unlike steam or hydro turbine-driven synchronous generators. Doubly fed

machines generally have more desirable properties for grid interconnection. Transmission systems operators will supply a wind farm developer with a grid code to specify the requirements for interconnection to the transmission grid. This will include power factor, constancy of frequency and dynamic behavior of the wind farm turbines during a system fault. Capacity Factor The capacity factor of a generator is usually defined as the ratio of its yearly energy output to the output it would have produced if it operated continuously at its nameplate rating. Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a year. In other words, its capacity factor is low ranging between 20-40%. Wind Turbine Due to the many advantages of doubly fed Induction Machines, wind turbines nowadays use DFIG instead of Induction Generators. DFIG consists of a wound rotor induction generator and an AC/DC/AC IGBT-based PWM converter. The stator winding is connected directly to the 50 Hz grid while the rotor is fed at variable frequency through the AC/DC/AC converter. Their advantages include: DFIG technology allows extracting maximum energy from the wind for low wind speeds. Minimizes mechanical stresses on the turbine during gusts of wind. Ability for power electronic converters to generate or absorb reactive power, thus eliminating the need for installing capacitor banks.

 DFIG wind turbine can supply considerably greater kinetic energy than a xed speed wind turbine. 1.4 Hydro Energy It is a clean energy harnessed from the kinetic energy of water. Hydropower is produced in 150 countries, with the Asia-Pacific region generating 32 percent of global hydropower in 2010. The capacity of plants constructed shows an increasing trend. There are now three hydroelectricity plants larger than 10 GW, the Three Gorges Dam in China, Itaipu Dam in Brazil, and Guri Dam in Venezuela. The different turbines used for generation are Pelton, Francis, Kaplan, Crossflow, Tyson, Jonval etc. The deciding factor for selecting turbines is the water head. Hydro electric energy is preferred due to its many advantages. Flexibility: Hydro is a flexible source of electricity since plants can be ramped up and down very quickly to adapt to changing energy demands. Low power costs: The major advantage of hydroelectricity is elimination of the cost of fuel. The cost of operating a hydroelectric plant is nearly immune to increases in the cost of fossil fuels such as oil, natural gas or coal, and no imports are needed. Suitability for industrial applications: While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. Reduced CO2 emissions: Since hydroelectric dams do not burn fossil fuels, they do not directly produce carbon dioxide.

1.5 Project Description It is evident from the above discussion that growing energy needs can be met only if renewable energy resources penetrate in the grid. This makes the study of the same in grid systems important. Here, the grid system is first studied under the impact of conventional resources alone. With changes in load, frequency deviations occur. This is controlled using load frequency control (LFC). The same grid is then studied with the penetration of hydro and wind farms. Load frequency control is applied again to control frequency deviation. The system has been modeled using Matlab R2010a. Transfer functions are used to represent the different components of the power system and load has been modeled separately. As load is dynamic in nature, a step change in load will not be sufficient to model the real time system. Hence a random load with suitable variance is applied to the units. Responses are recorded for Conventional system i.e. only thermal units Conventional system with penetration of hydro power plant Conventional system with penetration of wind farms System consisting of thermal, wind and hydro plant

CHAPTER 2 ISSUES IN LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL 2.1 Issues in Wind Energy The wind speed at a given location is continuously varying. There are changes in the annual mean wind speed from year to year ( annual ) changes with season ( seasonal ), with passing weather systems ( synoptic ), on a daily basis ( diurnal ) and from second to second ( turbulence ).All these changes, on their different timescales, can cause problems in predicting the overall energy capture from a site (annual and seasonal), and adversely affect the local electricity network to which the wind turbine is connected. The other obvious disadvantages are the higher costs of constructing and operating wind turbines offshore, and the longer power cables that must be used to connect the wind farm to the terrestrial power grid. 2.1.1 Local Impacts Locally, wind power has an impact on the following aspects of the power system: circuit power flows and busbar voltages protection schemes, fault currents, and switchgear rating power quality harmonic voltage distortion voltage flicker. 2.1.2 System-wide Impacts In addition to the local impacts, wind power also has a number of system-wide impacts as it affects the following : power system dynamics and stability reactive power and voltage support frequency support.

