Art, Animation and the Audio Visual:

An exploration of art and its relationship with commercial digital media forms

Charlie Minnion

Charlie Minnion

Contents
Introduction ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 1 Methodology ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 2 Principles of art ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 4 How artistic freedom in animation has been compromised ----------------------------------- 9 Examples in history where animation has embraced artistic freedom ----------------------14 How music videos accommodate animation and digital media as a free art form --------18

New media and wider forms of audio visual practice -----------------------------------------27 Conclusion ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------30 Bibliography ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------33

Charlie Minnion

Art, Animation and the Audio Visual: An exploration of art and

its relationship with commercial digital media forms Introduction
'A painter who finds no satisfaction in mere representation, however artistic in his longing to express his inner life, cannot but envy the ease with which music, the most non-material of the arts today, achieves this end. He naturally seeks to apply the methods of music to his own art []'. (Kandinsky cited in Furniss, 2007: 257) The expression that Kandinsky talks about is one of several components that constitute the practice of art, and later on I will discuss this in greater depth to help ground my argument. For now I believe that this statement serves as a good starting point on which I can commence my exploration into the realm of art, animation and music. In the process of exploring my topic, I hope to develop my understanding of what it means to have artistic freedom in animation and digital media, seeking out areas where this freedom has been embraced and where it has been restrained. To expand on my title, I have referred to 'audio visual' (i.e. the combination of music with moving imagery) as an area of contemporary and commercial digital media that might allow for the most artistic freedom. I will return to this notion at a later stage. For the moving image artist, it seems as though anything is possible, both aesthetically and conceptually. Digital media technology allows unprecedented potential for artists to carry out their most ambitious and imaginative concepts and ideas. This notion is reflected industrially. According to John Southall's essay discussing contemporary animation being produced in the UK, clients and commissioning agencies are able to exercise their ideas freely. As a result the 'service sector' (advertising, title sequences, idents and music videos) have all taken advantage of the exploits of animation and digital media (1997).
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In the latter part of my essay, I will be exploring music video form and theory to help broaden my understanding of the relationship between moving imagery and music. Subsequently, I hope to learn how the different elements employed in these videos affect the spectators experience. In the next section, I will describe in detail how my essay will unfold, referring to the key ideas, I'll be explaining and outlining relevant theoretical support and case studies.

Methodology
I will start off by defining the essential components of an art form. In developing and backing up my own ideas, I will seek theoretical support from several writers. Richard Wollheim on expression. Science writer Dr Kathleen Taylor, Professor Paul Wells and Samuel Taylor Coleridge on imagination. Furthermore I will cite the views of some contemporary moving image artists to help confirm and embellish my points. For a slightly different cognitive and biological understanding of aesthetics in Art, I will be looking at 'The Science of Art: A Neurological Theory of Aesthetic Experience' written by neuroscientist, Professor V.S. Ramachandran. Here, he has outlined several universal principles on which our aesthetical outlook has been defined. Next, I will discuss how the artistic freedom of animation has been compromised. This will involve me looking into the historic trivialisation of animation for which I will cite Paul Wells, Richard deCordova and Eric Smoodin. I will be talking about how mainstream animation has been subject to Hollywoods hegemonic place in the global film industry and expand on this by talking about the need to conform to certain conventions. Here, my points will be supported by Bordwell and Thompson. Additionally, I would like to discuss how the art of animation has been exploited ideologically. Once again, I will be referring to some points made by Eric Smoodin and utilising some first hand perspectives from practising moving image artists. Contrastingly, the following section will look at some historic examples where animation has been explored with uninhibited freedom. I will look at the abstract animation film Lapis (1965) by James Whitney building on this with supporting theories

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from Wells and Furniss. Next, I will look back to the work of Georges Melies, an early animation pioneer who explored animation imaginatively. Using Andrew Darley for support I will briefly cover the topic of visual effects. Lastly I will look at the film A is for Autism by Tim Webb. In talking about my interpretations of these I will build upon some ideas I have mentioned in previous sections. This should lead me nicely to the main section of my dissertation. Here, I will discuss expansively about how music videos accommodate animation and digital media as a free art form. By now I would have established my idea of artistic freedom and looked at some examples where this has and has not been utilised in animation. Here, I will be linking those ideas to an eclectic and contemporary selection of music videos by directors Michel Gondry, Eric Epstein, Kijek and Adamski, Studio Funf and Tim Hope. I will primarily be applying theory from Carol Vernallis on music video form. Additionally, I will draw further support from Bordwell and Thompson and Paul Wells. Through studying and analysing these videos and theories I hope to enhance my understanding of how music videos operate and the range of effects and ideas that can and have taken advantage of the medium. The penultimate section of my dissertation will involve looking at the impact of new media on music videos. Here I will discuss how the business has been accommodated by websites such as 'Radar Music Videos' and how it has been affected by the presence of web 2.0 applications such as Youtube. Furthermore, I will be exploring the use of animation in the wider audio visual field. Here I will be discussing Jonsi's 2010 live show, citing the directors of '59 productions' who supplied the visual content for this show. Lastly, with reference to my introductory quote from Kandinsky, I will briefly cover the practice of 'VJing'. This will lead me into my conclusion where I will summarise and link together the key points made in my dissertation. Consequently, I aim to respond to my original notion in a clear, cohesive and inspiring manner and expand on it with reference to my ideas on contemporary audio visual performance consolidated in the previous section. Now that I have outlined my methodology, I will start by exploring the nature of Art.

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Principles of art
Firstly, I believe that one of the inherent virtues of art is to explore and reflect on the human condition; to express some truth upon the nature of our being and express some meaning that we can hold relevant to us. In the book Motion Blur 2 (2007), Intro - an innovative design and digital media company - were asked: where will the 'next generation' of talent come from (referring to the moving image industry). In response, they suggested that new talent will emerge out of the art colleges. They suggested that young talent 'understand the point of making films: to mirror, measure and take the temperature of our world' stating that 'Our darkest and greatest moments are defined and recorded by our artists'. (Intro, cited in RJ Walter, 2007: 244) The painting below evinces the truth of this statement. Here, Picasso has created a visceral art work, documenting the horrors of war.

Guernica by Pablo Picasso (1937) (Plate 1. Employees.oneonta.edu.: 2012) This powerfully tragic piece depicting the consequences of the German Fascist bombing of Guernica (a village in Northern Spain) that took place in April 1937 brings me on to the topic of expression and its virtuous place in art. According to Richard Wollheim (1973), there are three ways we deal with the fluctuating internal feelings and moods we all experience (i.e. Joy, Anger, Love, Sadness
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etc); We either manifest them as actions (behaviour), put them into words (language) or keep them to ourselves. The first two of these are forms of expression. Later in the chapter Wollheim states that at the core of every feeling is a thought [and it is] a thought that gives to feeling much of its elaboration. (1973: 89) He goes on to state that we characteristically express our thoughts in words: it is our emotions, our feelings, our moods, that we characteristically express in behaviour. (1973: 89) Here, I have created a diagram to help visually clarify Wollheims ideas.

