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Alloying and processing determine metals strength Yield strength, 103 psi (MPa) ULTRA HIGH STRENGTH Cobalt and its alloys 26-290 (180-2000) Low alloy hardening steels6,1 76-288 (525-1985) Stainless steels, martensitic6,2 60-275 (415-1895) Ultra-high strength steels6,2 170-270 (1170-1860) Nickel and its alloys 10-230 (70-1585) HIGH STRENGTH Tungsten 220 (1515) Molybdenum and its alloys 82-210 (565-1450) Titanium and its alloys 27-191 (185-1315) Carbon steels6,3,1 58-188 (400-1295) Nickel base superalloys 40-172 (275-1185) Alloy steels, cast 112-170 (770-1170) Tantalum and its alloys 48-168 (330-1090) Stainless steel, cast 31-165 (215-1140) Ductile (nodular) irons, cast 40-150 (275-1035) Copper casting alloys* 9-140 (60-965) Columbium and its alloys 35-135 (240-930) Iron base superalloys, cast6 40-134 (275-925) Cobalt base superalloys6 35-116 (240-800) Bronzes6* 14-114 (95-785) Low alloy constructional steels6,2 90-110 (620-760) High copper alloys6 9-110 (60-760) MEDIUM STRENGTH Cobalt base superalloys, cast 75-100 (515-690) Hafnium6 32-96 (220-660) Brasses6 10-92.5 (70-640) Aluminum alloys, 7000 series 14-91 (95-625) Coppers-nickel-zincs6,* 18-90 (125-620) Copper nickels6,* 13-85 (90-585) Stainless steels, ferritic6,4 45-80 (310-550) High strength, low alloy steels6 42-80 (290-550) Carbon steels, carburized6,1 46-77 (315-530) Coppers6,* 10-72 (70-495) Aluminum alloys, 2000 series 10-66 (70-455) Ductile irons, austenitic, cast 28-65 (195-450) Aluminum alloys, 5000 series 6-59 (40-405) Carbon steels, cast5 48-55 (330-380) Aluminum alloys, 6000 series 7-55 (50-380) Zirconium and its alloys 15-53 (105-365) Zinc die castings 52 (360) Depleted uranium 35-50 (240-345) Aluminum alloys, 4000 series 46 (315) Magnesium alloys6 13-44 (90-305) Silver 8-44 (55-303) Carbon steels, cast3 38-42 (260-290) Beryllium and its alloys 5-40 (35-275) Aluminum alloys, 3000 series 6-36 (40-250) LOW STRENGTH Gold 30 (205) Magnesium alloys, cats 12-30 (85-205) Platinum 2-27 (15-185) Aluminum alloys, 1000 series 4-24 (30-165) Lead and its alloys* 1.6-8 (10-55) Tin and its alloys 1.3-6.6 (5-45) Relative strengths of metals and alloys listed reveal how alloying elements, as well as manufacturing processes, determine a metals strength. Values are approximate, for relative comparison only. They should not be considered absolute or for design purposes. * At 0.5% offset. 1 Quenched and tempered. 2 Heat treated. 3 Normalized. 4 Cold worked. 5 Normalized and tempered. 6 Wrought. 7 Annealed. Metal or alloy
POLYMERS
Not long ago, plastics were considered only as inexpensive, nonload bearing replacements for metals. Today, however, that picture has changed dramatically. High-strength plastics, ranging from short-glass-fiber reinforced thermoplastics for injection molding up to 70% continuous-carbon-fiberreinforced advanced composites, are the materials of choice for aircraft structural components, auto body panels, appliances, and a plethora of other industrial and consumer products. Although generally not as strong or rigid as metals, plastics and composites offer not only unique design flexibility, but also the ability to put the strength right where it's needed. Exceptions to the rule are advanced composite structures, which on a specific basis, exceed metals in both strength and rigidity. With the variety of polymer matrices, types of reinforcement, and fabrication methods now available, plastics are now at the forefront of new materials developments. More versatile, but more complex As with metals, properties indicative of high strength include tensile, flexural, shear and compressive strengths as well as moduli. However, because of plastics' viscoelastic nature, behavior under stress is significantly different and much more complex., Both time and temperature, for example, can significantly affect property values. In contrast to metals, unreinforced plastics are usually characterized by nonlinear stress-strain curves up to the yield point, while glass-fiber- reinforced plastics are practically linear up to approximately 0.3% strain. Plastics also exhibit much higher creep than metals, which means that a property, for instance, ultimate tensile strength of a plastic under load, decreases with time. The latter makes such properties as creep rupture, creep modulus and creep strain, important considerations in design. Therefore, designs for plastic components under constant load should be designed to the creep strength rather than the yield strength. Similarly, stress relaxation - how stress decreases as a function of time at a given strain - can be equally important in some applications. Not to be ignored are environmental conditions, such as moisture and humidity, and exposure to ultraviolet light (outdoor applications), chemicals, solvents, and moisture. While these factors are often of little consequence where metals are concerned, they can unexpectedly reduce mechanical and physical property values of plastics. The use of additives in plastics and composites also deserves attention. Although often necessary for flame retardancy, easier processing, color or another required characteristic, chemical additives can adversely affect the strength of a polymer, resulting in properties much lower than those of an unmodified plastic. How strong are plastics?
