Materials Final Review

General Terms Composition: Chemical makeup of a material Structure: arrangement of atoms Microstructure: Structure of the material of the material at the microscopic scale Thermal conductivity: ability to conduct heat Yield strength: stress needed for noticeable onset of plastic deformation Maximum tensile strength occurs only on an engineering stress-strain curve and it is the point when necking begins to become a bigger factor than the strain hardening Necking concentrates stress on a metal by reducing the cross sectional area Necking strengthens polymers by aligning the fibers with the applied force Toughness: area under the curve of a stress-strain diagram, energy required to break the material o Small toughness in ceramics as they dont display any plastic deformation o Large toughness in metals that have plastic deformation and medium tensile strength o Small toughness in polymers which are unreinforced as they have a very low tensile strength and plastically deform a lot Hardness is the resistance to plastic deformations in compression Ductility is the plastic strain at failure, if this is high the material can plastically deform a lot

Atomic Bonding Interatomic spacing is the energy well graph Force vs Distance graph shows the elastic modulus Second derivative of the bottom of the energy well is the elastic modulus of the material Stress-strain graph has the slope of the elastic modulus Once plastic deformation begins, if the material is released it will travel back down the same slope to zero where plastic strain can be measured Amorphous: only short-range atomic arrangements, with a random arrangement on the long range Crystalline: both short and long range order are present in the atomic order Allotropes: Elements that can be made from the same material but have different material properties Polymorphic: Compounds exhibiting more than one type of crystal structure Large electronegativity means that there is a high tendency to acquire electrons Metallic, covalent, and ionic bonds are primary while van der waals bonds are secondary Metallic bonding forms a sea of electrons surrounding the atoms o This promotes good electrical conductivity because there isnt a band gap between the conduction and valence bands o Ductility is good because the bonds are non-directional Covalent bonding is the formation of a bond by sharing a valence electron among two or more atoms of similar electronegativity o There is a directional relationship formed when they are covalently bonded which results in the materials being strong and hard but show low ductility Ionic bonding is when more than one type of atom is present in a material, one atom may donate its valence electrons to a different atom o Forms a cation: positive charge and an anion: negative charge o The opposing ions are attracted to each other to produce an ionic bond Relative strengths: o Ionic is the strongest and is typically ceramics (non-directional) o Covalent is variable strength and is directional bonds (semiconductors, ceramics, polymers) o Metallic is variable strength and is non-directional bonds (metals) o Secondary are smallest strength and have directional bonds (inter-chain polymers) Coefficients of Thermal expansion o Polymers, metals, ceramics (large - small) o Opposite of the relative bond strengths. As bond strength increases coefficient of thermal expansion decreases

Crystal Structures Short-Range order is an arrangement that extends only to the atoms nearest neighbor Long-Range order is an arrangement that extends through the material o Found in metals, alloys, ceramics, and some polymers Crystalline materials have lower energies since they are packed closer and have shorter interatomic bond lengths Unit cell is the smallest repetitive volume which contains the complete lattice pattern of the crystal Basis is the arrangement of lattice sites Simple Cubic is rare due to low packing density, close packed directions are cube edges, with 6 nearest neighbors coordination number is 6, one atom per unit cell Atomic Packing Factor is the volume of the atoms vs total volume of the cell, this is used to see how much space is taken up by atoms and how much is air Body Centered Cubic atoms touch each other along cube diagonals, coordination number is 8 and there are 2 atoms per unit cell Face Centered Cubic atoms touch each other along face diagonals, coordination number is 12, there are 4 atoms per unit cell Maximum APF is FCC and it is 74%, SC has 52%, and BCC has 68% Single crystals have anisotropic properties as they have slip planes that they deform on most easily Polycrystalline have isotropic properties as they are averaged over many different directional grains to produce a seemingly equal properties on any orientation How to determine point locations o 1. Vector repositioned (if necessary) to pass through origin. o 2. Read off projections in terms of unit cell dimensions a, b, and c o 3. Adjust to smallest integer values o 4. Enclose in square brackets, no commas [hkl] Families of directions are denoted by <hkl> Linear Density is the number of atoms, over the length of the direction vector in the unit cell Crystallographic plane indices o 1. Read off intercepts of plane with axes in terms of a, b, c o 2. Take reciprocals of intercepts o 3. Reduce to smallest integer values o 4. Enclose in parentheses, no commas i.e., (hkl) Family of planes is denoted by {hkl} o {100} = (100),(010),(001),(-100),(0-10),(00-1) ** note values should have the bar over the number not in front of it Planar density is the atoms in the 2D repeat unit, over the total area of the repeat unit