It has been stated here, that expression is predominantly characteristically expressed via the orange and yellow lines above. There are of course exceptions, which I have indicated with the blue arrows. These show that our language can also be affected by our internal states (and likewise our behaviour by our thoughts). The point of this is to note where art comes in useful. As opposed to expression being dichotomised to two different outlets (behaviour and language), an artists thoughts, feelings and internal states can effectively converge into a single work of art thus

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allowing for the full creative expression of the artist. It is also worthy to note that creating art can allow for the uninhibited engagement of the artist. When asked how do you approach your work both technologically and conceptually, Jonas Odell (a renowned music video director) replied that technology needs to be driven by the expression that you want. (cited in RJ Walter, 2007) Sixten Ringbom described that a work of art is in its own way a thought-form, shaped by the artists thought vibrations and itself transmitting these vibrations to the beholder.(cited in Furniss, 2007: 260) This seems to ring true, for if you look at the diagram above, it is the initial thoughts of the Artist that invigorates and feeds the process of creative expression. Another virtue of art is imagination. 'Samuel Taylor Coleridge's Biographia Literaria (1817) defined imagination as the 'living power and prime agent of all human perception'. (Coleridge, cited in Ayers, 2004: 53) This power of imagining has played a crucial role in the progression of our society, culture and technology. In the words of Dr Kathleen Taylor 'Imagination facilitates change [and it is through] imagining we can take a step beyond what we know into the future.' (Taylor, 2002: 3) Imagination can be regarded as an inherent human virtue that enables the artist to create and bring new ideas into existence. Imagination leads to innovation and this can be exemplified by the Digital Media and Animation industries. As Paul Wells has said: 'Animation can achieve anything that can be imagined.' (2006: 10) Later, I will argue that it is in the avant-garde areas of this industry where we can see the most unique and unusual ideas being bought into existence but now I will take the opportunity to cite a couple of examples in animation where imagination has clearly taken an active role: Toy Story (1995) where we witness toys being summoned to life and the music video Frozen (1998) where we are stunned by the metamorphosis of Madonna shape shifting into a flock of crows. For the latter example, I have touched on visual effects. This demonstrates an exciting branch of digital media - where one can manifest ones imaginations into a seemingly real rendering; thus continuing on the tradition of illusion that animation has utilised from its beginnings. I will come back to this topic later. Before drawing this chapter to a conclusion, I will discuss the topic of aesthetics. For this section, I will be primarily referencing 'The Science of Art, A Neurological
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Theory of Aesthetic Experience'. ( Ramachandran & Hirstein [hereafter R&H], 1999) Here they have delineated the topic into 8 Universal laws of artistic experience (attributes of pictures that people generally find attractive). I will summarise most of these laws below: - The Essence of Art and the Peak Shift principle. This occurs when the artist enhances the essential qualities (the essence) of an object in order to evoke a specific mood in the observer. By amplifying the essence of something, it more powerfully activates the same neural devices that would be activated by the original object, thus eliciting a more powerful emotional response to the artwork. - Perceptual Grouping and Binding is Directly Reinforcing. Our brains have atavistic functions of delineating objects in the visual field in order to distinguish them. We look for correlations between specific visual qualities (for example: perceiving that patches of orange form the shape of a tiger). Once we have ascertained the object, we receive a pleasurable rewarding sensation that is associated with our understanding of the object. -Isolating a Single Module and Allocating Attention. This can be demonstrated in the difference between a line drawing and a line drawing that has been textured and coloured. The former is suggested to be more effective as it allows for our full direct attention being focused on one specific source of visual stimulus as oppose to our attention being divided. -Contrast Extraction is Reinforcing. Areas of contrast are more defining and therefore more interesting then homogenous areas. As a result these areas receive more attention. This can apply to a range of visual stimuli such as colour, luminosity, texture and motion. Like 'Perceptual Grouping', this principle guides our discovery of objects - only in an antithetical manner. 'Perceptual Grouping' works by relating similar features that can be far apart in space, whereas 'Contrast Extraction' works on dissimilar features that are physically close. -Symmetry. Most objects that are biologically important to us such as predator, prey or mate are symmetrical. Therefore we find symmetry aesthetically pleasing.
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-The Generic Viewpoint & the Bayesian Logic of Perception. Your visual system abhors interpretations which rely on a unique vantage point and favours a generic one. For example: the image of a tree on a pavement placed behind and directly in between two parked cars will not sit well aesthetically, unless the tree is being overlapped by a car. This is because the mind abhors suspicious coincidences. -Art as Metaphor. This allows us to ignore irrelevant, potentially distracting aspects of an idea or percept and enables us to highlight the crucial aspects. For example: when Shakespeare says Juliet is the Sun, her radiance and warmth is highlighted whilst her irrelevant attributes (such as hair or teeth) can be ignored. Through visual metaphors, we can discover hidden similarities between superficially dissimilar entities which is pleasing as it allows us to recognise visual patterns. According to R&H, these 'universal rules' underlie all artistic experiences. For them 'the purpose of art, surely, is not to merely depict or represent reality [...] but to enhance, transcend or even to distort reality.' (1999) Whilst offering a solid neurological basis for our aesthetic appreciation of art, the paper has sparked several critical responses arguing that art cannot be reduced down to pure design elements and aesthetics. Academics and artists have noted that R&H's essay has disregarded the 'conception of emotional information in art' (Baars, 1999), the influence that knowledge may have on perception (Gregory, 1999) and arts potential to appeal to moral consciousness (Wallen, 1999). In the sole interests of aesthetics however, R&H's essay has proved useful for portraying the variety of ways in which our brains process artistic images. Throughout writing this chapter I have explored some of the key components and purposes of art. I have mentioned a key purpose of art lies within its ability to reflect our very own nature of being. I have argued that it is a worthy medium that caters for full creative expression and that it can embrace the imagination, subsequently allowing it to become a vehicle of vision and innovation. Finally I summarised a set of biologically inherent aesthetic laws proposed by R&H, indicating the range of aesthetic possibilities that can be drawn upon. My argument stands that if one is to be artistically free then one will have freedom in all the areas I have mentioned here.
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How artistic freedom in animation has been compromised