2.1.3 Wind Generators Compared with Conventional Power Plant There are significant differences between wind power and conventional synchronous central generation: Wind turbines employ different, often converter-based, generating systems compared with those used in conventional power plants. The prime mover of wind turbines, the wind, is not controllable and fluctuates stochastically. The typical size of individual wind turbines is much smaller than that of a conventional utility synchronous generator. 2.2 Wind Turbines Wind turbines produce electricity by using the power of the wind to drive an electrical generator. Wind passes over the blades, generating lift and exerting a turning force. The rotating blades turn a shaft inside the nacelle, which goes into a gearbox. The gearbox increases the rotational speed to that which is appropriate for the generator, which uses magnetic fields to convert the rotational energy into electrical energy. The power in the wind than can be extracted by a wind turbine is proportional to the cube of the wind speed and is given in watts by P= (A 3 Cp)/2 where is the air density, A is the rotor swept area, is the wind speed and C p is the power coefficient. A maximum value of Cp is defined by the Betz limit, which states that a turbine can never extract more than 59.3% of the power from an air stream. In reality, wind turbine rotors have maximum Cp values in the range 2545%.It is also conventional to define a tip-speed ratio, , as = (R)/v where = rotational speed of rotor R = radius to tip of rotor = upwind free wind speed, ms-1. The tip-speed ratio, , and the power coefficient, Cp, are dimensionless and so can be used to describe the performance of any size of wind turbine rotor. The
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maximum power coefficient is only achieved at a single tip-speed ratio and for a fixed rotational speed of the wind turbine this only occurs at a single wind speed. Hence, one argument for operating a wind turbine at variable rotational speed is that it is possible to operate at maximum Cp over a range of wind speeds. The power output of a wind turbine at various wind speeds is conventionally described by its power curve. The power curve has three key points on the velocity scale: Cut-in wind speed the minimum wind speed at which the machine will deliver useful power. Rated wind speed the wind speed at which rated power (maximum power) is obtained. Cut-out wind speed the maximum wind speed at which the turbine is allowed to deliver. 2.3 Wind Turbine Architecture There are a large number of choices of architecture available to the designer of a wind turbine. However, commercial designs for electricity generation have now converged to horizontal axis, three-bladed, upwind turbines. The largest machines tend to operate at variable speed whereas smaller, simpler turbines are of fixed speed. Modern electricity-generating wind turbines now use threebladed upwind rotors, although two-bladed, and even one-bladed, rotors were used in earlier commercial turbines. Reducing the number of blades means that the rotor has to operate at a higher rotational speed in order to extract the wind energy passing through the rotor disk. Although a high rotor speed is attractive in that it reduces the gearbox ratio required, a high blade tip speed leads to increased aerodynamic noise and increased blade drag losses. Most importantly, three-bladed rotors are visually more pleasing than other designs and so these are now always used on large electricity-generating turbines.

2.3.1 Fixed-speed Wind Turbines Fixed-speed wind turbines are electrically fairly simple devices consisting of an aerodynamic rotor driving a low-speed shaft, a gearbox, a high-speed shaft and an induction (sometimes known as asynchronous) generator. It consists of a squirrel-cage induction generator coupled to the power system through a turbine transformer, refer figure 2.1. The generator operating slip changes slightly as the operating power level changes and the rotational speed is therefore not entirely constant. However, because the operating slip variation is generally less than 1%, this type of wind generation is normally referred to as fixed speed.

Fig. 2.1 Schematic of a fixed-speed wind turbine 2.3.2 Variable-speed Wind Turbines As the size of wind turbines has become larger, the technology has switched from fixed speed to variable speed and the reduction in mechanical loads achieved with variable-speed operation. Currently the most common variablespeed wind turbine configurations are as follows: Doubly fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine Fully rated converter (FRC) wind turbine based on a synchronous or induction generator. a) Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) Wind Turbine It uses a wound-rotor induction generator with slip rings to take current into or out of the rotor winding and variable-speed operation is obtained by injecting a controllable voltage into the rotor at slip frequency. The rotor winding is fed through a variable-frequency power converter, typically based on two AC/DC IGBT-based voltage source converters (VSCs), and linked by a DC bus (refer
10

Fig. 2.2). The power converter decouples the network electrical frequency from the rotor mechanical frequency, enabling variable-speed operation of the wind turbine. The generator and converters are protected by voltage limits and an

Fig. 2.2 Typical configuration of a DFIG Turbine over current crowbar. A DFIG system can deliver power to the grid through the stator and rotor, while the rotor can also absorb power. This depends on the rotational speed of the generator. If the generator operates above synchronous speed, power will be delivered from the rotor through the converters to the network, and if the generator operates below synchronous speed, then the rotor will absorb power from the network through the converters. Normally Back-toBack VSCs are used in DFIG. b) Fully Rated Converter (FRC) Wind Turbine This type of turbine may or may not include a gearbox and a wide range of electrical generator types can be employed, for example, induction, wound-rotor synchronous or permanent magnet synchronous. As all of the power from the turbine goes through the power converters, the dynamic operation of the electrical generator is effectively isolated from the power grid. The electrical frequency of the generator may vary as the wind speed changes, while the grid
11

frequency remains unchanged, thus allowing variable-speed operation of the wind turbine. The power converter is able to generate or absorb reactive power independently.

