M

,

&

2008

.
...................................................................................................................... 0
........................................................................................................................... 3
H - . ..................................................................................... 7
To Giza. ..................................................................................... 7
To . ........................................................................................................ 8
. ................................................................................................ 9
. ................................................................................................... 11
.............................................................................................................. 11
. .................................................................................................................... 12
................................................................................................... 19
. (300 .. 415 ..) ....................................................... 28
. (287-212..) .............................................................. 28
. ............................................................................................... 41
, . 2 8 . . . ....................................................................... 43
. ........................................................................................................................... 43
. ........................................................................................................................... 50
. ....................................................................................................................... 54
................................................................................................... 56
13 . 15 . . . ....................................................................................... 62
. ................................................................................................................ 62
. 16 17 .......................................................................................... 67
. ............................................................................................................... 67
. ............................................ 74

17 - 18 ......................................................................................................... 82
............................................................................................................................ 84
, 17 ................................................................................................. 86
........................................................................................... 92
18 ................................................................................................... 94
. ............................................................................................................... 104
. .............................................. 109
. ................................................................................................ 109
. .............................................. 113
e. .................................................... 115
. .................................................... 119
...................... 123
. ........................................... 124
.............................................................. 130
. ....................................................................................... 132
. 20 ................................................ 137
.................................................. 147
. .............................................................. 147
Liouville; ..................................................................................... 149
; ................................................................................... 150
fractals.......................................................................... 155
Mandelbrot.......................................................................................... 155
Mandelbrot. ................................................................ 157

 , . ........................ 161
........................................................................................................................ 163
...................................................................................................... 165
. ................................................................................................................... 170
. ................................................................................................ 172
........................................................................................................ 173
. .................................................................................................................. 179
...................................................................................................................... 180

. (1872-1942)

To
. 2500
.
,
.

, , .

.

.

,
.
.
, ,

.
.
,
,
.
Giza, ,

. ,
,
. 5 . . . ,
,
,
. ,
,
,

.
1900 .
,

.
,
415 .
.
.
,
,
. 2 8
,
, .
15 . . ., .

.
13 . ,
,
.
,
.
,

 .

, .
16 ,
. , 17 ,

. , Vite
. 17
,
, Snellius,
Huygens, Descartes, Kochansky, Gelder .
,
,
Wallis .
, o Brouncker, o Gregory, o Liebniz
Newton. ,
,
,

.
18 ,
, Leonard Euler.
,
.
,

. ,
, uler
.
Laplace,
. , 18
Lambert Legendre, 19

 Lindemann. ,

.
20 .
, .
70
. 70
, .

. ,
Kanada 1.241.100.000.000 .
P.
Beckmann, A History of Pi,
70.
Loria
Boyer.
, Borwein.

H - .

.
Giza.

To Giza.
Giza
. 7
3000 . .,
1800 .. 4500 . . [60].
,
[7]. ,
, ,
. ,
,
,
,


.

.

,
[7]. O 3,1399667,
.

 , 3,1428571,
3

1
. 1853, . C. Agnew
7

[60]. 3

1
0,04%,
7

To .
,
950 . .,
932-800 . . [60], [21]. ,
7:23 4:2 [29], [20],
(1) .

,
, 3.
16 .. . 10 .
. . ,
.
Nehemiah
. 150 ..,
,
, , ,

3 1 . Nehemiah
7
1

. ,
( 4:5),
,
. (1135-1204)
,


3 1 .
7

. [22].

.
(448 385 . .) ,
414 ..
. 1001-1009 ,
,
, (2).
,
.

[60].

10

 .
.
,
.

.
,
.
= 3 . 1936 ,
200 ,
. ,
1950 [20],
.

57
36
+
60 (60)2

, 60
10).

,
2.

6r , r ,

. = 2 r ,

57
36
+
. ,
60 (60 )2

11

 = 3 18 = 3.125 ,
.

= 3.

.

.

,
Rhind Ahmes ( 3).
..Rhind,
.

3
84
.
Ahmes,
.

12

 1650 ..,

2000 1800 .. [20].

50
3.

: 1

.
[56], [20].
. d ,

2

1
8

E = d d = d . 4 .
9
9

13

 4
,
, E = 2 .

(8 9 )

( 9)

= 4 8

(8 9 ) .
2

3,16045 .

0,6% , .
3 1

3 1

3 1 , [20] (
7
3 1

3 1 ).
8

; Ahmes
48. 5
A. B. Chase [3]
.

.
.
.

14

 5
Ahmes, Vogel [3], [29], Vorgriechische Mathematik,

9
.
,
5 4
.
9

41

63 , 64. 64
8, 9 64
8,

( 9 ) .

50 = 4 8

E = d d . Ahmes ,
9

63 64 .

Struve [8]. ,

15

6 .

,
,

. ,

2,

2 2
=
= .