In this section, I will discuss the various ways in which artistic freedom in animation has been compromised. Following this, I will relate my findings to the artistic principles just discussed. I will start by discussing Disney's affect on animation in the early 20th century. Up until around the early 1920s, animation was celebrated as a unique and 'utopian' language. As described by Professor Wells (1998), animation was not tied down to any social or physical limitations that occupied the 'real' world. The inherent virtues of animation enabled it to dynamically assume any form, thus offering the artist an unlimited freedom of expression. As a result of this, animation allowed for the potential of any idea and/or expression to be fully catered for. Soon after Disney established Walt Disney productions in 1923, the unique language of animation was on set course to be reformatted through Disney's vision and industrial ambitions. Disney was guiding animation into the realm of realism. With the aid of his sweeping technological developments, Disney threaded verisimilitude through his characters, contexts and narratives; the culmination of which led to the first full-length animated feature, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Here, the true language of animation was disregarded in order to suit that of live action film. Animation now existed within the context of real world laws. The obsession about realism in animation continues to this day as Moszkowicz states ' In film press there is a tendency to greet the release of computer-generated animations with excited rhetoric concerning the realistic nature of the digital enterprise.' (2002: 294) The emphasis on the marketing of technological breakthroughs in production - in terms of realism - guides the publics awareness away from what Animation - as its own art form - is truly capable of. At a time of sweeping industrialisation and commodification, Disney's Mickey Mouse character, ascended to the status of 'fully commodified Icon.' (deCordova, 1994: 204) This was the result of Disney exploiting the cultural interests of children, along with signing a lucrative merchandising deal with toy manufacturer - Borgfeldt. Furthermore, in order to bring assurance to reform minded adults who were concerned about the role of
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cinema on children, Mickey Mouse was propagated as an innocent, educational and worthy investment to children's growth and development. The extent of Mickeys proliferation was indicated by the mouses ubiquity in merchandising and further fuelled by the Mickey Mouse club, which by 1932 had 1 million members (deCordova, 1994). The dominance of Disney and the widely accepted notion that Animation was designed for children led to its inevitable trivialisation. This notion can be made evident by the 1939 Look Article - stating that 'the cartoon [...] is primarily the favourite motion picture fare of children'. (Smoodin,1993: 11) Not only has animation been compromised in its social engagement, but also ideologically. In this case I will once again be referring to the practise of Disney. Eric Smoodin (1993) stated that on the backdrop of Disneys dominance over the animation industry, a capitalist ideology started seeping its way into cartoons that would help consolidate a unanimous cultural identity; something that America would be able serve and protect in the war. Nifty Nineties (1941) was a cartoon series featuring Mickey and Minnie Mouse. The cartoons contained heterosexual romantic scenes and demonstrated the potential of characters to move up a class system and own material wealth. As Smoodin says, this was an era of 'creating a shared culture based on families, leisure, and heterosexual couples.' (1993: 20) The cartoon emphasised the institution of family, by quoting nostalgic familial elements in the opening theme song. We were about to revisit Grandma and Grandpa when they were young and 'take a look/ in [their] picture book' (1941). This example indicates the extent to which animation was depended upon in order to establish the homogeneity of the audience and bring about an ideological consensus. The vast majority of contemporary animation studios in the UK operate in the 'service sector' referring to broadcast inserts, 'idents' and commercials. The area of advertising is of prime relevance to my discussion here, as it effectively embraces the form of propaganda. Artists are required to enforce beliefs or attitudes within the target market in order to generate a buzz about the product or service that they are selling. What's more is that there are often a lot of people involved outside of the Studio being hired who wish to have control over what is being created. I'm referring here to the
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advertising agency that the clients approached or the clients themselves. Therefore, freedom of creative expression and imagination for the artist is restrained. When Run Wrake was asked 'how do you handle the ups and downs as an artist and commercial director for hire?' He replied that he prefers working on personal projects as oppose to 'the often 'design-by-committee' nature of most current commercial jobs.' (cited in RJ Walter, 2007: 233) The parisian moving image collective Pleix express their view on making commercials: 'It is easier to sell something you have already done because people you are working for can imagine what it will look like. [...] We would love to be able to use commercials to experiment with new things, but this is definitely not the right playground for that. Making commercials can be seriously hard: you have to understand and deal with fragile rules, you usually cannot be too 'intellectual' but you must always fear mainstream marks because this is where this industry is often leading you.' (cited in RJ Walter,2007: 143) This statement suggests that the imaginative integrity and experimental possibilities of the artist can be disregarded. However, I would argue that because animation allows for the possibility of any idea, and that advertising thrives off word of mouth and creativity; advertising does fund relatively innovative and aesthetically diverse animations. The main issue here is that the freedom of the artist as an independent thinker is often compromised, and that the underlying principle is to sell a product or service rather then express an idea independent of the product or service needs. Before moving on, I will discuss one last factor that greatly affects animations integrity as a unique art form in current times: the dominance of the Hollywood film institution. It is the role of distribution companies to not only distribute the films across all outlets of exhibition but also to generate the publicity campaigns selling the films. According to Bordwell & Thompson 'the most popular 10 percent of all films released garners 50 percent of all box office receipts.' (2008: 34) Therefore It becomes
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understandable why huge sums of money are injected into publicity, the extent of which can be demonstrated by My Big Fat Greek Wedding (2002) which cost $5 million to produce and $10 million to publicize (Bordwell & Thompson, 2008). This has unfortunate consequences for both live action and animated features. The emphasis on marketing as the prime means of generating box office returns overlooks the importance of content which can have dire consequences for the quality of the film or animation. The major distribution companies are all owned by multinational corporations. These large corporations own numerous media and leisure companies such as magazines, publishers, TV channels, theme parks, music companies, airlines and movie theatres. This allows the conglomerates to create synergy - 'the coordination of sectors around a single piece of content.' (Bordwell & Thompson, 2008:35) This is particularly apparent in animated features. Ice Age 3, the CG Animated Film was released on July 1st 2009. (Imdb, 2012) Ice Age 3, the video game was released on July 30th 2009. (Gametrailers, 2012) The proximity between the release dates of these two products indicates that they were made in conjunction with one another. Subsequently, its probable that the filmmakers would have had to be mindful of constructing scenes that could also accommodate computer game scenarios. As a result, this shifts attention away from the integrity of animation as its own unique art form and moves it towards homogeneity. This state of affairs where business comes first and originality comes second can be reflected by the following quote from Rupert Murdoch, owner of News Corp. and Twentieth Century Fox - the distributors of Ice Age 3. Murdoch states that Our underlying philosophy is that all media are one. (cited in Bordwell & Thompson, 2008:35) My final point to make is regarding the conventions of Classical Hollywood Narrative. As a consequence of Hollywoods historical trivialisation previously discussed, Hollywood animated features are currently created and received as family or childrens entertainment. Therefore most animated features play it safe and conform to the dependable 'Classical Hollywood Cinema' (CHC) narrative mode of storytelling. This refers to the following key elements that define the structure and plot of the film: cause and effect takes prominence over time. The character/s assume the role of the main causal agents. A goal-orientated plot is established where by the main character/s will be driven
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by their desire and will overcome a counterforce. The film is most likely to finish with a strong sense of closure (Bordwell & Thompson, 2008). Once again, animation has been confined to fit in with conventions that disregard its true possibilities as an independent art form. Throughout this chapter I have noted several areas in which animation has been compromised as a free art form. Here, I will summarise a few of these, with relation to the artistic principles I have previously established. Mainstream feature animation is quite often in keeping with the aesthetic principles of art proposed by R&H (ie. there is often clear use of the 'Contrast Extraction' and 'Peak Shift' principles in Pixar films). It is the lack of exploration in the realm of aesthetics that is somewhat limited in this area. For example, it is unlikely you would see a mainstream feature animation that purely focuses on the 'isolating a single module' element of aesthetics. This can be explained in part by Disney's early establishment of realism in animation, coupled with their dominance over the industry. Furthermore, the knock-on effects of verisimilitude constrains the limitless potential of the imagination to the laws of the real world. On the contrary, advertising draws on animation as an aesthetically diverse form allowing clients, agencies and studios to exercise innovative ideas utilising the freedom of imagination. What is compromised here however, is expression on the part of the artist(s). Due to large budgets and the amount of people involved, the outcome of the advert is subject to constant negotiation. Therefore the thoughts and feelings from the artist are unlikely to be granted full expression. Additionally, the artist is far from being able to manifest his/her/their own ideas and meanings, instead, all areas of production are concordant with the sale of a product or service. In addition to advertising, limited expression is also evident in Nifty Nineties where state ideologies have dictated the content and meanings. Lastly, both trivialisation of animation and the conformity to CHC narrative form has further restrained the imaginative and expressive capacity of animation as an art form in order to suit the expected requirements of family audiences. Now that I have established where animation as an art form has been compromised, I will discuss examples where animation has been utilised freely and without restraints.
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Examples in history where animation has embraced artistic freedom