Fig. 2.3 Typical configuration of a fully rated converter connected wind turbine Variable speed operation requires a frequency conversion through a power electronic converter, a process that reduces somewhat the overall efficiency. This is one reason why large modern wind turbines are designed to operate at variable speed .This is attractive from an integration perspective as the rotor has inertia available to absorb or release energy when accelerating or decelerating respectively, thus smoothing short term variations in wind speed. Consequently its electrical power output varies less and can be more easily accommodated by the electrical system. Synchronous Generator Use in renewable energy: Used in wind power mainly in its ring forms for gearless coupling to a wind turbine. Variable speed provided through a DC link power electronic interface. Used in water power when reactive power control is required. Induction Generator use in renewable energy: Used extensively with a gear box in wind Power. Variable speed provided with power electronics in the rotor wound form. Used in water power with gearbox.

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2.3.3 Fixed Versus Variable Speed Dynamics The vast majority of the worlds electricity is generated by synchronous machines directly connected to their respective power systems. This configuration works very well when the prime mover (usually an engine or a steam, gas or water turbine) provides a steady torque to the generator. Wind, however, is turbulent and this translates directly into fluctuations in Drive train torque. Using a directly connected synchronous generator in a wind turbine would form too rigid a coupling between the mechanical and electrical systems. Wind gusts would cause large mechanical stresses in the turbine and, depending on the nature of the electrical grid, large fluctuations in the power fed into the electrical system. The main advantages of variable speed wind turbines in terms of dynamics are: The total inertia of the aerodynamic rotor, the gearbox (if there is one) and the electrical generator act as an energy buffer, smoothing out the wind turbulence. Transient torques and rapid variation in electrical power as well as stresses in the drive train are greatly reduced. Lower structural loads and lighter foundations are other advantages of particular importance in offshore applications. Additional advantages are: The power electronics may also be capable of regulating the reactive power flow in the network. Noise is reduced, when operating at low wind speeds. The drawbacks of variable speed are the extra complexity of the generator (in some schemes) and of the necessary power electronic hardware, all of which increase cost and possibly reduce reliability. To allow for wind gusts, virtually all wind turbines have generators or generator systems that provide some degree of speed variation.

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2.4 Hydro Power Generation 2.4.1 Issues in Hydro Power Generation Ecosystem damage and loss of land: Large reservoirs required for the operation of hydro electric power station result in submersion of extensive areas upstream of the dams, destroying biologically rich and productive low land and riverine valley forests, marchland and grasslands. The loss of land is often exacerbated by the fact that reservoirs cause habitat fragmentation of surrounding area. Siltation and flow shortage: When water flows, it has the ability to transport particles heavier than itself downstream. This has a negative effect on dams and subsequently their power stations, particularly those on rivers or within catchment areas with high siltation. Siltation can fill a reservoir and reduce its capacity to control floods along with causing additional horizontal pressure on the upstream portion of the dam. Relocation: Another disadvantage of hydroelectric dams is the need to relocate the people living where the reservoirs are planned. Failure risks: Because large conventional dammed-hydro facilities hold back large volumes of water, a failure due to poor construction, terrorism, or other cause can be catastrophic to downriver settlements and infrastructure. 2.4.2. Comparison with other methods of power generation Hydroelectricity eliminates the flue gas emissions from fossil fuel combustion and also avoids the hazards of coal mining along with its indirect health effects. Compared to wind farms, hydroelectricity power plants have a more predictable load factor. If the project has a storage reservoir, it can generate power when needed. Hydroelectric plants can be easily regulated to follow variations in power demand.
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CHAPTER 3 MODELING OF THERMAL, HYDRO AND WIND SYSTEM 3.1 Frequency deviation with penetration of renewables Load changes result in frequency deviation. With the anticipated rise in the penetration of variable renewables, power systems will be required to accommodate increasing second to second imbalances between generation and demand requiring enhanced frequency control balancing services. It is not desirable to operate machines in frequency other than nominal value as it leads to various problems.Also energy from renewable sources should generally be used as fully as possible whenever available.Hence the method of LFC has to be implemented to maintain frequency within tolerable limits. Apart from uncontrollability owing to intermittent nature, other challenges include high installation costs, high clearance of land (for wind). Conventional steam generation plant assists the network frequency stability at the onset of a sudden imbalance of demand over supply by slowing down. Wind turbines respond differently. The stored energy is in the rotor inertia and fixed speed turbines will provide a limited benefit from their inertia provided that the voltage and frequency remain within their operating limits. Variable - speed wind turbines will not normally provide this benefit as their speed is controlled to maximize the energy production from the prevailing wind. Large wind turbines are now almost always of the variable speed type and as they increasingly displace conventional generation the total system inertia from such generation will decrease. Consequently the rate of change of frequency and the depth of the frequency dip caused by a sudden loss of generation will both increase. However, variable speed wind turbines could be controlled in principle to provide a proportionately greater inertial energy to the system than conventional plant of the same rating. Such sophisticated control arrangements