Material description Comp. molded polyester BMC2 Inj. Molded polyester BMC2 Comp. molded polyester SMC3 Comp. molded polyester SMC3 Comp. molded polyester SMC3 Polyester pultrusions Filament-wound epoxy Milled glass PUR RRIM4
Impact, Izod, Ftlb/in.12 4.26 2.89 19.4 16.0 8.2 25.0 45.0 -
Flake-glass PUR RRIM4 23 1.17 4.41 38.9 2.1 Polyester, spray30 1.37 12.5 1.0 22.0 28.0 1.3 13-15 up/lay-up Polyester, woven 50 1.64 37.0 2.25 27.0 46.0 2.25 1.6 33.0 roving (lay-up) Cold-rolled HSLA steel5 7.75 65.0 30.0 65.0 22.0 Cold-rolled, low carbon 7.86 48.0 30.0 48.0 37.0 6 steel Stainless steel7 8.03 80.0 28.0 80.0 40.0 Wrought aluminum8 2.74 49.0 10.2 49.0 23.0 9 Die-cast aluminum 2.82 48.0 10.3 48.0 2.5 Die-cast magnesium10 1.83 33.0 65.0 33.0 3.0 Die-cast zinc11 6.59 41.0 10.9 41.0 10.0 1 Property data, courtesy of Owens-Cornig Fiberglas Corp. 2Bulk molding compound. 3Sheet molding compound. 4 Reaction-injection-molded polyurethane. 5ASTM A-606. 6SAE 1008. 7TA 2036. 9ASTM B 85. 10ASTM AZ91B. 11ASTM AG40A. 12Notched. Material Description Boron/epoxy Boron/polyi mide Sglass/epoxy Highmodulus graphite/ep oxy Highmodulus graphite/pol yimide Highstrength graphite/ep oxy2 Aramid/epox y3 Highstrength graphite/ep oxy4 1 Data, courtesy 2 Union Carbide parentheses Properties Compressive Reinf. , vol, % 50 49 72 45 Densi ty, lb/in.3 0.073 0.072 0.077 0.056 Properties Ten. str., 1000 psi 199 (8.1) 151 (1.6) 187 (6.7) 122 (6.1) 117 (2.2) 218 (5.8) 172 (1.6) 220 (8.0) of unidirectional advanced composites1 Ten. Comp. Shear Intralami mod., str., mod., nar million 1000 millon shear psi psi psi str., psi 29.2 232 0.78 9100 (3.2) (17.9) 32.1 158 1.11 3750 (2.1) (9.1) 8.8 119 1.74 6500 (3.6) (23.5) 27.5 128 0.9 8900 (1.0) (28.5) 31.3 (0.72) 21.0 (1.5) 12.2 (0.70) 16.0 (2.2) 94.5 (10.2) 247 (35.7) 42 (9.4) 180 (36.0) 0.65 3150 Poisso ns ratio5 0.17 (0.02) 0.16 (0.02) 0.23 (0.09) 0.10 (--) 0.25 (0.02) 0.28 (0.01) 0.32 (0.02) 0.25 (0.034 Moist. coeff. 10-2 in. 0.003 (0.168) 0.003 (0.168) 0.014 (0.128) 0.003 (0.129) 0.003 (0.129) 0.006 (0.129) 0.008 (0.151) 0.006 (0.129) CTE, 10-6 In./in./ F 3.4 (16.9) 2.7 (15.8) 2.1 (9.3) -(18.5) 0.0 (14.1) 0.01 (12.5) -1.60 (31.3) 0.40 (16.4)
45
0.056
70
0.058
1.0
9800
54 60
0.049 0.057
0.41 0.72
4000 10000
NASA Lewis Research Center. Property values shown are longitudinal; transverse, in parentheses. Thornel 300 fibers. 3Du Pont Kevlar 49. 4Hercules AS fibers. 5Major Poissons ratio; minor in Standard ASTM tests for determining strength of plastics and composites Test Description D 695 To determine compressive strength and modulus (most common), deformation, strain, slenderness ratio, crushing load, etc. of rigid plastics.