As touched upon at the end of the last chapter, I will briefly summarise once again the several principles that I have previously established as essential components of art. Art can be reflective of our human state of being and/or experience. Art allows for full and uninhibited creative expression. Art embraces the imagination and as a result can be utilised as a vehicle of vision and innovation. Art carries a diverse array of aesthetic possibilities. Artistic freedom applies if one is able to explore any one or several of these aspects of art without restraint. At this point, I would like to suggest that there is a significant correlation linking two of the artistic attributes I have identified. That is, with a greater freedom of expression, comes a greater capacity to authentically reflect ones subjective or objective state of being and/or experience within a work of art. From here on I will refer to this idea as 'Expression Reflection' (ER) theory. Keeping these artistic principles in mind, I will now discuss examples of Animation with support from theory that should prove relevant to these ideas. Lapis (1965) by James Whitney is an abstract animation that appeals directly to the senses. The work utilises moving mandala's that work symbiotically with the rhythmic resonant drones of a sitar as its soundtrack; subsequently it has the effect of inducing a meditative and trance like state upon the viewer. This piece is reflective of the way Whitney and his contemporaries viewed art: as a means of understanding themselves and the world around them. Their work [...] paralleled other activities in their lives such as meditation. (Furniss, 2007: 253) Paul Wells suggests Lapis uses a primal form of expression that encourages notions of contemplation and a fuller understanding of the place of humankind within the cosmos. (Wells, 1998: 31) This 'primal expression' has drawn on what Wells describes as 'true animation' referring to the ability of moving lines and materials to fall outside realist constructions. This, Wells suggests, offers the artist the potential to express profoundly personal, sometimes conscious, sometimes unconscious, aspects of human thought, feeling and experience. (1998: 29) Whitney has taken advantage of animations unique traits as an art form to exercise his full creative expression.
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Lapis (Plate 2: 1965. In Moritz: 2012) Wells has illuminated some significance upon the 'Expression Reflection' theory that I suggested earlier (albeit in an ethereal sense). Through embracing full creative expression, Whitney has created a concept that reflects our deepest state of being; i.e ' the place of humankind within the cosmos.' Furthermore, Lapis invokes ideas that I discussed earlier regarding expression. It seems credible that Whitney's thoughts have flowed through his feelings and internal states, culminating towards the full expression that dictates this powerful work of art. Here, we can recall upon - with greater relevance Ringboms words from earlier: a work of art is in its own way a thought-form, shaped by the artists thought vibrations and itself transmitting these vibrations to the beholder.(cited in Furniss, 2007: 260) Aesthetically, Lapis occupies free territory. Drawing on R&H's theories, this film takes advantage of an array of aesthetic possibilities. We see a diverse array of contrasts and groupings between luminosities, colours, textures and movement; furthermore, the law of symmetry is constantly apparent as an intrinsic attribute of the mandala. What is of further interest here, is the effect of this specific kind of Animation on
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the viewer. Furniss discusses how the dominant conventions of Hollywoods classical mode of film mainly draws on logical thinking, subsequently affecting just the left hemisphere of the brain. Contrastingly, abstract animation requires the engagement of the right hemisphere which calls upon intuitive thinking and makes 'qualitative comparisons of sensory information in the moment to a greater extent through time. (Furniss, 2007: 251). Mandalas are used to assist in concentration and meditation. With reference to Lapis, in becoming entranced by the moving mandala, right surpasses left hemispheric functions inhibiting any linear analytical thoughts. As a result, the viewers cognitive attention can fully benefit from the sensual stimulations and may sense a feeling of euphoria and timelessness (Furniss, 2007). To conclude, Patricia Castello-Branco (2010) suggests that Lapis offers us an experience of 'pure sensation [which is] directly dependent on the ideas of motion, rhythm and visual effects linked to a perceptive, physical and material level.' Perhaps more relevantly, these interesting effects have been evoked by an artist who has enjoyed the benefits of artistic freedom in the production of his work and in his experimental use of the animation medium. To evince another principle of art utilised in animation, I have looked at Le Mlomane (1903) by Georges Melies the undisputed master of trickfilm. (Crafton, 1993: 9) This playful experiment utilises illusionist effects to show the band leader (Melies) literally pulling off his head and throwing it up onto a large musical stave above him. After repeating this action several times, Meliess dislocated heads (representing musical notes) proceed to determine the soundtrack being played. Here, Melies has manifested his imagination and idiosyncratic ideas through the medium which has allowed him to travel into the domain of the marvellous. (Melies cited in Bordwell & Thompson, 2004: 467) The experimental work of Melies constitutes an early form of film effects which now form an integral part of the film industry. This demonstrates the fundamental role imagination plays in determining cultural and technological development. At this point, I would like to allude to the effects of Illusion on the spectator. The capabilities to create illusion is a freedom that we can currently associate with digital media and animation. Visual and special effects carry the ability to astonish and fascinate
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audiences. Andrew Darley pin points the reason for this astonishment describing film effects as having 'photo realistic representation in a scene that is conceptually fantastic in character - a scene that could have no direct correlate in real life'. (2000: 108) What Darley has described here is 'spectacle', which in modernism, has historically been deemed as a 'low' form of art. Theorists of contemporary culture have continued to disregard spectacle, considering it 'to be secondary to more pressing problems'. (2000: 4) On the contrary, I argue that spectacle should be of prominence in the field of art. What these theorists have neglected is that within spectacle, imagination - i.e. the 'living power and prime agent of all human perception' - has found an outlet in which it can be received with the same tangibility that reality itself is received. Therefore, imagination - a key component of art - delivered through spectacle, invokes a significant effect on an audience. Before moving on, I will briefly discuss art as a reflection of our nature of being, with reference to the film A is for Autism (1992) by Tim Webb. Previously, I used Picassos Guernica as a bleak example of how art reflects human nature; in this case my aphorism of art is a loose term and here I am defining it as reflecting subjective human nature. A is for Autism was funded and produced by Channel 4 and the Arts Council Animation Awards scheme. The film was to be an interesting animated documentary focused on the condition of autism. Subsequently, autistic artists were seeked out to help design all the key drawings, play the music and narrate the film (Kitson, 2008). Making use of metamorphosis - an inherent freedom of animation, the film plays very fluidly with one shot flowing into the next. Because the main body of the animation has been created by those with autism, it offers us a glimpse of the world through their eyes. In the words of Simon Pummell It is not what the children draw it is how they draw, and so by inference how they perceive the world. (1996: 307) This film clearly demonstrates how animation has been utilised freely to reflect a subjective human experience, subsequently fulfilling a principle purpose of art. Incidentally, Expression Reflection theory is evident here, for this film would not have existed if the expressions of the artists were constrained. In these three diverse examples, I have clarified some principles of art in relation
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to the practise of animation in recent history and expanded on some relevant theories and ideas. Firstly, I indicated the freedom of expression and unique aesthetics drawn on by James Whitney in his film Lapis. With regards to this, I briefly covered Wells's notions of 'true animation' and theories from Furniss regarding the cognitive effects abstract films bring to an audience. Next, with reference to Le Mlomane by Georges Melies and drawing support from Darley, I suggested that the medium of visual/special effects forms a unique and significant vehicle for the imagination. Lastly, I looked at the film A is for Autism by Tim Webb, using it as a prime example that depicts a subjective state of human experience. This leads me nicely into the climactic part of my dissertation, which will focus back to an initial idea I conveyed in the introduction concerning the freedom of animation in audio visual forms of media.

