Objective

Shielding Calculation Techniques

Design of shield with adequate attenuation to achieve the required (or acceptable) dose equivalent (rate) limitation (or ALARA)

Shielding Issues
Calculation Methods Linac Rooms v Barrier Materials v Primary, scatter and leakage Barriers v Maze Design v Neutron Shielding Simulator (x-ray and CT) HDR Brachytherapy Rooms Special Topics Reports

Factors do be considering in shielding design

ALARA Available space Constructions techniques Regulatory limits (or constraints) Shielding materials Source term Trends in regulatory limits with times

Calculation Method
We calculate the dose rate at a certain distance from the source due to primary, scattered and leakage radiation and from it derive how many TVLs we need to bring the radiation levels to the dose constraints (occupational or public). [if the attenuation curves are not exponential, use attenuation curves]

Conventional Primary Barrier

WU
bibliography v NCRP Report No. 49, for accelerators operating at 10 MV or less No. 51 (144), for higher energy machines v Patton H. McGinley: Shielding Techniques for Radiation Oncology Facilities. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, Wisconsin.

d pri P

Patient Scatter
P1

Leakage

d sec dl W d sec P2

IMRT Maze and Door

Primary Barrier: Source term

What is the Dose Rate at a certain distance from the source? v W Workload = average dose per week at one meter from the target (source) v U Use Factor (orientation) = average fraction of time per week that the primary beam falls on the barrier v T Occupancy Factor = fraction of the time that a person will be in the area outside of that barrier (the most exposed individual) v dpri distance from source to the point (zone to protect) where person will be standing

W dm

Dose Rate@ d pri = H unshielded =

WUT d2 pri

Primary Barrier
Calculate the transmission of the Barrier (B x or Tx) to bring the Dose Rate to constraint Levels v H shielded = dose per week required outside of the protection barrier

Secondary Barrier
Transmission for Secondary Barriers v Consider Scatter from Patient, Bp, U=1 Scatter from Barrier, Bs Leakage thru Barrier, Bl, U=1 v Do the calculation for each barrier

H d2 H Bx = shielded = m pri Hunshielded WUT

Regulatory constraint

Do the calculation for each primary barrier

Scatter from Patient

Bp =
2 H m d sec d i2 400 aWT F

Scatter from Barriers

Bs =
2 H m d sec d i2 AWTU

v dsec = distance from the scattering surface to the point to be protected v di = distance from the x-ray source to the patient xv a = ratio of scattered radiation at one meter from the scattering object to the primary radiation at 1 m from the x -ray target (derived with field size 20x20) v F = field size at patient (cm2)

v dsec = distance from the scattering surface to the point to be protected v di = distance from the x-ray source to the barrier xv = reflection coefficient for the barrier material, scattering angle, and x-ray beam energy (per m2) xv A = area of beam at the scattering surface in m2

Leakage thru Linac Head

2 1000H m d sec WT

Workload Considerations
v Choose the maximum weekly expected average value of the dose at a meter from the target. v Survey ( Klech et al, 1994) (Klech For single x-ray beams W=350 Gy /week xGy/week For dual x-ray beams W = 250 Gy /week for the xhighest energy x-ray beam xv Disregard electron beam workload v IMRT affect all barriers v TBI affect only one barrier

Bl =

v 1/1000 = Leakage factor thru the head of linac v dsec = distance from the isocenter (or target) to the point to be protected v Energy (@90o) is about the produced by 2E0/3 but conservatively assumed equal to the primary

Dose Constraint Workload Example

v Average No. of patients/day = 40 v Average No. of fields/patient = 5 v Average No. of MU/field = 50 v 1 MU = 1 cGy v No. of days/week = 5 Controlled v Hm = 50 mSv/year (actually 20 mSv/year) mSv/year mSv/year) (= 20/50 = 0.4 mSv/week) mSv/week) v Due to ALARA Hm = 0.10 to 0.20 mSv/week (NCRP116) mSv/week Uncontrolled = General Public v Hm = 1.0 mSv/year or 0.02 mSv/week mSv/year mSv/week v Due to ALARA Hm = 0.010 to 0.02 mSv/week mSv/week

patients fields MU cGy days 5 50 1 5 day patient field MU week W = 50000cGy = 500Gy W = 40