15

to support system functions are likely to be requested by utilities as wind penetration increases. 3.2 Load Frequency Control LFC, as the name signifies, regulates the power flow between different areas while holding the frequency constant. We can therefore state that the LFC has the following two objectives: - Hold the frequency constant (f = 0) against any load change - Each area must maintain the tie-line power flow to its pre-specified value. 3.2.1 Load Frequency Control Methods The different methods for LFC are Flat Frequency Control (FFC), Tie Line Bias Control (TBC), and Flat Tie Line Control (FTC). In FFC, some areas act as load change absorbers and others as base load. The advantage is the higher operating efficiencies of the base load as they run at their maximum rated value at all times. But the drawback here is the reduced number of areas absorbing load changes which makes the system more transient prone. In FTC, load changes in each area are controlled within the area thereby maintaining tie line frequency constant. In TBC, the load change in one area is shared by other areas through signals from central control system.TBC has been adopted here with simulation being batch controlled for improved performance. The wind system discussed uses Doubly Fed Induction Generator (DFIG) due to its many advantages like independent real and reactive power control; its generation capacity is 150MW. The hydro system with droop compensation is considered which has a generation capacity of 2400MW. The four thermal units have a net generation capacity of 6100MW. 3.3 Thermal System The four thermal power plants constitute the thermal unit. The plants have been modeled using transfer function. Speed governor, turbine and generator constitute the various parts.

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3.3.1 Speed Governor System From literature, we have, ( ) Where =command signal frequency change
E=changes

( )

( )]

(3.1)

in steam valve opening

R=speed regulation of the governor Ksg=gain of speed governor Tsg=time constant of speed governor Equation 3.1 is represented in the form of a block diagram in Fig. 3.1 ( ) ( )

( ) Fig. 3.1 Governor transfer function model This model has been adopted in the simulation. 3.3.2 Turbine Model The dynamic response of steam turbine is related to changes in steam valve opening
E

in terms of changes in power output. The dynamic response is

largely influenced by two factors, (i) entrained steam between the inlet steam valve and first stage of the turbine, (ii) the storage action in the reheater which causes the output of the low pressure stage to lag behind that off high pressure stage. Thus, the turbine transfer function is characterized by two time constants. It is assumed that the turbine can be modeled to have a single equivalent time constant. Figure 3.2 shows the transfer function model of a steam turbine. Typically the time constant Tt lies in the range 0.2 to 2.5 sec.

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E(s)

Pt(s)

Fig. 3.2 Turbine transfer function model 3.3.3 Generator Load Model The PG increment PD Pt, incremental turbine output power.This increament in power in power input to the generator-load system is

Where PG = (i) (ii)

input to the system is accounted for in two ways: Rate of increase of stored kinetic energy in the generator rotor. Load changes sensitive to frequency.

Based on these, the following equation is obtained. ( )

( ) ( )

=[

( )

( )

(3.2)

Where Tps= Kps =

power system time constant = power system gain

( ) ( ) + ( )

Fig. 3.3 Block diagram of generator load model

From the above analysis, the complete block diagram for the thermal system can be constructed by combining the block diagram of individual components is shown in Figure 3.4. Typical values of time constants of load frequency control system are related as Tsg<Tt<<Tps.

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E(s)

(s)=

(s)

( ) ( )

( )+ -

Fig. 3.4 Complete block diagram

The system parameters for the four thermal areas is tabulated in Table 3.1. Table 3.1Thermal System parameters Area Rated Power (MW) 2000 1000 600 2500 B = Inertia Constant (H) 6 5 4 6 Kps= Tps=