Dislocations and Imperfections Imperfections and dislocations lower strength of materials from their theoretical value to the effective value Dislocations are only possible if there is long range order, ie crystalline materials There is no slip in the elastic range, therefore there is no dislocation motion unless bonds are broken which means you are in the plastic range Hardness is related to dislocation induction through plastic deformation measured by an indenter Vacancy, interstitial, substitutional are point defects Dislocations (edge and screw) are line defects Grain boundaries Area Defect Frenkel defects are extra atoms shoved into a lattice Schottky defects are 2 holes created to maintain charge neutrality in an ionic material Edge dislocation the perfect crystal is cut and an extra half-plane of atoms are inserted which results in an edge dislocation Burgers vector is required to close the loop of equal atom spacing around the edge dislocation Screw dislocation Perfect crystal is cut and sheared one atom spacing away, along this line is a screw dislocation where a burgers vector is necessary to close the loop Dislocation motion when a shear stress is applied to the dislocation and the atoms are displaced, the dislocation moves one burgers vector in the slip direction o Continued movement of the dislocation creates a step and the crystal is deformed which is plastic deformation Slip plane contains both the dislocation line and the Burgers vector, preferential slip direction, usually contains the highest planar density and large interplanar spacing Slip direction direction of movement, highest linear density FCC slip system is {111} plane and the <110> direction Ionically bonded materials dont typically slip because this requires atoms of like charge to pass each other which isnt favorable o Ceramics are ionically bonded, this is why they are too brittle to slip Peierls-Nabarro stress [] the stress required to move the dislocation from one equilibrium position to the next o is the angle of the applied load to the normal stress; is the direction of the applied load to the slip plane Surface defects grain boundaries lead to areas with surface energy o Twin boundaries, Stacking faults, domain boundaries, small angle grain boundaries Dislocations interfere with electrical, optical, and magnetic properties adversely, as dislocation content increases in a material its electrical conductivity decreases, and optical properties are reduced

Diffusion and Atomic movement Diffusion net flux of atoms moving through the material so differences in concentration are minimized Interdiffusion atoms of different type migrate from regions of high concentration to regions of lower concentration, effectively mixing the materials Activation energy is higher for substitutional atoms than it is for interstitial atoms because higher energy is required to squeeze atoms past one and other since substitutional are typically larger than the interstitial Diffusion rate increases with temperature increase Interstitial diffusion occurs much faster than substitutional or vacancy due to the lower activation energy required Diffusion is faster in less densely packed structures with secondary bonding