Scatter-primary ratio
ScatterScatter-primary ratio (a) at 1 m from a human -size phantom humanfor a size 400 cm2 at the phantom, target to phantom distance of 1 m Scattering angle 6 MV 10 MV 30o 0.007 0.0030 45 o 0.0018 0.0010 60o 0.0011 0.0005 90o 0.0006 0.0003 135o 0.0004 0.0002 Since scatter radiation has low penetration compared with leakage radiation it can be ignored above 10 MV

Scattering from barriers

Occupancy Factor
T 1 Type of area Full occupancy work areas, such as offices, shops, : laboratories, childrens play areas, occupied nearby children buildings, living quarters, wards, nurse's stations Partial occupancy: corridors, rest rooms, elevators occupancy: using operators

Barrier Materials
Physical Properties of Common Shielding Materials
Shielding Material Density (gcm-3) Atomic Number 11 26 26 82 Relative Cost/mass 1.0 5.8 2.2 22.2 low

to 1/5

Occasional occupancy waiting rooms, toilets, : 1/8 to 1/40 stairways, unattended elevators, janitor s closet, outside areas used only for pedestrians or vehicular traffic parking lots

Ordinary concrete 2.3 Heavy concrete 3.73.7-4.8 LowLow-carbon steel 7.87 Lead 11.35 Earth, dry -packed 1.5

Barrier Thickness
Transmission curves can be used to calculate barrier thickness 6 MV scattered radiation

Barrier Thickness
Or we can use the tenth value layer (TVL). The number (n) of TVL can be obtained by

n = log10 (1 / Bx )
The thickness S can be obtained by

S = T1 + (n 1)Te

Barrier Thickness
Tenth value layers (TVL) in concrete, steel, and lead Data based on NCRP 51 Shield TVL 1 TVL e Energy/MV Material (m) (m) 6 concrete 0.35 0.35 steel 0.099 0.099 lead 0.055 0.057 10 concrete 0.41 0.39 steel 0.104 0.104 lead 0.057 0.056

Barrier Thickness
Tenth value layers (TVL) in concrete, steel, and lead Data based on NCRP 51 Shield TVL 1 TVL e Energy/MeV Material (m) (m) 15 concrete 0.46 0.43 steel 0.108 0.108 18 concrete 0.47 0.43 steel 0.108 0.108 20 concrete 0.48 0.44 steel 0.108 0.109 24 concrete 0.51 0.46 steel 0.109 0.109

Primary Barrier Photon Tenth-Value Layers (mm) Come from a Variety of Sources
MV 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 1 2 4 6 10 15 18 20 24 Lead TVL1 TVLe 1.7 1.7 2.9 2.9 4.8 4.8 8.3 8.3 11.9 11.9 26 26 42 42 53 53 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 56 NCRP 51 Concrete TVL1 TVLe 84 84 94 94 104 104 109 109 117 117 147 147 210 210 292 292 367 323 410 377 445 416 462 432 470 442 483 457 Steel TVL1 TVLe 15 15 19 19 22 22 29 29 33 33 54 51 76 69 91 91 100 100 104 104 108 108 109 109 110 110 110 110 Earth TVL1 TVLe 135 135 151 151 167 167 175 175 188 188 236 236 336 336 468 468 572 572 648 648 720 720 740 740 752 752 773 773 Borated Poly TVL1 TVLe 84 84 94 94 104 104 109 109 117 117 147 147 210 210 292 292 343 343 379 379 379 379 379 379 390 390 401 401

Barrier Thickness
Tenth value layers (TVL) for primary and secondary leakage radiation at 90o. Data from Varian. Megavoltage from BJR 17 X-ray Shielding TVL prim TVL 90lkgg MV Material (m) (m) 6 concrete 0.343 0.279 earth 0.572 steel 0.098 0.080 lead 0.055 0.045 10 concrete 0.389 0.305 earth 0.648 steel 0.105 0.085 lead 0.056 0.046

NCRP 49

Nelson & LaRiviere

McGinley

Estimated from Concrete

Barrier Thickness
Tenth value layers (TVL) for primary and secondary leakage radiation at 90o. Data from Varian. Megavoltage from BJR 17 X-ray Shielding TVL prim TVL 90lkgg MV Material (m) (m) 15 concrete 0.432 0.330 earth 0.720 steel 0.108 0.087 lead 0.057 0.047 18 concrete 0.444 0.330 earth 0.740 steel 0.111 0.087 lead 0.056 0.047