How music videos accommodate animation and digital media as a free art form
Throughout my essay, I have broadened my understanding of the principles of art and subsequently explored their relationship with animation throughout time. Here I will begin to resolve the notion I touched upon in my introduction: that audio visual forms of commercial digital media could allow for the most artistic freedom. With reference to case studies and utilising theoretical support, I will investigate ways in which music video form has encouraged the creative exploitation of digital media and animation. Throughout this section I will be referring back to the artistic principles previously discussed. Music video theorist Carol Vernallis suggests that the freedom of space drawn upon in music videos is one of the genres 'greatest pleasures' and that the 'unfolding of space becomes a metaphor for the songs structure'. (2004: 118) This also exploits one of the inherent virtues of animation as a free art form. Professor Wells states that animation has the freedom to exist outside of the laws of the 'real world' and explore 'graphic space' (1998). These ideas concerning space have clearly been taken advantage of in the music
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video Joga (1997) directed by Michel Gondry.

Screenshots from Joga (Plate 3) Here, Gondry has interpreted Bjork's lyrics emotional landscape in a conceptual and imaginative way. After several sequences of moving camera shots across an array of visceral landscapes, we see a wide shot of Bjork herself standing high on a mountain. Then, with the assistance of computer animation and the liberation of space that music videos encourage, the camera literally pans into Bjork revealing her very own internal emotional landscape. The artist has been able to explicitly convey an effective visual metaphor by combining the freedom of space encouraged by music videos with the freedom animation has to manifest any idea. In further explanation of the liberated use of space that music videos promote; Vernallis suggests that because music takes the role of suturing imagery, the imagery is free to take its own path and does not have to concern itself with making narrative or logical sense (2004). Furthermore, Vernallis notes that music video imagery stands in contrast to its existential stationary state as it must 'share ground with or showcase features of a song, [relinquishing] qualities associated with objects and [adopting] those of sounds.' Therefore image - like sound - becomes
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'transitory rather than static'. (2004: 177) In the process of manifesting his idea, Gondry has maximised the effect of Joga by using photo real animation. This typifies one of several examples where the music video has embraced the form of visual effects. The music video Yes I Know (2011) is a recent example of this. One of the most effective shots of which I have shown below.

Screenshots from Yes I Know (Plate 4: 2011. In Najork.net: 2012) These breathtaking examples of visual effects indicate that those working in music videos are liberated with a significant degree of independent experimentation. This is confirmed by Bordwell and Thompson (hereafter B&T) who suggest that selfexpression or experimentation outside mainstream cinema constitute key elements of the avant garde and that these techniques 'have been deployed in music videos'. (2004: 147) The cases above indicate that this freedom of self-expression and experimentation has culminated in the photo realistic rendering sourced directly from the uninhibited
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imaginations of the artists involved. As opposed to other forms of commercial digital media and animation, music videos accommodate this kind of freedom and subsequently, we can see the photo real manifestation of some interesting and independent ideas. B&T have subtitled a branch of avant garde as experimental film, one of the key factors of which is the freedom to explore the medium itself (2004). This freedom of experimentation has been exemplified by the music video Everytime (2009). Directed by Kijek and Adamski.

Screenshots from Everytime (Plate 5: In Vimeo.com: 2012)

Here, pixellation (the use of stop motion photography to create animation) has been used inventively with printed film footage and a paper shredder to create a clever and aesthetically interesting animation. This shows how the freedom of experimentation has facilitated for the imaginative methods conceived by the directors. By using this method Kijek and Adamski have created a unique artwork which has enabled the constant juxtaposition between different moving images. This has enabled them to literally merge the performers faces together, reflecting the content of the lyrics (themed around relationship) as well as juxtapose the performers with images of breathtaking scenery

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which helps to enhance the mood of the song. Aesthetically R&Hs principles of perceptual grouping and contrast extraction are emphasised here. The viewer is mentally invigorated by the constant necessity to group and differentiate elements of faces and scenery together or apart. As a result, this music video is one of constant visual stimulation. In music videos, narrative content tends to be subordinated. Subsequently, aesthetic and experimental qualities are pushed into the foreground. Vernallis argues that In contrast to feature films, music videos can be memorable for the way their colour relates to the music and that without narrative [...] colour can immediately create affect as colours elicit emotions (2004: 122). Vernallis describes texture in a similar fashion stating that like colour, texture seems to work well in music video because by producing a visceral response it can substitute for a story(2004: 127). This explains why music videos thrive on being aesthetically diverse and experimental, as it is these elements which bring affect to an audience in the place of narrative. Furthermore, Vernallis suggests that the images materiality assists in drawing the viewer to the soundtrack. (2004: 112) With this in mind I will now discuss the music video So So So directed by Studio Funf. I believe that this video effectively combines visual elements with music symbiotically in order to bring about a strong perceptual effect on the viewer.