Mechanical Properties Elastic deformation is the stretching of bonds, when the stress is released they go back to their original position Plastic deformation is the planes slipping causing them to hold their new configuration once the stress is released Engineering stress relies on the original cross sectional area, therefore it reduces with the onset of necking although the material is getting stronger Engineering strain dimensionless relation between change in length over the original length Modulus of elasticity is defined at zero strain Poisons ratio is the lateral strain over the axial strain As temperature increases maximum engineering stress decreases while the material is more ductile, the material becomes tougher o Yield strength and Tensile strength decrease while elongation increases o Elastic modulus changes due to the interatomic spacing, and bond strength differences Ductile to brittle transition temperature is where a material acts brittle below a certain temperature but ductile above it True stress-strain accounts for the changing cross sectional area of the material and thus displays a constantly increasing curve because the material is getting stronger as the cross sectional area is decreasing Ductile fracture is accomplished by significant plastic deformation, and is failure by internal shear Brittle fracture is accomplished by little to no plastic deformation, it is a cohesive failure of a crack propagating through the material o Leaves a flower pattern called Chevron from the crack propagation point o Fracture along intergranular, between the grains o Fracture through the grains transgranular Flaws are areas of stress concentration which is where cracks typically form and propagate o Fracture toughness refers to the ability of a material to withstand a load with a flaw Fatigue is failure under repeated stresses, initiates at the surface of a part and is responsible for 90% of mechanical engineering failures Increasing temperature causes materials to creep more Annealing after cold working o First is Recovery which is where dislocations are aligned which increases the electrical conductivity of the material o Next is Recrystallization where new stress free grains form, smaller than the original through nucleation at the narrow radii of the elongated grains Recrystallization is the temperature required for the material to completely recrystallize in one hour. Boundary between hot and cold working the material o Finally Grain growth is the growth of the new stress free grains, where larger grains grow from the absorption of smaller ones

Hot working o Deformation above the recrystallization temperature o Flow stress is low and elongation is higher as dislocations are annealed away as they are formed o No strengthening of the material

Strengthening Mechanisms Strain hardening cold work o Increases strength by inducing dislocations into the grains, these dislocations impede dislocation motion which increases strength o Increases yield strength, and ultimate tensile strength while reducing ductility o Strain hardening exponent is higher on materials that are more ductile o Higher strain rate exponent M results in a greater resistance to necking Solid-solution strengthening (alloying) o Intentionally introducing substitutional or interstitial atoms into the lattice which increase stress within the lattice, impeding dislocation motion Grain size reduction o Increases strength by blocking dislocation motion with grain boundaries through the misalignment of slip planes Dispersion strengthening o Uniform of coherent, small precipitates in a more ductile matrix increases strength o Exceeding the solubility limit causes this second phase to be present in the material o Precipitate must be coherent and form a definite relationship between the crystal structure and the matrix which increases stress in the lattice o Precipitation hardening Age hardening Heat to solution treat the solution to get a solid solution alpha Quench to retain the supersaturated solid solution Reheat to nucleate small dispersant particles throughout the matrix Requirements Must display decreasing solid solubility with decreasing temperature Must be quenchable Matrix should be relatively soft and ductile and the precipitate should be hard and brittle A coherent precipitate must form o Eutectic Intermetallic compounds are strong but brittle, cementite is an intermetallic compound Smaller lamellar spacing increases strength of the material Eutectic composition has the highest tensile strength while hyper and hypo eutectic alloys have lower gains Martensitic Strengthening o Increases strength by a non-uniform contraction to BCT by trapping carbon within the crystal structure by not allowing diffusion of the atoms out Known Relationships o Decreased size of dispersion leads to increased strength o Uniform dispersion throughout the grain increases strength Not at grain boundaries

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Spherical dispersant to prevent cracking increases strength Harder dispersant in a softer more ductile matrix increases strength

Solidification Nucleation are seeds which act as templates for crystal growth, rate of addition of atoms to nucleus must be faster than the rate of loss Supercooling drives nucleation as the energy to form a solid is lower than to stay liquid, or different phase of solid Large supercooling leads to smaller crystals as nucleation is favored over grain growth Homogeneous nucleation spherical nucleus forming within the bulk of that material o Free energy is dependent of surface area and volume of the nuclei o Requires significant supercooling Heterogeneous nucleation o Energy to nucleate on a surface is lower than for a sphere therefore it is easier to nucleate heterogeneously than homogeneously o Nucleating surface is at a mold wall, impurity, or grain boundary o Less supercooling is required Kinetics: the relationship between nucleation and growth, reason that the TTT diagram has its shape Growth reduces the system energy once the embryo forms Rapid cooling results in finer dendrites and smaller arm spacing