(pu MW/Hz) .01 .02 .033 .008

TP 1 TP 2 TP 3 TP 4

100 50 30 125

24 10 5.33 30

3.4 Hydro System Hydro plants contribute nearly 21% of generation of electric power in India. The essential elements of the hydraulic plant are reservoir, penstock, gate, turbine and generator. Hydraulic turbines are of two basic types: impulse and reaction turbines. The impulse-type (Pelton wheel) is used for high heads 300 metres or more. The gravitational power energy of the water dammed becomes its kinetic energy. The water spurt transmits its kinetic energy to the bun, where it is transformed instantaneously into mechanical energy. In reaction turbine the pressure within turbine is above atmospheric; the energy is supplied by the
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wter in both kinetic and potential (pressure head) forms. The water first passes from a spiral casing through stationary radial guide vanes and around its entire periphery. The gates control wter flow. There are two sub categories of reaction turbines: Francis and Propeller. Francis turbine In this type of turbine, wter flows through guide vanes impacting on the runner tangentially and exiting axially. Propeller turbine It uses propeller type wheels. Either fixed blades or variable pitch blades may be used. The variable pitch blade propeller turbine, commonly known as Kaplan Wheel, has high efficiency at all loads. Typical range of heads Kaplan Francis Pelton 2 < H < 40 (H = head in meters) 10 < H < 350 50 < H < 1300

The representation of the hydraulic turbine and water column in stability studies is usually based on following assumptions: 1) The hydraulic resistance is negligible. 2) The penstock pipe is inelastic and the water is incompressible. 3) The velocity of the water varies directly with the gate opening and with the square root of the net head. 4) The turbine output power is proportional to the product of head and volume flow.

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Fig. 3.5 Block diagram of Hydraulic Unit Hydro plants are modeled the same way as thermal except for the following differences: The input to the turbine is water instead of steam. Inertia of the system is higher than thermal due to high inertia of water column. Initial Droop Characteristics owing to reduced pressure on turbine on opening the gate valve has to be compensated. Requirement for transient droop: Hydro turbines have peculiar response due to water inertia; a change in gate position produces an initial turbine power change which is opposite to that sought. For stable control performance, a large transient (temporary) droop with a long resettling time is therefore required in the forms of transient droop compensation as shown in Fig. 3.6. The compensation limits gate movement until water flow power output has time to catch up. The result is governor exhibits a high droop for fast speed deviations and low droop in steady state. Typical Values for Hydro Modeling [3] are given below (refer Fig. 3.7) Rp=0.05 Tg=0.2s M=6.0s D=1.0 Tw=1.0s Rt=0.38 Tr=5.0s Capacity = 2400MW Where Rp = permanent droop
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Tg = main servo time constant D = change in load with respect to frequency M=2H where equals inertia constant Tw = water starting time (time required for a head H to accelerate water in penstock from standstill to velocity U) Typically Tw at full load lies between 0.4s-0.5s R t = temporary droop Tr = reset time.

Fig. 3.6 Block Diagram of Hydro Plant 3.5 Wind System A wind farm consisting of Doubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) wind turbine is considered. DFIG consists of a wound rotor induction generator and an AC/DC/AC IGBT-based PWM converter. The stator winding is connected directly to the 50 Hz grid while the rotor is fed at variable frequency through the

Fig. 3.7 Typical Configuration of DFIG Turbine

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AC/DC/AC converter. The wind speed is maintained constant at 11 m/s. The control system uses a torque controller in order to maintain the speed at 1.2 pu. Parameters of wind farm Power capacity of wind farm: 150MW Nominal wind speed: 11m/s Turbine initial speed: 1.2pu Inertial constant of wind turbine: 4.32 s Generator power: 1.5MW Stator Voltage: 575V Frequency: 50Hz Advantages: Ability for power electronic converters to generate or absorb reactive power, thus eliminating the need for installing capacitor banks. The DFIG technology allows extracting maximum energy from the wind for low wind speeds by optimizing the turbine speed, while minimizing mechanical stresses on the turbine during gusts of wind. In variable speed DFIG wind turbines, which operate at defined torque, the damping contribution of the generator is low because the torque no longer varies rapidly as a function of the rotor speed. Also, active damping techniques are often used to stabilize the mechanical systems of large variable-speed wind turbines. Recently, power system stabilizers (PSSs) have been proposed to enable DFIG wind turbines to contribute positively to network damping. If any of the frequencies of mechanical vibrations of the rotor structure lies within the bandwidth of the PSS, then resonance or adverse control loop interaction may arise, which will affect the performance of both the mechanical & electrical systems of the wind turbine.