Flexural Interlaminar shear strength Interlaminar shear strength Shear Shear Stiffness Stress relaxation Tensile Tensile Tensile Tensile
D 229 D 2344 D 2733 D 732 D 3518 D 1043 D 2991 D 638 D 3039 D 2585 D 2290
Incorporating reinforcements in thermoplastics and thermosets dramatically increases strength. Short glass fibers at a 30% loading (by weight) boosts tensile strength of engineering plastics by about a factor of two; carbon fibers, even further. On the high end of the composite materials spectrum are advanced composites, most commonly graphite/epoxy laminates, consisting of 60% by volume of continuous reinforcing fibers. Reinforced with a high-modulus graphite fiber, a unidirectional laminate typically has about a tensile modulus of 29 million psi and 165,000 psi tensile strength; a high-strength graphite fiber, a modulus of 20 million psi and a tensile strength of 225,000 psi. In addition to graphite and carbon, other reinforcing fibers for advanced composites include boron, S-glass, aramid, and hybrids of these. Made up of multiple plies or layers, advanced composites can be fully characterized in terms of strength properties by tensile strength and modulus, shear strength and modulus, and compressive strength of a unidirectional laminate. In between advanced composites and reinforced thermoplastics lie a whole range of composites. Depending on the process, the reinforcement can be in the form of prepreg tow or tape, random mat, woven or knitted fabrics. It's obvious that the highest loadings and strongest fibers will produce the strongest composites whether they are fabricated by lay- up, filament winding, pultrusion, or other means. Refer to table for typical reinforcement loadings, properties, and matrices used in various RP processes. It's no secret that advanced composites have higher strength-to- weight ratios and higher specific stiffness than metals. However, the ability to selectively place fibers results in tremendous design versatility. Varying fiber orientation, concentration, and even generic fiber type permits stiffness and strength to he tailored to a specific application. Depending on where the most strength is needed, a Gr/epoxy structural component can be laid-up of prepreg tape (graphite fibers impregnated with epoxy resin) into unidirectional, bidirectional, quasi-isotropic, and other configurations. A quasi-isotropic laminate consists of 0, 45, 90, 45, and 0 degree plies, and provides essentially isotropic properties, while minimizing warpage. For this configuration, tensile properties are roughly 1/3 those of unidirectional laminates. For complex structures and where strength is also needed in the "z" direction, braiding and weaving of reinforcements has been successfully used to produce stronger components. Developing higher strength Recent developments in materials, reinforcing fibers and processes are giving new meaning to "high strength." On the materials side, liquid crystal polymers (LCPS) are now commercially available from at least two domestic sources, with others expected to follow. When injection molded "neat" or without reinforcing fibers, these aromatic polyester thermoplastics typically provide strengths equivalent to 30% fiber-reinforced engineering thermoplastics. Hence, the term "self-reinforcing" is applied to this class of materials. In the melt, these unique materials orient themselves, producing a fibril- like structure upon solidification that resembles wood. For advanced composite applications, carbon-fiber fabric prepreg
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Specific strength and specific stiffness (strength or stiffness divided by density) shows the advantages gained by composites over other structural materials. Source: Hercules.
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CERAMICS
Ceramics tend to be weak in tension, but strong in compression. For a metal, the compressive strength is near that of the tensile strength, while for a ceramic, the compressive strength may he 10 times the tensile strength. Alumina, for example, has a tensile strength of 20,000 psi (138 MPa), while the compressive strength is 350,000 psi (2400 MPa). Strength of ceramics Compressi Property Flexural ve tensile strength, psi strength, strength, psi psi 85 235,000 18,000 42,500 Alumina 90 350,000 20,000 46,000 300,000 25,000 45,000 95 350,000 28,000 49,000 99 375,000 30,000 50,000 Alumina silicate 40,000 2,500 9,000 ZrO2-Al2O3 350,000 3% O3 PSZ* 430,000 170,000 TIZ** 255,000 51,000 92,000 9% MgO PSZ* 270,000 100,000 Cast Si3N4 20,000 3,500 10,000 Reaction bonded SiC 100,000 20,000 37,000 Pressureless sintered 560,000 25,000 80,000 SiC Sintered SiC with free 150,000 24,000 47,000 silicon Sintered SiC with 60,000 5,000 8,000 graphite Reaction-bonded Si2N4 112,000 30,000 Hot-pressed Si3N4 500,000 125,000 *Partially-stabilized zirconia. **Transformation-toughened zirconia. Data is from a variety of commercial sources.