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Screenshots from So So So (Plate 6: 2011. In Vimeo.com : 2012) This video provides a vivid and subjective account of a day in the life of a hedonist and musician as he goes from waking up in a dreamy and vacant state of desolation to a state of joy and exhilaration accompanying his performance at what
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appears to be the ultimate rave. The ideas from Vernallis regarding the prominence of colour, texture and space in music videos are highly relevant to this film. The first shot evinces R&H's 'isolating a single module' principle utilising a light on dark look to introduce the main character in bed. From the start we see textural elements of moving spikes, dots and lines, which enhance musical elements and make for quite a rugged look. The frames seem to be pulsating along with the music. The space that the character inhabits seems to be a bleak and broken environment and we are confronted with a predominantly drab colour pallet. Freedom of space has been drawn upon to show the character literally floating up through the air perhaps indicating his helplessness. All these elements have combined to evoke a bleak, dreary mood reflective of the characters state of mind. Then we experience a significant change of heart as the character gets picked up by his friends and they head to a rave. What first appears to be fireworks, explodes into a bright range of hues taking the form of freely defined shapes. These proceed to occupy the whole frame as they change at a fast pace. This demonstrates an effective use of R&H's 'peak shift' principle. The 'essence' of fireworks have been amplified significantly triggering an emotional response of exhilaration. Additionally, we are reminded of Whitneys Lapis. As cited by Furniss earlier, the motion of these vivid colours and shapes work directly on the senses creating a feeling of euphoria and timelessness (2007). This visual sequence synthesises with the introduction of a high soothing melody and deep bass sounds that indicate the climax of the soundtrack. This feeling of euphoria is reflected by the character - shown in his element operating an array of musical devices and further enhanced by the expanse of energy shown visually by a growing bright shape emanating outwards from the rave. With regards to time, Vernallis states that music videos in particular can heighten our 'awareness to the fact that lived time can be personal and subjective'. (2004: 129) She delineates this idea, suggesting that 'the sound track of a music video imposes a new temporality upon the images'. (2004: 136) In So So So, a decrease in tempo from the soundtrack seems to attribute the point of view shot where he is gazing out of the window with a sense of timelessness. Later, time seems to pick up pace (with the tempo) when he
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gets into the car with his friends. According to Vernallis, music videos pleasure stems from catching a way of feeling (2004: 116). By drawing on the aesthetic attributes of texture and colour, and utilising the freedom of space and subjective play of time, the artists who have worked on So So So have been able to fully express the bittersweet feelings of vacancy and exuberance that reflect this kind of lifestyle. This exemplifies the extent of which music videos possess the capacity to express with perceptual distinctiveness a subjective state of experience. To embellish this notion, Vernallis suggests that music video pulls us in with an address to the body, with a flooding of the senses, thus eliciting a sense of experience as internally felt rather than externally understood(2004: 177). For the purposes of expressing the feeling of a human experience that directly and perceptually resonates through the audience, the music video serves as a superior form of media. This example also substantiates ER theory. Through embracing full creative expression the artists involved in the making of So So So have created a vivid reflection of a human state of experience. Before summarising this section, I would like to show one last example that has effectively reflected an objective state of experience, My Culture directed by Tim Hope.

Screenshots from My Culture (Plate 7: 2002. In Passion-london.com: 2012)

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Here, we see the rapid industrialisation of our planet from it's conception into it's current state. The performers our staged in front of ever changing businesses and buildings and tower blocks rapidly emerge out of the ground. Tim Hope has used animation effectively and freely to reflect the fast rate of urban growth today. In this chapter, I have utilised several music videos to help explore my earlier notion that audio visual forms of digital media and animation could allow for the most artistic freedom. I used Joga as an appropriate example to show how the music video form embraces the free exploration of space. As a result the artists imagination can freely manifest ideas without being limited to real-world space. I cited the music video Yes I know with relevance to Joga to substantiate the notion that the liberated imagination and self-expression of those working in music videos have allowed them to create some refreshing and unusual examples of visual effects. Following this, I discussed the music video Everytime, using it to show how the freedom of experimentation encouraged by music videos has enabled imaginative methods to dictate the aesthetical outcome. Then, using Vernallis to explain the importance of aesthetic and experimental attributes as a prime means to bring affect to an audience, I looked at the music video So So So. In analysing the use of aesthetic elements along with elements of time and space I noted how the artists were able to fully express feelings through this piece. Subsequently, I suggested that the form of music video is especially suitable for reflecting a subjective state of experience. Lastly, I briefly covered My Culture in order to show that music videos are also an appropriate vehicle for the reflection of an objective state of experience. Having explored the form of music videos, and analysed ways in which they accommodate and encourage the principles of art previously discussed, I will briefly look at the implications of new media and wider areas of audio visual practice.

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New media and wider forms of audio visual practice

Today the internet serves as the prominent source of interactive media across the world. It acts as a catalyst for the funding, creation and potential widespread exhibition of independent music videos to occur. Websites such as 'RadarMusicVideos.com' enables musicians and record labels to commission briefs openly, allowing the opportunity for anyone to direct. The briefs themselves can offer a lot of artistic freedom. One brief for example, suggests 'We are looking for something cool visually for this new track by Logistics. We are looking to work with new talent, [...] All ideas welcome...' (RadioMusicVideos, 2012). The only limitation here is that it must look 'cool'. With regards to publicity, web 2.0 applications (such as Youtube, Facebook and Twitter) have enabled web users to spread word-of-mouth at an unprecedented level. Subsequently, videos can go viral and be propagated throughout the internet resulting in millions of views. This has been the case of street busker 'Dub FX'. Some of his street videos have received over 10 million views (Youtube, 2009). With these points in mind I suggest that the music video can bode very well as an indispensable publicity aide to the musician. Furthermore, I suggest this imbues music videos to break away from the norm by standing out artistically as oppose to conforming to an entrenched style. Subsequently, the music itself is provided with a greater chance of increased publicity via word-ofmouth. I first came across the music video So So So through Vimeo staff picks (i.e. picked out by the staff who work at Vimeo.com). Due to this initial publicity, the high quality of the video, and its existence on the internet the video has now received 73,500 views since its upload in June 2011 (Vimeo, 2012). This particular example illustrates how an effective and independent music video can generate widespread public notice and subsequently become a success. Other areas of audio visual spectatorship make evident the growing significance of animation as an art form. Projections accompanying musicians at festivals are becoming an intrinsic component in creating a full sensational experience. This has been exemplified by the live shows created by '59 Productions' for Icelandic singer 'Jonsi' on his world tour in 2010. Adorned in a vibrant native indian outfit, the vocalist performed
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in front of a huge projection displaying lively atmospheric animations and special effects themed around the dynamics of nature.