Barrier Thickness
Tenth value layers (TVL) for primary and secondary leakage radiation at 90o. Data from Varian. Megavoltage from BJR 17 X-ray Shielding TVL prim TVL 90lkgg MV Material (m) (m) 20 concrete 0.457 0.343 steel 0.112 0.088 lead 0.055 0.049 24 concrete 0.470 0.356 steel 0.107 0.089 lead 0.052 0.051

Rule of thumb for oblique radiation based on NCRP 49 rules for 60Co and 137Cs: 1. If the barrier is composed of concrete, an attenuation of 1000 is required, and is 50o, increase the barrier 2 HVL for low energy and 1 HVL for high energy radiation. The additional shielding is required to account for scattering shown by ray (a) in the fig. 2. For angles of 60o and 70o each of the thickness need to be increase by 1 and 2 HVL respectively a 3. For lead shielding with a required attenuation of 1000, the barrier is increased by 1 HVL at 60o

First and third TVL for head leakage radiation* Angle TVL 1/TVL 3 6 MV 10MV 25MV 3535-55 0.353/0.293 0.366/0.328 0.377/0.367 8080-100 0.341/0.284 0.349/0.311 0.359/0.347 125125-145 0.333/0.269 0.347/0.329 0.355/0.325 * Adapted from Nelson and LaRiviere (1984) for ordinary concrete

t S

Rules for

60Co,

4, 10 and 18 MV x-rays. Biggs (1996) x-

1. For 60Co and <45o , deviations from obliquity are noticeable for barrier transmission factors less than 4x10-3; for =60o ; they are noticeable below 1x10-2. 2. The concrete shielding thickness for x-rays of x10 MV or greater can be based on the slant thickness (t) providing is less than 70o . 3. For steel the slant thickness should not be used for an 18 MV beam if the value of q is greater than 60o and t is greater than 35 cm. 4. For lead the slant thickness should not be used for 18 MV beams if the value of q is greater than 60o and t is greater than 17 cm.

Width and Length of Primary Barrier

The width of a primary barrier is equal to the maximum beam size at the barrier plus 1 foot (0.305 m) on either side to prevent radiation from leaking through the secondary barrier. The maximum field size is normally 40x40 cm and the maximum width is the diagonal of the field which will be equivalent to a width of 56.6 cm. The required width W is W = 0.566 X + 0.61 (m) X is the distance of the barrier in meters from source.

Primary Barrier Width

0.3 meter margin on each side of beam rotated 45 degrees v Barrier width required assuming 40 cm x 40 cm field size wC = 0.4 2 d C ' + 0.6 m

Figure 2.3

Field typically not perfectly square (corners are clipped) v 35 cm x 35 cm field size typically used to account for this
Target to Narrow Point Distance (d )
C'

*
wC C

Target Isocenter
Target to Narrow Point Distance (d )
C'

*
wC C

Target Isocenter
Target to Narrow Point Distance (d )
C'

Target Isocenter

0.3 m

0.3 m

0.3 m
Metal

0.3 m

C'
0.3 m

C'
0.3 m

wC

Maze Calculations for up to 10 MV beams

1. Primary beam scattered from room surface 2. Head leakage photons scattered by room surface 3. Primary scatter from the patient (Sp) If space is at premium use a door with secondary barrier thickness

Scattered radiation to the door from the primary beam (Ss)

P W L d
m

Ss =
where

Do 1A1 2 A2 2 (d1d r1d r 2 )

Figure 3.2

Ss = Dose at door Do = Workload of accelerator 1 = Reflection coefficient at first reflection based

on a beam energy of the MV of linac

A1 = Beam area at first reflection (m2) 2 = Reflection coefficient at second reflection

Based on a beam energy of 0.5 MV
2 A2 = Cross section of maze (m )

d1 = Distance from target to first reflection (m) dr1 = Centerline distance along first leg of maze (m) dr 2 = Centerline distance along second leg of maze (m)

Figure 3.3

The following restrictions apply to Ss. The height to width ratio of the maze must be between one and two, and the value of dr2/(A2) 1/2 must be between two and six. Values of the reflection coefficient may be obtained from Figure 3.3. For photon energies higher than 10 MV, the 10 MV reflection coefficient is used. This is considered to be a conservative estimation of the dose at the door.