Solid Solutions Phase: any portion of a system which is physically homogeneous within itself and bounded by a surface Components: pure materials or compounds that are present Solubility: The amount of one material that will completely dissolve in a second without creating a second phase Unlimited solubility: A second material will dissolve into the first without creating a second phase regardless of the amount added o Nickel and Copper Gibbs phase rule: o P+F=C+N o P: number of phases o F: number of degrees of freedom o C: number of components o N: number of non-compositional variables (temp and pressure) Solution: Solid, liquid, or gas in a single phase Mixture: solid, liquid, or gas in multiple phases As temperature increases the solubility limit increases For solid solubility the components must be of similar radii, electronegativity, crystal structure, and valence electrons Solid solutions are either interstitial or substitutional, this adds stress on the lattice therefore strengthening the material o Increased size difference or alloy concentration causes the strength to increase more Through solid solution strengthening: yield strength, creep resistance, and tensile strength are improved while electrical conductivity and ductility are reduced Isomorphous: complete solubility of one component in another, wt% ranges from 0 to 100 Composition of each phase is the wt% of the alloying ingredient o In a region of 2 phases they are equal to the liquidus or solidus lines composition Weight fraction is the relative weight of one to another o Use the tie lines to divide by the total difference in composition to determine o This is a percentage In a region of liquid + alpha the greatest strength is achieved in the greatest difference in phase regions For an isomorphic alloy freezing temperature is a range based on the latent heat of fusion being removed, not an isothermal hold Non-equilibrium solidification leads to shells around a central nucleation, this is due to the difference in solidus temperature required for solidification at nonequilibrium cooling rates o Composition gradient across the gains due to changing composition through cooling Microstructure is the pictures in the circles that show what the material would look like during each step in cooling

Cooling curve of an isomorphous alloy

Steel Composition = wt% C Amount = Wx % Microconstituents = proeutectoid, and eutectoid Phase = ferrite, austenite, cementite Ferrite () an interstitial solid solution of carbon in BCC iron o Maximum solubility (0.0218 wt% C) Austenite () an interstitial solid solution of carbon in FCC iron o Maximum solubility of (2.11 wt% C) Cementite (Fe3C) a stoichiometric intermetallic compound of iron and carbon o Composition (6.67 wt% C) Pearlite: The eutectoid microconstituent o Composition (0.77 wt% C) Eutectoid transformation forms pearlite as its microconstituent o Coarse pearlite with large Interlamellar spacing is formed at high temperatures which is relatively soft pearlite high temperatures so that growth is favored o Fine pearlite forms with small Interlamellar spacing is formed at lower temperatures and its relatively hard pearlite low temperatures so that nucleation is favored Controlling the eutectoid o Amount of the eutectoid microconstituent o Prior austenitic grain size The new grains will form within the old ones therefore if the grains are initially small the resulting eutectoid grains will also be small o Cooling rate and the transformation temperature By cooling at lower temperatures finer pearlite can be formed which increases strength Isothermal Transformation Diagrams (TTT) o Curves which show the start and finish of different microconstituents o Important because they show the effects of kinetics instead of a phase diagram that only shows equilibrium and slow cooling times Off-eutectoid alloys form at the grain boundaries as they enter the single to multiple phase region Once the eutectoid temperature is reached the remaining initial phase will transform to the eutectoid microconstituent while the second phase will be the proeutectoid microconstituent Bainite is elongated Fe3C particles in a ferrite matrix, it forms because the lamellae in pearlite would be too fine to be favorable Spheroidite: microstructure of steel, heating Bainite or pearlite just below the eutectoid for long period of time forms spherical cementite particles in a ferrite matrix Martensite: Non-equilibrium transformation product where carbon interferes with a phase transformation from FCC to BCT