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CHAPTER 4 LOAD FREQUENCY FOR MULTIAREA SYSTEM 4.1 Multiarea System for Load Frequency Control An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency control areas interconnected by means of tie lines. The control objective now is to regulate the frequency of each area and to simultaneously regulate the tie line power as per inter-area power contracts. As in the case of frequency, proportional plus integral controller will be installed so as to give zero steady state error in the tie line power flow as compared to the contracted power. It is conveniently assumed that each control area can be represented by an equivalent turbine, generator and governor system. Symbols used with suffix 1 refer to area 1 & those with suffix 2 refer to area 2 and so on. Incremental tie line power out of area 1is given by ( ( ) ) (4.1)

Similarly, the incremental tie line power out of area 2 is given by (4.2)

Where T12 = synchronizing coefficient f1 & f2 represent frequency of the respective area. ( ) ( ) ( ) (4.3)

Equation 4.3 can be represented by Fig. 4.1 ( )

( )

( ) +

( ) Fig. 4.1 Tie line power flow

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In the case of an isolated control area, ACE (area control error) is the change in area frequency which when used in integral control loop forced the steady state frequency error to zero. In order that the steady state tie line power error in a two area control be made zero another integral control loop (one for each area) must be introduced to integrate the incremental tie line power signal and feed it back to the speed changer, as shown in Fig. 4.2
E(s)

(s)=

(s)

( ) ( )

+ ( )

K Frequency sensor

Fig. 4.2 Proportional plus Integral load frequency control

This is accomplished by a single integrating block by redefining ACE as a linear combination of incremental frequency and tie line power. Thus for control area 1 ACE1 = Taking laplace transform, ACE1(s) = ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (4.5) (4.4)

Similarly, for control area n, ACEn(s) = (4.6) ( ) to

Combining the basic block diagrams of multiple control areas, with

( ) generated by integrals of respective ACEs (obtained through signals representing changes in tie line power and local frequency bias) and employing the block diagram of Fig. 4.1, we easily obtain the composite block diagrams.

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4.2 LFC for Thermal System The four thermal systems have been combined and the composite block diagram is simulated in Simulink/Matlab R2010a as shown in Fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3 Thermal System Let the loads to be simultaneously applied in control areas 1 to 4

respectively. The system parameters of 4 area system are given in table 4.1The frequency deviation versus time scale of 4 thermal areas for step load change and random load variation is shown in Fig. 4.3.1 and Fig. 4.3.2
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4 3 2
Change in Frequency

-3 x 10 Frequency Deviation Vs Time (s) for Thermal System

1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0 200 400
Time (s)

600

800

1000

Fig. 4.3.1 Response for Fixed load

Frequency Deviation Vs Time(s) for Thermal System 1

Change in frequency

0.5

-0.5

-1

200

400
Time(s)

600

800

1,000

Fig. 4.3.2 Response for Random load 4.3 LFC for Thermal and Hydro System The four thermal systems along with the hydro unit are combined and the composite block diagram is simulated in Simulink/Matlab R2010a as shown in Fig. 4.4.

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Fig. 4.4 Hydro and Thermal System Frequency deviation versus Time for Integrated Thermal and Hydro system for step load change and random load variation is shown in Fig. 4.4.1 and Fig. 4.4.2

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Frequency Deviation Vs Time(s) for Hydro & Thermal System 0.01 0 -0.01
Change in Frequency

-0.02 -0.03 -0.04 -0.05 -0.06 -0.07 0 200 400 Time (s) 600 800 1000

Fig. 4.4.1 Response for Fixed load

Frequency Deviation Vs Time(s) for Hydro & Thermal System 0.05 0
Change in Frequency

-0.05 -0.1 -0.15 -0.2 -0.25 -0.3 -0.35 0 200 400

Time (s)

600

800

1000

Fig. 4.4.2 Response for Random load 4.4 LFC for Thermal and Wind system The non conventional wind energy generator should act in conjunction with conventional power generator for reliable power generation as wind generation is intermittent in nature. The Fig. 4.5 shows the integration of thermal with wind turbine.

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Fig. 4.5 Thermal and Wind System Frequency deviation versus Time for Thermal and Wind system for step load change and random load variation is shown in Fig. 4.5.1 and Fig. 4.5.2

x 10

-4

Frequency Deviation vs Time(s) for Wind & Thermal System

Change in Frequency

0.5

-0.5

-1 0

100

200 Time(s)

300

400

500

Fig. 4.5.1 Response for Fixed Load

30

x 10

-4

Frequency Deviation Vs Time(s) for Wind & Thermal System

Change in Frequency

0.5

-0.5

-1 0

100

200 Time(s)

300

400

500

Fig. 4.5.2 Response for Random Load 4.5 LFC for Thermal, Hydro and Wind System In order to compensate the intermittent nature of renewable, grid connection of the same is imperative for reliable power generation.

TP 1 Wind Central Control System Hydro TP 4

Fig. 4.6 Structure of Power System It is possible to divide an extended power system into sub areas in which the generators are tightly coupled together so as to form a coherent group, i.e. all the generators respond in unison to changes in load or speed changer settings.
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TP 2

TP 3

Such a coherent area is called a control area in which the frequency is assumed to be the same throughout in static and dynamic conditions. For the purpose of developing a suitable control strategy, a control area can be reduced to a single speed governor, turbo-generator and load system. Here a power system consisting of four thermal areas (TP1-TP4), a hydro area and a wind farm is considered and the same is controlled by a central control system (refer Fig. 4.6). By batch control, the load is divided amongst various power plants in the ratio of their capacities by central control system and the corresponding Matlab code is given in Fig. 4.7.