Scattered radiation at the door from head leakage

where

L= L =

Lo Do1 A1 (d s d i ) 2
Dose at door due to head leakage Ratio of dose due to head leakage at 1m from target to the dose at the isocenter

Lo =
Figure 3.4

Do = Workload of accelerator 1 = A1 = di = ds =
Reflection coefficient for wall reflection Area of wall C that can be seen from maze (m2) Distance from target to maze centerline (m) Centerline distance along the maze (m)

McGinley and James (1997) observed a factor of 2 between the calculated and measured head leakage scatter. The head leakage used was the measured not the standard 0.1%. The energy assigned to the head leakage was 1.4 and 1.5 MV for the 6 and 10 MV linac as suggested by Nelson and LaRiviere. LaRiviere.

Scattered dose at the door from the patient scatter

Sp =
where

aDo ( F / 400)1 A1 ( d sca d secd r 1 ) 2

S p = Dose at door due to the patient scatter Do = Workload of accelerator a=

Reflection coefficient for patient

Transmitted dose at the door thru leg of maze

F = Field area at patient (cm2) 1 = Reflection coefficient for wall reflection E=0.5MV A1 = Area of maze back wall that can be seen from
outer maze entrance (m2)

d sca = Distance from target to patient (m) dsec = Distance from patient to maze centerline (m) d r1 = Centerline distance along maze (m)

T=
where

Lo Do B (d '' ) 2
Barrier transmission factor for wall D D Distance from target to the door (m)

Total Dose (Dc) when beam is pointing at wall C

B= d '' =

Dc = S p + fSc + L + T = f =
Fraction of beam transmitted through patient Values of f for 6 MV (0.23) and 10 MV (0.27) have been reported by McGingley and James (1997)

Total Dose (Dt) from all sources of (D radiation at the door

Photoneutrons
Relative yield of photoneutrons in semi-infinite thick semitarget as a function of incident electron energy Target Electron Energy (MeV) Element 10 15 20 25 Al 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.03 Cu 0.0 0.0 0.11 0.25 Fe 0.0 0.0 0.07 0.17 Pb 0.0 0.25 0.70 0.93 W 0.0 0.25 0.70 1.00

Dt = 2.64Dc
For typical case in which the factors U are each. This equation can be used for rooms with a similar layout as Figure 3.1. The transmission factor required for the door shielding is calculated by dividing the permissible dose at door by D t. The thickness of lead for a 6 MV can be calculated from Figure 3.6. For a 10 MV beam the thickness can be based on broad beam data for 0.21 MV photons. When the energy of the linac is above 10 MV. This technitechniQue still applies. We need to consider the neutrons.

Figure of linac head

Figure 4.3

 = dir + sc + th
Total flux is due to direct neutron production between a photon and a neutron in the nucleus of the target atom, the scattered neutrons from the concrete surfaces of the room, and a thermal neutron energy group. McCall et al (1979) have found that the direct neutron fluence, which accounts for 15% of the photoneutron. is given by photoneutron.

The room scatter and thermal neutron fluence are constant in the room given by

th = 1.26Q / S
S is the surface area of the treatment room in cm2. The total fluence is given by

sc = 5.4aQ / S =

where a is the transmission factor for neutrons that penetrate the head shielding, d is the distance (cm) from target to the point where fluence is evaluated and Q is the neutron source strength in neutrons emitted by unit photon dose. The factor a is 1.0 for lead and 0.85 for tungsten shielding c

dir = aQ / 4d 2

aQ 5.4aQ 1.26Q + + 4d 2 S S

Neutron source strength for medical accelerators Manufacturer Model Stated MV Q neutrons/Gy neutrons/ Gy Siemens KD 20 0.92x 1012 Varian 1800 18 1.22 Varian 1800 15 0.76 Varian 1800 10 0.06 Philips SLSL-25 22 2.37 Philips SLSL-20 17 0.69 GE Saturne 43 25 2.40 GE Saturne 43 18 1.50 GE Saturne 41 15 0.47 GE Saturne 41 12 0.24 Varian 2100C/D and 2300 C/D are similar to the 1800 series

State Rules and Regulations for Head Leakage

1. For operations producing the maximum leakage radiation, the absorbed dose due to neutrons and photons, at any point in a circular plane (patient plane or area) of 2 m radius centered on and perpendicular to the CAX of the beam at the isocenter and outside of the maximum beam size, shall not exceed 0.1% of the absorbed dose due to the x-rays at the isocenter. x2. Points outside the patient area and at 1 m from the path of the electron beam through the accelerator shall receive an absorbed dose due to photons that is <= 0.1% of the x-ray dose at the isocenter and < = x0.005% due to neutrons.