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Diffusionless transformation must be quenched rapidly to achieve Strongest and hardest that steel can be, but extremely brittle Must be tempered to allow growth of small cementite particles to increase toughness but reduces strength 1060 is plain carbon steel with 0.6 wt% C Austenitizing: heating a steel to allow for a homogeneous austenite phase to form Annealing: heating a steel for a full anneal, cooling in a furnace to form coarse pearlite Normalizing: heating a steel to austenitize it, then cooling in air to form a fine pearlite Spherodizing: Heating below the eutectoid temperature for a long time to form coarse spheroidal cementite particles in a ferrite matrix Increasing the carbon content increases the yield and tensile strength and reduces ductility Increasing the carbon content increases the hardenability as the nose is shifted to the right which allows more time or martensite to form Adding alloying ingredients can form a bay region in the TTT diagram which allows Bainite to be formed through simple cooling without an isothermal hold Ausforming: deformations done to the material within the bay region of the TTT diagram then allowed to transform to Bainite or martensite Air, oil, water listed in increasing quenching speed and hardness

Nonferrous Alloys Specific strength is strength over density O Annealed, H Cold Worked, W Solution Treated, T Age hardened o Increasing strength of increasing x in Tx and Hx Wrought alloys can be plastically deformed where cast alloys are to be melted and poured Refractory Metals begin to oxidize between 200 and 425 and are rapidly contaminated and embrittled, they display a ductile to brittle transition temperature

Ceramics and Glasses Ceramics are crystalline, inorganic, considered a combination of metallic and non-metallic atom, typically form ionic bonds, and are categorized as oxides, nitrides, and carbides Cation size must just fit or be larger than the space in between the anions to be stable Hydroplasticity of clay, water molecules can fit in between layered sheets which when external force is applied they are free to move past each other Drying: water is removed which causes the interparticle spaces to decrease leading to shrinkage of the part Firing, makes Vitrification fuse clay and flux in SiO2 Sintering reduces pore size, by diffusion forming of particles together Ceramics are typically weak in tension because they contain inherent porosity which causes stress concentrations through the material and lots of sites for crack growth Apparent porosity: are the pores that can be reached by a viscous flow on the surfaces True porosity is the total porosity in the material, those that can be reached from the surface and the internal pores Glasses are the amorphous form of ceramics Crystalline materials have melting temperatures, which is the point where the crystal structure is fully broken down, since glasses are amorphous and dont have a crystal structure to begin with the melting temperature is a level of viscosity Glasses have a glass transition temperature which is where the material transitions from acting in a ductile manner above, to a brittle manner below it. This is due to the bonds not being allowed to rotate in the chains Glass transition temperature can be seen on a specific volume vs temp graph as a slope change Low viscosity means that it is liquid and can flow Limitation of glasses are in that surface flaws are easy to create and are detrimental to the strength of the material Tempering of glasses puts the surface in compression by cooling the surface quicker than the center which when the center shrinks upon cooling it pulls on the surface to place it in compression o When a force is applied to the material the compressive force must first be overcome before the crack can be pulled open in tension Glass-ceramics have a high degree of crystallinity but are not fully crystalline o The results are tough, thermal shock resistant materials Ceramics dont have slip systems because they dont have crystalline structure, and they resist motion of ions of like charge past one and other In semicrystalline ceramics slip is possible but is resisted by ions of like charge that must pass, this also causes the burgers vector between equilibrium positions to be much larger

Polymers Poly (many) mer (repeat unit) considered macromolecules Monomer molecule from which a polymer is formed (this is the mer unit) Oligomer low molecular weight molecules that contain two (dimers) or three (triers) mers Wood, cotton, leather, rubber, wool, silk are considered natural polymers Linear molecules are long chains with only secondary bonding linking them together Branched molecules have branches of primarily bonded chains off the main chain and increases mechanical interlocking Cross-linked chains have primary bonds formed between chains which increases their strength but also prevents recycling because the whole molecule melts at the same temperature Thermoplastics: polymers with linear or branched molecules that can be recycled by heating to break the secondary bonds, this allows them to be reshaped and then cooled o Polyethylene Thermosets: polymers with cross-linked chains which are stronger and require a chemical reaction to cure which sets the primary bonds between chains and they cannot be recycled o Polyurethane Elastomers: partially cross-linked polymers that allow the material to uncoil under stress and pull them back to the original shape once the stress is removed o Rubber Polymers are composed of hydrocarbons, saturated for example ethane C2H6 Polymerizing can be done by addition or condensation o Addition (chain) is where an end bond is broken then allowed to propagate then is terminated by another end o Condensation (step) is where one group is reacted with another to form a polymer but results in a byproduct of alcohol Molecular weight, is the mass of a mole of chains o Low molecular weight have short chains, and high molecular weight have long chains As molecular weight or degree of polymerization increases the tensile strength, creep resistance, impact toughness, wear resistance, and melting temperature all increase Addition of side groups make it more difficult for the chains to rotate, uncoil, disentangle, and deform by viscous flow when a stress is applied o Increasing complexity causes this result to be amplified Tacticity is the stereoregularity or special arrangement of side groups added to a chain o Isotactic all side groups are on the same side of a chain o Syndiotactic side groups alternate sides on the chain o Atactic side groups are randomly positioned in the chain o Atactic is the most difficult to crystallize, followed by syndiotactic, then isotactic is the easiest to crystallize Crystallinity is formed in terms of unit cells, and are formed by folding a chain into a repeating order