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The discrepancy between tensile and compressive strengths is in part due to the brittle nature of ceramics. When subjected to a tensile load, ceramics, unlike metals, are unable to yield and relieve the stress. Another important factor is the presence of internal flaws from which cracks can propagate in tension, but not in compression. More important than the quantity of flaws is the flaw size. According to the Griffith relationship for brittle materials: the strength; = (EM/C)1/2 (where E is the elastic modulus, M is the fracture surface energy, and C is the length of the hole or flaw). Thus, as the flaw size increases, the strength decreases. Ceramics containing a single phase are usually stronger than those with several phases. When a part cools after sintering, the different phases contract unequal amounts causing localized stresses in the material. And unlike metals, ceramics are unable to relieve the localized stress. Grain size also affects ceramics strength. Increasing the average grain size weakens the ceramic. This weakening may occur because larger grain sizes usually bring larger flaws. Machining can introduce flaws into a part. Sintering to net shape not only saves time and labor, it produces stronger parts. Air can he entrapped during processing. Isostatic pressing under high pressure forces out the trapped air particles, which would weaken the part. Materials and methods Single-crystal sapphire can be grown relatively free from internal flaws. After flame polishing to create a flaw-free surface, the sapphire's flexural strength may exceed 1,450,000 psi (1O,OOO MPa), more than 20 times that of steel. A more common and less expensive material than sapphire is cement. Ordinary cement consists mainly of calcium silicate with a small quantity of calcium aluminate. Due to entrapment of air and incomplete packing of particles, cement is weak in tension and bending. Another calcium-based ceramic, mother of pearl (CaCO3), has a flexural strength ten times that of ordinary cement, and a fracture energy in excess of 5.5 in.Ib/in2. (1000 J/m2), 50 times greater than cement. Sapphire and mother of pearl are strong, but not practical structural materials. By using two different sizes of cement powder to give greater packing, and adding polyacrylamide gel to prevent the entrapment of air, macro-defect-free (MDF) cement is produced: The flexural strength of MDF cement is 14,000 psi (100 MPa) compared to only 2500 psi (17 MPa) for ordinary cement. Cement, sand, stones, and water are mixed together to form concrete. The range of aggregate sizes, from fine sand particles to small to larger stones, allows denser packing and minimal air entrapment leading to greater strength. The water/cement ratio also is important; more water weakens the concrete. A water/cement ratio of 0.7 produces a concrete with a compressive strength of 4100 psi (28 MPa), while a water/cement ratio of 0.4 results in a concrete with over twice the strength, 8800 psi (60.5 MPa). However, less water makes the concrete less workable, so low-water concrete requires mechanical compacting or vibration equipment. To improve the tensile strength of concrete, steel rods can be added. The steel carries tensile loads. Unfortunately, as the steel stretches, the brittle concrete is pulled with it, fracturing well before the steel does. Prestressing the concrete allows greater tensile loading before failure. Steel rods are initially placed in tension, then released, exerting a compressive force on the concrete. When the concrete is then subjected to a tensile load in service, the effect is unload the precompression. The idea of prestressing to improve subsequent tensile and flexural properties applies to other ceramics. Quenching alumina in silicone oil increases the flexural strength. The average strength after quenching is 128,000 psi (880 MPa) compared to 85,000 psi (590 MPa) for the unquenched control. Quenching causes a compressive surface layer to form on the alumina. Another method of prestressing is ion implantation. At the surface of a ceramic, one set of ions, such as potassium, is substituted for another set of ions, such as sodium. The larger potassium ions crowd the surface, placing it in compression. The precompressed ceramic can better withstand tensile loading. Glass fibers are very strong in tension, with tensile strengths up to 624,000 psi (4300 MPa), compared to only 58,000 psi (400 MPa) for ordinary steel. The glass fibers commonly reinforce polymer-matrix composites. They also can give tensile strength to ceramic-matrix composites. Unlike metals, which are most often tested in tension, ceramics are usually tested in compression. When tensile tests for ceramics are desired, care must be taken to align the grips accurately and apply the load axially to avoid an additional bending or torsional stress. Due to the brittle nature of ceramics, a small bending or torsional stress could significantly alter the results.
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Many aircraft, both commercial and military, rely on ultra-high strength steels in landing gear. One grade often used in commercial aircraft is 4340M, which features an ultimate tensile strength of 270,000-300,000 psi (1860-2070 MPa). Photo, courtesy Boeing Commercial Airplane Co., Seattle.
High-strength steel first made multi-level building construction possible during the late 1800s. Because of its many advantages, steel remains the backbone of commercial and industrial building construction today. This particular 16floor high-rise uses 4200 tons (3810 tonne) of ASTM A572 grade 50 and ASTM A36. Photo, courtesy Bethlehem Steel Corp., Bethlehem, Pa.
The body panels of the Corvette Indy are a glassfiber-reinforced polyester. Glass fibers have a tensile strength of more than 300,000 psi, several times greater than steel. Courtesy, Chevrolet.
Parts made of new higher-strength steels can have thinner cross sections, which reduces component weight without sacrificing over-all strength or rigidity. This shipping pallet, made of an ultra-high strength steel, is stronger than wood, aluminum, or plastic units of equal size. Its also 15-20 lb (6.8-9.1 kg) lighter than a wood pallet of equal size and it won't rot, warp or
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