Activation of Materials
Radionuclides produced in medical accelerators Reaction Mode 27Al(n, )28Al Al(n, 63Cu(, n)62Cu Cu(, 56Mn(n, )56Mn Mn(n, 63Cu(n, )64Cu Cu(n, 65Cu(, n)64Cu Cu(, 186W(n, )178W W(n, 58Ni( ,n)57Ni Ni(, n) of decay + + / + / + HalfHalf-life 2.3 min 9.7 min 2.6 hour 12.7 hour 12.7 hour 23.9 hour 36.0 hour Photon energy 1.780 MeV 0.511 MeV 0.847 MeV 1.346 MeV 1.346 MeV 0.479/0.686 1.378/1.920

Activation of Materials
Near the accelerator the dose rate immediately after treatment is dominated by 28Al and 62Cu, and after one hour the longerlonger-lived isotopes 187W and 57Ni produce the majority of the dose rate. It was found by Almen et al (1991) that the annual dose received by the technician from induced activity was in the range of 1.0 to 2.8 mGy for the trunk region of the body and 0.7 to 3,3 mGy for the hands. A workload of 240 days per year and 3500 high-energy ports hightreated per year was used to estimate the annual dose. McGinley measured the dose rate at the distal end of the collimator for several Varian linacs operating at 18 MV and found the average level of 0.80 mGy/h, two minutes after mGy/h, the machine had been running for 30 minutes. The engineer should wait for 40 minutes before repair near the target, after a long run.

10

Materials for Neutron Shielding

Properties of shielding materials Hydrogen TVL TVL content fast slow Materials (atoms/cm3) neutrons Concrete 0.80.8-2.4x1022 21.0 34.0 Polyethylene 8.0x1022 4.5 77.0 5% Boron 1.27 Steel 10.7 Lead 410.0 TVL in cm

Mazes and Doors for High-Energy Rooms HighPolyethylene 10.2 cm Lead 1.27 cm

TVL capture gammas 45.0 13.5 6.1

Neutron activation low very low very low medium low

IN

Steel 0.635 cm

Most medical accelerators operating above 10 MV use a maze with a door shielded for neutrons and photons at the outer maze entrance. A typical door consists of a steel case 0.635 cm thick containing 10.2 cm of borated polyethylene (5% B by weight) and a 1.27 cm lead slab. The polyethylene is used to moderate the fast and intermediate energy neutrons, which react with the boron ant produce a 0.473 MV photon. The lead is placed after the polyethylene, where it will attenuate the photons produced in the boron and any capture gamma rays generated in the maze by neutron capture in the concrete walls, ceiling and floor. Method was developed by Kersey (1979).

Kersey Technique

Neutron dose equivalent Ho at 1.41 m from the target per unit dose of x- ray at the isocenter ( mSv/Gy X) x(mSv/Gy Accelerator manufacturer Varian Model (MV) 1800 1800 1800 KD MD SLSL- 25 SLSL- 20 43 43 41 41 Stated MV 18 15 10 20 15 25 20 25 18 15 12 Beam Ho* 16.8 U U 16.5 U 22.0 17.0 18.5 14.0 12.5 11.2 Reference

T H = Ho To

do d 1

d 2 / 5 10

H is the neutron dose equivalent at the entrance of the maze per maze unit dose of x- ray at the isocenter. xHo is the neutron dose equivalent at a distance do from the target. T/To is the ratio of the outer maze area to the inner maze entrance entrance area. d1 is the distance from the isocenter to the point on the maze center line from which the isocenter is just visible. For a maze with one bend, d2 is the distance from A to B of Figure 5.1. TVD is the tenth value distance = 5 m for neutrons.

Siemens Philips GE Saturne

1.021.02- 1.60 Unpublished 0.790.79- 1.30 Unpublished 0.04 Unpublished 1.101.10- 1.24 McGinley 1988 0.17 Unpublished 2.00 McGinley et al 0.44 1993 1.38 Fenn and 0.55 McGinley 1995 0.32 0.09

*Ho in mSv/Gy x U = unknown

T d 1 H = H o o 10 d 2 / 510 d 3 / 5 d To 1 3
Distance d3 is equivalent to distance between points B and B C of Figure 5.1. The neutron dose equivalent a the door will depend on the collimator opening and gantry angle.