Polymers are rarely 100% crystalline therefore crystallinity is a % crystallinity Copolymers are formed by two or more monomers polymerized together o Random A and B randomly through the chain o Alternating A and B alternate through the chain o Block A and B are alternating in large blocks of each o Graft chains of A are grafted onto a B back bone ABS is a copolymer blend of styrene and butadiene in a linear copolymer and styrene and acrylonitrile, these two are alloyed together to improve toughness Liquid polymers allow translation and rotation of bonds and chains If a crystalline polymer forms: chain movement is difficult and a melting temperature exists If an amorphous polymer forms: movement of chains is possible under stress by rotation, a glass transition temperature is present, no real melting temperature Glassy amorphous polymer is below the glass transition temperature where there is no easy rotation or translation of polymer chains THERMOPLASTICS ONLY Increasing strain rate or decreasing temperature have a similar effect on a polymer, as strain rate increases there isnt time allowed for the chains to rotate or slip which causes them to be more brittle, decreasing temperature makes it more difficult for chains to rotate or translate which has the same effect of brittle properties Crystalline solids only have a melting temperature with constant sloping specific volume over temperature Semicrystalline solids have both a melting and glass transition temperature, there is a slop change at the glass transition temperature where the amorphous region allows rotation while the crystalline structure exists until the melting temperature is reached Amorphous solids have only a glass transition temperature where the slope changes and the viscosity decreases Complex side groups increase the melting and glass transition temperatures Strain relaxation: strain in tension and hold, observe decrease in stress with time caused by the chains adjusting to a lower stress state through rotation, only occurs when temperature is above the glass transition temperature In a tensile test, necking propagates across the entire length as this is the strongest portion of the material due to an alignment of the polymer chains with the applied load

Composites Constituents remain discretely separate Interfacial properties between constituents affects performance Whiskers are single crystals, dendritic Anisotropic: properties are different depending on the direction Inhomogeneous: properties are different at different points in the material Matrix is to transfer stress to the dispersed phases, and protect the dispersed fibers from the environment Dispersed phase is different depending on the classification o MMC (metal metal comp.) to increase yield strength, creep resistance, o CMC (ceramic metal comp.) to increase K1C which is resistance to cracking o PMC (polymer metal comp.) to increase elastic modulus, yield strength tensile strength Rule of mixtures o Strain is equal for both materials o Stress is equal to the combination of the stress in each of the components weighed by their volume fraction o Modulus is equal to the combination of the moduli of the components weighted by their volume fraction Ceramic Metal Composites bonding between the dispersant and the matrix should be weak to allow for crack blunting but absorption of energy as the bond breaks Polymer Metal Composites bonding between the dispersant and the matrix should be strong because the fibers are in place to take the applied stress and the matrix is to transfer stress to the fibers