Photographs of Jonsi's live show (Plate 8: 2010. In Cool Hunting: 2012) '59 Productions' were approached specifically, to create the visual equivalent of Jonsi's music. Directors Mark Grimmer and Leo Warner noted that upon first hearing the music

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they 'bounced ideas back and forth' with Jonsi. Their goal was to create an 'epic' set that reflected the imagination and energy of Jonsi's music. Inspired and influenced by the music, they were driven to create 'aesthetic content and an environment in which [Jonsi's] world of music [could] exist'. (Fifty Nine Productions, 2010) This indicates that artistic freedoms of imagination, aesthetics and expression were freely drawn upon in the making of this live performance set. The result of which was a fully synthesised and enhanced reflection of nature. The animations demonstrate an interesting and dynamic exploitation of R&H's perceptual grouping and contrast extraction principles, depicting animals and their movements with freely moving marks and lines. Furthermore, this substantiates R&H's ideas about the purpose of art previously mentioned, which is 'not merely to depict or represent reality [...] but to enhance [and] transcend [...] reality'. (1999) This case study also indicates clearly how visuals can help strengthen the identity of the music and musician. Lastly, in response to Kandinsky's statement cited at the beginning of my essay I would like to comment on the contemporary practice of VJing (VJ stands for video jockey). VJs can create all their own content, be it animation, visual effects, live action, performance etc. then remix this content live (usually to music). VJs make use of MIDI's (musical instrument digital interface's - e.g. keyboards or synthesisers), laptops and other forms of hardware and software enabling them to access and adjust every possible aesthetic parameter. Through the use of intuitive interfaces and the ability to create and apply one's own visual content, VJs can express their thoughts, ideas and emotions in real time. The advancement of technology has liberated VJs with an unprecedented access to visual expression; akin to the same freedom of expression that has been utilised by musicians. Art curator Kathleen Forde states that VJing 'is a profound audio-visual art form distinctive to performance in the digital age' (cited in Faulkner, 2006: 8). In this chapter I covered new media and its effect on music videos. Additionally, I looked at other areas of audio visual practice, discussing their relevance as contemporary art forms. In my conclusion, I will summarise the key elements that have been discussed throughout my essay and utilise what I have learned here to further substantiate some of my points.
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Conclusion
Before I commence this summary and bring resolve to my intial notion, I should briefly acknowledge that whilst not elaborating on all areas of commercial digital media and animation in this essay, I have covered some of the most prominent and prolific forms currently active in Western culture. Additionally, it seems necessary to highlight that my suggested notion concerns contemporary media. The historical examples of animation that embrace artistic freedom previously discussed were funded either directly by the audience or the broadcaster. Such funding for independent animation films today is rare. Karin Wehn states that this is mainly because of economic reasons (2005). Now, with support from some of my main points established earlier, I will set about resolving my initial notion: the idea that audio visual areas of commercial and contemporary digital media and animation could allow for the most artistic freedom. I will start by summarising areas of digital media and animation where the freedom of art has been compromised. Across mainstream feature animations, the artistic principles of imagination and expression have been limited to 'real world' laws and constrained to engage with young and family audiences. Furthermore the aesthetics used by these films have been pushed into homogeneity, once again to meet the requirements of an established audience. In advertising, a wider variety of aesthetics and imaginative concepts have been encouraged. Here, it is expression on the part of the artist that has been compromised due to the large budgets, large amounts of people invested in the outcome and the underlying principle to sell a product, service or cause. Similarly, broadcast idents and title sequences elicit some degree of aesthetic and imaginative freedom, but once again the artists expression must conform to the requirements of the channel or subsequent media. Utilising ideas previously established by Vernallis (2004), I will summarise the artistic principles which have been supported by music video form. Music 'sutures' the images, subsequently the artistic principles of expression, imagination and aesthetics are liberated from narrative concerns. Vernallis states that music video imagery can freely shift temporal domain, it can also traverse spatial, physical and cognitive boundaries.
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(2004: 136) This allows for the full potential of the language of animation to be explored and grants freedoms of expression and imagination. A unique trait of music videos is the distortion of time that can be created, allowing it to become the ideal vehicle for expressing (and reflecting) a subjective state of experience. Notably, music videos encourage a varied application of aesthetics as it is this element that - in the place of narrative - brings emotional affect to an audience. Furthermore, aesthetic and experimental visuals are invoked to enhance musical elements. At this point, It seems appropriate to comment on the presence of the internet and the advancement of technology. The internet has granted practically anybody with the appropriate skills the chance to become a music video creator. This notion has been further enhanced with the advancement of technology as remarked on by director Ed Holdsworth, who states that you can now 'carry a production studio in a rucksack and make music videos or films on your own'. (cited in RJ Walter, 2007: 143) Incidentally, Holdsworth has mentioned a condition of expression that has not yet been explicitly stated. That is: work created by small groups or individuals (i.e. 'on your own') enables a larger capacity of personal expression. This idea is shared by Simon Pummel who states that often 'a film made by one person is more profoundly expressive than a film made in a more industrial way'. (1996: 308) In the case of music videos, which are often produced by small groups, the artist(s) can utilise the expression of the musician as a tool of inspiration and influence to drive their own visual expression. This notion has been exemplified by Jonsi's live show production. To expand on this, I suggest that VJs are free to utilise personal expression to the greatest extent, as they can operate completely independently, expressing themselves and their ideas freely whilst performing live. Perhaps more relevantly to my topic as a whole, reputable VJs, audio visual and music video directors are chosen specifically and payed directly for their personal and uninhibited artistic contribution thus indicating a complete freedom of artistic practice. The extended freedom of VJing is commented on by Adrian Shaughnessy, who suggests that VJs can 'create visual communication without the restraint of commercial considerations.' This, he suggests is a freedom you rarely find in 'more conventional areas of moving image work.' (cited in Faulkner, 2006: 12)
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To round up my points, here I have specified that areas of mainstream animation, advertising, idents and title sequences all carry artistic restraints to a lesser or greater degree. Contrastingly, I have summarised ways in which music video form encourages the principles of art. I have further noted that areas of audio visual performance and VJing also utilise and embrace these principles to great effect. With all this in mind, I would like to conclude by stating that audio visual areas of commercial and contemporary digital media and animation do allow for the most artistic freedom. There are limitations however, firstly one is required to utilise music either pre-recorded or being performed live. Secondly, due to the constant flux of music it could be difficult to engage the audience with a complicated visual narrative. I would suggest that rather than music supporting the narrative of visuals (as in films), visuals tend to support the narrative of music. The line between these distinctions is not clearly marked however and interesting works can emerge as a result of the symbiotic fusion between the two. The benefits of uninhibited artistic freedom are notable. Touched on in this essay are the effects of awe associated with the independent and imaginative application of visual effects. The perceptual and subjective involvement of the spectator that music videos can elicit and the new and exciting forms of expression produced by VJs. The effects of uninhibited audio visual art have been remarked on by fans of Jonsi's live show who have described their experiences of the event as 'transcendentally beautiful', 'astounding' and 'ingenious'. (Cool Hunting, 2010) It is through art, that we can express ourselves and our ideas in some very interesting and powerful ways. Ways in which cannot be solely expressed by our spoken language or behaviour.