Fig. 4.7 Matlab code for control system

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This entire power system is modeled using Simulink/Matlab R2010a as shown in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Simulink model of Power System The four thermal areas and the hydro unit are combined together in the Thermal & Hydro subsystem (Fig. 4.9). The output of this subsystem gets

reflected in the grid voltage. DFIG wind farm draws supply for stator from grid and the changing wind speeds has an impact on its output. Power from the DFIG is fed to the grid via stator and rotor depending on the wind speed. Higher the wind speed, higher is the power output, rotor feeds power; lower the wind speed, power output is low, hence rotor draws power from grid to have constant power flow through stator. The output of wind farm is sent to the central control system to calculate the load distribution over thermal station. Random load of 1.7pu with maximum variation of 0.8pu (corresponds to 4250MW 2000MW) is considered here.

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C ontinuous powe rgui

b5 -K1/R

HYDRO SYSTEM
20

-5.5 s controller 5 1 Pref

1 .2s+1

5s+1 38s+1

-s+1 .5s+1 HydroTurbine

1 6s+1 Generator

Transient Droop Compensation Governor 5 In5 -K- a15

Delay5

THERMAL SYSTEM

-.09 s controller 4 -K- b4 .33

1 .4s+1 Governor4 1 In1 1/R4

1 .5s+1 Turbine4

100 24s+1 Generator4

-.8

a14

Dealy4

-.09 s Controller 3

1 .5s+1 Governor3 2

1 .6s+1 Turbine3

50 10s+1 Generator3 simout

-.5

a13

-K- b3

.33

1/R5

In2 Clock1 Delay3

To Workspace

XY Graph

.24 a12

-.09 s Controller 2 -K- b1 .33 1/R2

1 .7s+1 Governor2

1 .8s+1 Turbine2

30 5.33s+1 Generator2

3 In3

Delay2

2HT12/s 1 .05 delPtie s Out1

-.09 s Controller 1 b1 -K.33 1/R1

1 .3s+1 Governor1

1 .4s+1 Turbine1

125 30s+1 Generator1

4 In4 Delay1

Fig. 4.9 Thermal and Hydro Subsystem Frequency deviation versus Time for Integrated Thermal, Hydro and Wind system for step load change and random load variation is shown in Fig. 4.9.1 and Fig. 4.9.2

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Frequency Deviation vs Time(s) for the Integrated System 0.1

Change in Frequency Vs Time (s)

0.05

-0.05

-0.1

20

40 Time (s)

60

80

100

Fig. 4.9.1 Response for Fixed Load Real time systems are best described by introducing random load variation. The response for random load variation is shown in Fig. 4.17.
1
-3 x 10 Frequency Deviation Vs Time(s) for the Integrated System

Change in Frequency

0.5

-0.5

-1

20

40 Time(s)

60

80

100

Fig. 4.9.2 Response for Random Load

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CHAPTER 5 ECONOMIC LOAD DISPATCH 5.1 Introducing Economic Dispatch In power generation our main aim is to generate the required amount of power with minimum cost. Economic load dispatch means that the generators real and reactive power is allowed to vary within certain limits so as to meet a particular load demand with minimum fuel cost. This allocation of loads is based on some constraints. 5.2 Different Constraints in Economic Load Dispatch There are two different types of constraints namely Inequality and Equality constraints. 5.2.1 Inequality Constraints Voltage constraints Vmin V Vmax min max where V = Voltage , = Load angle. Generator constraints KVA loading of generator should not exceed prescribed value a) Pmin P Pmax where Pmin is governed by thermal condition and

Pmax is limited by flame instability in boiler. b) Qmin Q Qmax where Qmax is limited by overheating of the rotar and Qmin is limited by stability limit of the machine Running spare capacity constraints

36

This constraint is needed to meet forced outage of one or more alternators in the system and also unexpected load on the system Transmission line constraints The flow of power through transmission line should less than its thermal capacity Transformer tap set For autotransformer tapt should be between 0 & 1 For two winding transformer tappings t should be between 0 & n, where n = transformation ratio. 5.2.2 Equality constraints Real power Pp= Vp Ypq Vq cos(pq-(p+q)) Reactive power Qp= Vp Ypq Vq sin(pq-(p+q)) 5.3 Operating cost of thermal plant The factors influencing power generation at minimum cost are operating efficiencies of generators, fuel cost, and transmission losses. The most efficient generator in the system does not guarantee minimum cost as it may be located in an area where fuel cost is high. If the plant is located far from the load center, transmission losses may be considerably higher and hence the plant may be overly uneconomical. The input to the thermal plant is generally measured in Btu/h, and the output is measured in MW. In all practical cases, the fuel cost of generator can be represented as a quadratic function of real power generation
37