Electronic Materials Superconductors exhibit zero resistance at low temperatures Resistivity is a function of area and current Conductivity is the inverse of resistivity Charge carriers o Metallic: electrons are the charge carriers, the shorter the mean free path the higher the conductivity of the material. Heating the material increases the mean free path, which reduces conductivity o Covalent: bonds must be broken for an electron to move, impurities can be added to serve as charge carriers o Ionic: Ions may diffuse by vacancy diffusion Energy band gap is the difference between the energy levels, in conduction the importance is a gap between the valence and conduction band o Smaller band gap increases conductivity metals have effectively zero band gap o Insulators have a very large band gap and to push charge carriers up to the conduction band the material itself breaks down o Semiconductors: have dopants added to the material to create donor/acceptor energy states which make it easier to promote charge carriers to the conduction band and therefor they exhibit increasing conduction with added temperature Free electrons have negative charge and are in the conduction band Holes have positive charge and are in the valence band These move at different speeds, or drift velocities Large electronegativity difference increases the energy gap Extrinsic semiconductors o N-type semiconductors are extra valence electrons which are easily donated Saturation when all extra valence are donated o P-type semiconductors are missing a valence electron which easily accept electrons Exhaustion when all missing holes are filled Intrinsic semiconductors have the same number of holes as they do free electrons n = p P-n rectifying junction: when the extra electrons are on the negative side current will flow as the holes and electrons move toward the junction

Magnetism Magnetic moments arise from electron motions and spin Ferromagnetic, ferrimagnetic, paramagnetic, diamagnetic are the main types of magnetism o Ferromagnetic has all poles aligned in a single direction o Ferrimagnetic has all poles in the same axis but some point in opposing directions o Paramagnetic has poles which are randomly oriented o Diamagnetic has poles which are separated by 45 deg angles (negative inductance) Magnetic responses o Ferro and ferri are already aligned with no applied field, when there is a field this alignment increases o Paramagnetic has random poles with no applied field, when there is a field they align o Diamagnetic has no poles with no applied field, when there is a field they oppose the field The curie temperature is where ferro and ferri magnetics act as paramagnetic with a random pole orientation There are typically different magnetic domains within grain boundaries Domains can be aligned in a certain way for ferro and ferri magnetics through exposure to a magnetic field Hysteresis phenomenon in permanent magnetics o Applied field aligns domains, once the field is gone the alignment remains, coercivity is the field required to demagnetize the material Hard magnets have large coercivities, they are used for permanent magnets Soft magnets have small coercivities and have little losses from switching polarization which make them ideal for electric motors and computer components By decreasing grain size magnetic storage media can hold more information

Thermal

Corrosion and Wear Oxidation and reduction reactions are required to corrode materials Oxidation is the addition of electrons / material Reduction is the loss of electrons / material Anode undergoes an oxidation reaction which donates ions Cathode undergoes reduction reaction which accepts ions The smaller the Vometal is the more likely it is to corrode as the anode Galvanic series, ranking reactivity of metals in sea water Ellingham diagram shows the standard free energy of formation for an oxide, this shows how likely metals will react with oxygen at different temperatures

o Rate of corrosion or plating is given by Faradays equation

o Types of corrosion o Uniform, stress, erosion, pitting, crevice, galvanic, intergranular o Pitting is a downward propagation of small pits o Crevice is narrow and confines spaces o Galvanic is dissimilar metals that are physically joined in the presence of an electrolyte o Intergranular is corrosion along grain boundaries where free energy is higher Corrosion is accelerated by stress, concentration cells, and joints Corrosion is protected against by coatings, lower temperatures, inhibitors added to decrease reactivity by adding an element that will react more easily, cathodic protection sacrifices more anodic material to protect the other

Oxidation types can be formed depending on the volume of the oxide verses the volume of the metal o As this difference increases the oxide is more likely to flake off and be nonprotective o This is known as the pilling-bedworth ratio o If PB ratio is less than one oxide occupies a small volume which results in a coating that is porous and oxidation continues rapidly o If PB ratio is between one and two the size are similar and the oxide will be adherent, non-porous, and protective o If the PB ratio is larger than 2 the oxide is much larger and will flake off the surface exposing fresh material to continue oxidation