11

Relative neutron and photon dose equivalent at the outer maze entrance as a function of beam direction*. Beam direction based on Figure 5.1. Stated Energy (MeV) 18 15

Capture Gamma Ray Shielding

Most linac room have a leaded door designed to attenuate the scattered x rays from the treatment room into the maze. For high- energy x- rays beams, there is a need to shield for highxcapture gamma- rays produced in the maze. The average of the gammacapture gamma- rays in concrete is 3.6 MeV. gamma A method was devised by McGinley et al (1995b) to determine the dose due to the capture gamma- ray per unit dose of x ray at gammathe isocenter.

Relative neutron dose equivalent 1 to 3 3 to 1 up down 0.68 1.17 0.74 1.00 0.83 1.20 1.09 1.00

Relative photon dose equivalent 1 to 3 3 to 1 up down 0.75 1.13 0.89 1.00 0.88 1.25 0.90 1.00

The average neutron energy at the maze entrance has been reported reported to be around 100 keV, and the corresponding TVL in polyethylene is 4.5 cm (NCRP 1984).

D = Ktotal10 d 2 / TVD2
where K is the ratio of the capture gamma dose to the total neutron fluence at point A in Figure 5.1 Based on experimental data, an average value of 0.77x10- 12 cm2 G y was found for K. 0.77x10The TVD2 is approximately 6.2 m for 16.2 to 22 MV x ray beams.

Radiation dose equivalent rate due to capture gamma rays and neutrons at the outer maze entrance Type of Capture gamma maze and dose equivalent door rate ( nSv/s) (nSv/s) Conventional 38.8 a. Reduced inner opening 17.5 b. Inner B door 12.7 c. Inner poly door 6.9 Neutron dose equivalent rate ( nSv/s) (nSv/s) 116.3 38.8 31.9 10.2 Total N+g rate ( nSv/s) (nSv/s) 166.1 56.3 44.6 17.1 Total radiation dose equivalent at the outer maze entrance for a workload of 500 cGy per week and a maze length of 6.5 m. Type of Photon dose maze and equivalent/w door ( cSv ) cSv) Conventional 0.0250 a. No door 0.0105 b. Inner B door 0.0077 c. Inner poly door 0.0041 Neutron dose equivalent/w ( cSv ) cSv) 0.0710 0.0246 0.0187 0.0058 Total dose equivalent/w ( cSv ) cSv) 0.0960 0.0351 0.0264 0.0099

The maze length is 6.5 m and the dose rate at the isocenter is 6.67 6.67 cGy/s. cGy/s. The reduce inner opening (a) was done with a 45.7 cm thick wall around the inner opening which was 1.22x2.13 m. A panel 7 mm thick containing 8.9% boron by weight was used in t he technique b. A 5 cm thick polyethylene (5% boron) door was used for technique c.

Direct Shielded Doors

Figure 5.3 and 5.4

Maximum dose equivalent rates at the sliding door, console, and gonad levels below the HVAC penetration. Dose equivalent rate Neutron Photon Total Beam direction Location ( nSv/s) ( nSv/s) nSv/s) nSv/s) ( nSv/s) nSv/s) Down door face 0.94 0.89 1.83 door frame 1.64 3.31 4.95 below HVAC <0.20 1.09 <1.29 console <0.20 0.33 <0.53 Up door face 1.06 0.64 1.70 door frame 1.39 3.06 4.45 below HVAC <0.20 1.09 <1.29 console <0.20 0.33 <0.53 Down door face 2.86 0.67 3.53 door frame 2.06 3.31 5.37 below HVAC <0.20 1.09 <1.29 console <0.20 0.33 <0.53

12

Maximum dose equivalent expected in any one hour of operation, in seven consecutive days, and in one year. Location Total dose equivalent One hour Seven Days ( mSv ) mSv) ( mSv ) mSv) 1.06 17.4 1.77 38.7 0.97 9.5 <0.17 <4.0

Laminate Primary Shield

Primary ceiling shield for 18 MV accelerator facility Accelerator Layer No. Shielding Thickness material (m) Varian 2100C 1 concrete 0.305 2 lead 0.203 3 polyethylene 0.178 4 concrete 0.305 5 lead 0.051 6 concrete 0.114

Door face Door frame Below HVAC Console

Annual ( mSv ) mSv) 870 1930 475 <200

Patient Neutron Dose

One linac room with a 14 cm steel slab in one wall Another linac room with a 20 cm lead slab in one wall Both 18 MV Lead increased the total body dose by 42% Steel increased the total body dose by 10% For TBI lead increased the total body dose by a factor of 2.3 and 1.2 for steel.