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Bibliography
Books
Ayers, David. (1994). Modernism. A Short Introduction. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Bordwell, David & Thompson, Kristen. (2004). Film Art: an introduction, 7th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Bordwell, David & Thompson, Kristen. (2008). Film Art: an introduction, 8th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill Crafton, Donald. (1993). Before Mickey The Animated Film 1898 - 1928. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. Darley, Andrew. (2000).Visual Digital Culture Surface play and spectacle in new media genres. Oxon : Routledge Faulkner, Michael. (2006). VJ: audio-visual art + vj culture. London: Laurence King Publishing Furniss, Maureen. (2007). Art in motion: animation aesthetics. Eastleigh: John Libbey Publishing Hanson, Matt. (2006). Reinventing Music Video. Hove: Rotovision Kitson, Clare. (2008). British animation: The Channel 4 factor. London: Parliament Hill Publishing

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Moszkowicz, Julia. (2002). To infinity and beyond: assessing the technological imperative in computer animation. In: Screen 43:3, Autumn 2002. RJ Walter, Shane. (2007). Motion blur 2: Multi dimensional Moving Imagemakers. London: Laurence King Publishing Ltd. Wells, Paul. (1998). Understanding Animation. Oxon: Routledge Wells, Paul. (2006). The Fundamentals of Animation. Lausanne: AVA Publishing Wollheim, Richard. (1973). On Art & The Mind. London: Penguin Books Ltd. Smoodin, Eric. (1993). Animating Culture. Bedfordshire: Rutgers University Press Vernallis, Carol. (2004). Experiencing music video: aesthetics and cultural context. New York: Columbia University Press.

Journals/Essays
Baars, Bernard J. (1999). 'Art must move: emotion and the biology of beauty' In: Journal of Consciousness Studies. Volume 6, Numbers 6-7, 1999. Exeter: Imprint Academic Castello-Branco, Patricia. (2010) 'Pure Sensations? From Abstract Film to Digital Images.' In: Animation: An Interdisciplinary Journal. Volume 5, Issue 1, 2010. London: SAGE Publications Ltd. DeCordova, Richard. (1994) 'The Mickey in Macys Window: Childhood, Consumerism, and Disney Animation.' In: Disney Discourse. Producing The Magic Kingdom. Ed. by Smoodin, Eric. pp 203-213. London: Routledge.

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Gregory, Richard L. (1999). 'Object hypotheses in visual perception: David Marr or Cruella De Ville' In: Journal of Consciousness Studies. Volume 6, Numbers 6-7, 1999. Exeter: Imprint Academic Pummel, Simon. (1996). Will the Monster Eat the Film? In: The British Avant-Garde Film 1926 - 1995. Ed. by OPray, Michael. pp 299-315. Bedfordshire: University of Luton Press. Ramachandran, Vilayanur S & Hirstein, William. (1999). The Science of Art. A Neurological Theory of Aesthetic Experience In: Journal of Consciousness Studies. Volume 6, Numbers 6-7, 1999. Exeter: Imprint Academic Southall, John. (1997). 'Aspects of Contemporary Animation in Great Britain: Organization and Production'. In: Animation Journal. Spring 1997. Orange: Chapman University School of Film and Television Taylor, Kathleen. (2002). 'Is Imagination more important than knowledge?' In: Times Higher Education Supplement. 20th December 2002. London: TSL Education Limited Wallen, Ruth. (1999). 'Response to Ramachandran and Hirstein' In: Journal of Consciousness Studies. Volume 6, Numbers 6-7, 1999. Exeter: Imprint Academic Wehn, Karin. (2005). 'The renaissance of the animated short on the world wide web' In: Animation Journal. Volume 13, 2005. Orange: Chapman University School of Film and Television

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Websites
Cool Huntings (2010). Jonsi World Tour. http://www.coolhunting.com/culture/jnsitheatrical.php (16th March 2012) Fifty nine productions (2010). Jonsi Live tour - Set, projection and animation design by 59 productions. [video trailer] http://59productions.co.uk/project/jonsi (11th March 2012) Gametrailers (2012). Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs. http://gametrailers.com/game/iceage-dawn-of-the-dinosaurs/11222 (20th Febuary 2012) Imdb (2012). Ice Age: Dawn of the Dinosaurs. http://imdb.com/title/tt1080016/ (20th Febuary 2012) Radar music videos (2012). Fear Not Drum + Bass video needed for great label. http://radarmusicvideos.com/brief/fear-not-drum-bass-video-needed (10th March 2012) Vimeo (2012). Rone So So So (official video). http://vimeo.com/24915729 (10th March 2012) Youtube (2009). Dub FX 18/04/2009 'Flow' feat. Woodnote. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WhBoR_tgXCI&feature=relmfu (10th March 2012)

Images
Plate 1: Employees.oneonta.edu. (2012) http://employees.oneonta.edu/farberas/arth/arth200/guernica.html (31st January 2012)

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Plate 2: Lapis (1965). In Moritz, William. (2012). Enlightenment. http://centerforvisualmusic.org/WMEnlightenment.html (6th Febuary 2012) Plate 3: Joga (1997). Directed by Michel Gondry. USA: Palm Pictures. Plate 4: Yes I know (2011). In Najork.net. (2012). http://najork.net (4th March 2012) Plate 5: Everytime (2009). In Vimeo.com (2012). http://vimeo.com/4211147 (4th March 2012) Plate 6: So So So (2011). In Vimeo.com (2012). http://vimeo.com/24915729 (4th March 2012) Plate 7: My Culture (2002) In Passion-london.com (2012). http://www.passionlondon.com/directors/tim-hope/one-giant-leap-myculture/b952a59abd301c27d7b93373e48d1923 (6th March 2012) Plate 8: Jonsi's live show (2010) In CoolHunting.com (2010). http://www.coolhunting.com/culture/jnsi-theatrical.php (16th March 2012)

Films
A is for Autism. (1992). Directed by Tim Webb [DVD]. UK: National Autistic Society. Ice Age 3. (2009). Directed by Carlos Saldanha. [DVD]. USA: 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment. My Big Fat Greek Wedding. (2002). Directed by Joel Zwick. [DVD]. USA: Warner Home Video.

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Toy Story. (1996). Directed by John Lasseter. [DVD]. USA: Walt Disney Pictures.

Snow White and the Seven Dwarves. (1937). Directed by Walt Disney. [DVD]. USA: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment.

Music Videos
Everytime (2009). Music by Oi Va Voi. Directed by Kijek and Adamski. [Internet] In Vimeo.com (2012). http://vimeo.com/4211147 (4th March 2012) Frozen. (1998). Music by Madonna. Directed by Chris Cunningham. [DVD]. USA: Palm Pictures. Joga. (1997). Music by Bjork. Directed by Michel Gondry. [DVD]. USA: Palm Pictures. Lapis. (1965). Directed by James Whitney. [Music Video]. USA: Creative Film Society. Le Melomane. (1903). Directed by Georges Melies. [DVD]. USA: Facets Multimedia Distribution. My Culture (2002). Music by One Giant Leap. Directed by Tim Hope [Internet] In Passion-london.com (2012). http://www.passion-london.com/directors/tim-hope/onegiant-leap-my-culture/b952a59abd301c27d7b93373e48d1923 (6th March 2012) So So So (2011). Music by Rone. Directed by Studio Funf. [Internet] In Vimeo.com (2012). http://vimeo.com/24915729 (4th March 2012) Yes I know (2011). Music by Memory Tapes. Directed by Eric Epstein. [Internet] In Najork.net. (2012). http://najork.net (4th March 2012)
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