C = aPg2+bPg+c In all practical cases, the fuel cost of generator can be represented as a quadratic function of real power generation

Fig. 5.1 Heat rate curve Incremental Fuel Cost Curve

Fig. 5.2 Fuel cost curve

By plotting the derivative of the fuel-cost curve versus the real power we get the incremental fuel-cost curve dC/dPgi = 2aP + b The incremental fuel-cost curve is a measure of how costly it will be to produce the next increment of power. 5.4 Economic Dispatch Neglecting Losses It is the simplest economic dispatch problem Assume that the system is only one bus with all generation and loads connected to it A cost function Ci is assumed to be known for each plant The problem is to find the real power generation for each plant such that the objective function (i.e., total production cost) as defined by the equation C = aPg2+bPg+c Is minimum subjected to constraint, Pg = Pd . The power system model simulated is shown in Fig. 5.3

38

Fig. 5.3 Economic Dispatch Model The response obtained is shown in Fig. 5.4 and Fig. 5.5

39

4 3 2
Frequency Deviation

x 10

-4

Frequency Deviation Vs Time(s)

1 0 -1 -2 -3 -4 0

20

40 Time (s)

60

80

100

Fig. 5.4 Frequency Deviation with Economic Dispatch

Load Distribution (p.u.) Vs Time (s) TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4

Load Distribution (p.u.)

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

20

40 Time (s)

60

80

100

Fig. 5.5 Load distribution to thermal power plants

40

Cost Vs Time (s) 1000 900 800 700 600

Cost

500 400 300 200 100 0 0 20 40 Time (s) 60 80 100

Fig. 5.6 Cost Vs Time graph

41

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE SCOPE Load frequency control becomes more important, when a large amount of renewable power supplies like the photovoltaics and wind power generation are introduced. In this paper Load Frequency Control with considerable penetration of renewable has been analysed. It is observed that frequency deviation is within tolerable limits for the cases studied namely Thermal + Hydro Thermal + Wind Thermal + Hydro + Wind The frequency deviation versus time curve has been observed for two types of loads Fixed Load Random Load To represent real time scenario in the best possible way, random loads are used. The loads are distributed among different units using Tie Line Bias Control method of LFC as it gives minimal frequency deviation. Economic dispatch has been implemented in order to save fuel costs. The project can be further extended by studying real and reactive power flow with penetration of renewable. Also the system performance in the event of fault can be analysed.

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REFERENCES 1. T. Niimura and R. Oba, Suppression of Short Term Disturbances from Renewable Resources by Load Frequency Control Considering Different Characteristics of Power Plants, IEEE Power & Energy Society General Meeting, pp.1 7(2009-7). 2. Daniel Karlsson Temporary Primary Frequency Control Support by Variable Speed Wind TurbinesPotential and Applications IEEE

Transactions on Power Systems, vol. 23, No.2,(2008-05). 3. P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. New York: McGrawHill,1993. 4. Olimpo Anaya-Lara, Nick Jenkins, Janaka Ekanayake, Phill Cartwright, Michael Hughes, Wind Energy Generation Modelling and Control. John Wiley & Sons Ltd,2009. 5. Leon Freris and David Infield, Renewable Energy in Power Systems. John Wiley & Sons,Ltd,2008. 6. Olle l.Elgerd, Electric Energy Systems Theory An Introduction ,Second Edition,Tata McGraw-Hill. 7. I J Nagrath and D P Kothari, Modern Power System Analysis, Second Edition,Tata McGraw-Hill.

8. N.

R.

Ullah,

T.

Thiringer,

and

D.

Karlsson,

"Temporary

PrimaryFrequency Control Support by Variable Speed Wind Turbines Potential and Applications" IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 601-612(2008-5).

9. Y. Eito, T. Matubara, M. Yamamoto, A. Mizutani, K. Shimizu, M. Kato, "Development of SimulationModel of Thermal Power Plant and its Validation of Output Power Change Against Frequency Change", T. IEE Japan, Vol. 125-B, No. 9,pp.871-878 (2005-9) (in Japanese).
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10.Technical Report of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan, "LFC on the Electric Power System in the Regular Time and in an Emergency",Technical Report IEE Japan, No. 869 (2002-3) (in japanese).

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