Skyshine

B XS = 4.02 x10 6 B XS = D= ds = d1 = D1O = =

D( d1 ds ) 2 D1 O 1 .3

Skyshine

Roof shielding transmission ratio Photon dose equivalent rate at ground level ( nSv/s) nSv/s) Distance (m) from isocenter to point where dose equivalent rate is D Distance (m) from x ray target to a point 2 m above the roof X ray dose rate at 1 m from target ( cGy/s) (cGy/s) Solid angle of radiation beam ( steradians

13

B NS = 1.19 x10 6 B NS = H= d1 = 0 = =

Hd12 0

Measured and calculated x- ray skyshine for an 18 MeV accelerator xwith no ceiling shield Distance from isocenter ds Ratio (meters) 7.5 (at wall) 9.4 10.6 13.6 19.2 25.4 33.0 48.3

Measured photon rate ( nSv/s) (nSv/s) 13.9 31.2 41.7 43.7 27.8 20.8 15.3 6.9

Calculated photon m/c 0.25 0.88 1.5 2.5 3.3 4.2 5.3 5.3

Roof shielding transmission ratio

Neutron dose equivalent rate at ground level ( nSv/s) nSv/s) Distance (m) from x-ray target to a point 2 m above the roof Neutron fluence rate at 1 m from target (cm- 2 s-1 ) Solid angle of radiation beam ( steradians

rate ( nSv/s) (nSv/s) 56.2 35.4 26.9 17.4 8.3 4.9 2.9 1.3

Measured neutron skyshine for an 18 MeV accelerator with no ceiling shield Distance from isocenter ds Measured neutron dose equivalent rate (meters) (nSv/s) nSv/s) 5.14 19 8.50 58 11.2 52 14.3 42 17.3 36 18.9 29 20.8 23

Considerations for Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT)

IMRT requires increased monitor units per cGy at isocenter v Typical IMRT ratio is 5 MU per cGy, as high as 10 for some systems Percent workload with IMRT impacts shielding v 50% typically assumed; 100% if vault is dedicated to IMRT Account for IMRT by multiplying x-ray leakage by IMRT factor v IMRT Factor = % IMRT x IMRT ratio + (1 - % IMRT) v 3 is typical IMRT factor (50% workload with IMRT ratio of 5) IMRT factor lower for neutrons if machine is dual energy v e.g., 1.5 if dual energy linac with 50% of treatments below 10 MV

Simulator

K UX =

Pd

WUT P(d sec)2600I B= WT N = 3.32 log1 0(1 / B) KUX =

W is in milliamperes x minutes Radiography 160 Fluoroscopy 300 CT 3200

S L = N (HVL ), HVL = 0.28 mmlead for125 kV x rays P 2 2 400 d sca d sec aWT F
30 45 60 90 120 135 0.0018 0.0015 0.0015 0.0015 0.0023 0.0025

Patient scattering coefficient (a) for 125 kV x- ray from NCRP No. 49 rayfrom Angle( deg) Angle( deg ) a

14

CT Isodose (horizontal)

CT Isodose (vertical)

Gy/slice

Gy/slice

120 kV, 130 mA, 1.5 s

120 kV, 130 mA, 1.5 s

Transmission in Steel for CT Transmission in Concrete for CT

Bux

mm mm

Transmission in Lead for CT

Bux

Transmission in plaster for CT

Bux

Bux

mm

mm

15

HDR

WT W = fAt = 0.48 R / Ci / h / m f = 0.96cGy / R A = activity (Ci ) t = time

B=

Pd

Brachytherapy Rooms
B= Pd
2

LDR Brachytherapy

0 .80 f A

= gamma factor f = 0.96cGy / R A = activity (mCi)

Shielding LAB (homework)

end

v Shielding calculation for a Linac room for regular work and considering IMRT v Shielding calculation for a CT room (simulator)

16