8
4 2 4

,
2

8
, = 4 . R. J. Gillings [3]
9
Mathematics in the times of the Pharaohs,
.
,
,
1 . ,
()
( 7) E = E .

16

 7
9 9 ()
8 8
().
(),
8 8

(). () ()

()
8 8 (), 1 1 ,
. ,
Gillings, ,
.
Gillings
2

E = d d .
9

17

 Rhind
,
. ,

256

81

, .

, .

18

 .
.


, ,
. ,
. To
, .
24 .

.
.

,
.
O (499-428 ..)

.
( 434 . .) -

.
.
O Rudio [34] Der Bericht des Simplicius ber die Quadraturen des
Antiphon und Hippokrates
,
,
. Heath [34] ,

,
.

19

 (~470 ..)
.

, .
,
.
,
.
[53]
[14] (6 . . .), o

,
, .
,
. [65]

. .2.

,
,
.

.
,
.

:
,
.

[65].
,

20

 . ,
,
[26].

,
,
8 [26].

.
,
, , .
.
. , , ,
.
2 = 2 + 2 ,
+ = ,
.

E = + + = + = E ,
.

,
.

9,
,

A

, , .

21

 ,
.
,
(~320 . .), (~200
. .), .

.

10 () ()

, 10 (),
,
.

.
( 10 ()) ,

.
.

, ,
, . . ,
.
, ,

.

22


.
.
,
, .
[16].
(430 ..),

.
17 . [50].

17 .
,
. ,
8-, 16-, ...

,
.
[34]
[14], . O

.


.


[14].
.
- ,
, (
),

23

 .
,
[26].
. ,
,
.
,
.2.
,
,
.
(~430 ..), ,

. [34]
, ,
.
.
. ,
,

,
.
(
).
.
[34].

.
. ,
.
O ,
3 4, .

24


: 15 IV, 8 IV 16
XII [16].


.
[34], o
,
,
, ,
.
[10]
,
.

. 11

(~425 ..),
.
,

25

,
(~335 ..)
( 11).
[10] :
. yy
,
. ,
. ,
xx
, .

, [8].
.

sin

2 (1) ,

= = .

2
.
sin

OA = y , tan =

y
2a

(2) (1)

y
y = x tan (3). (2) (3)
x

y
y = x tan
.
2 a

2a 2 a
,
. OE = lim 0
=
sin
2a

lim 0
.
= 1 . o = OE =

sin

26

2
2
=
=
.
2
2

. ,
,
[2], [13].


.
[6] .
E

1 3 2
=
=
.
2
4

[10], [8]
,
,
.
, ,
.

, .
,

.
, = 0,
.
,
.

.

27


.


.
, ,

, .
.

. (300 .. 415 ..)

(300 . .) (415 . .).

, ,
.
-,

-,

. (287-212..)
, .
,
.
,
,
,
.
.
, , ,

28

 , , ,
.
,
, .
,
.
, .

, .
[6], [13]:
1)

.
2)
11 14.
3)

.
E, L, R
,
[6]:
1) E =
2)

1
R L E = R 2 , L = 2R
2

E
1
11
11
2
2
=
E = (2 R ) E = (2 R ) , = 3
2
7
14
4
(2 R ) 14

3) 3

10
1
10
1
2R < L < 3 2R 3 < < 3
71
7
71
7

.. [6] ,
. ,

( 1) ,

( 2).

29


, 1 2 .
,
,
.

.
n ,
,
, 12.

.
12

6, 12, 24, 48 96 .
,
96 . ,
.
96

310

71

< <31 ,
7

30

 3,14084... < < 3,14285... [2], [13].

.
,
[2], [6], [13]. .

.

13 () ()

.
( 13 ()).
, 30

= 2 .

2

= 3 .
2

265
=
,
153

265
= 1,732026... ,
153
. ,
.

31

+ +

265
571

=
+

=
+2
=
.

153
153

,
.
, :

4673
153

1
2

96-,

1
1
4673
2
2 =
96 153 14688
4673

96-,

1
14688
2 96- .
=3
1
1
4673
4673
2
2
667

1
2 1 ,
, ,
1
7
4673
2
667

96-
3

1
.
7

1
.
7

.
( 13 ()).
30 ,

= 2 .
= 3.

32

1351
,
=
780

1351
= 1,732051... ,
780

.
,

:

+ +

1351

+

= 2+

780

2911
=
.

780

=
,

2911
=
.

780
2

9082321
2 2 + 2 2
2911
=
=
+1 =
.
+1 =
2
2
2
608400

780

3013(3 / 4)
=
.

780

9082321 , 3013

3
= 3013,75
4

3013,6889

.
, :

2017(1 4 )
,
66
96-,

2017(1 4 ) 2017(1 4)
=
, 96-,
66 96
6336
6336
, 96- .
2017(1 4 )

33

10
,
71

96-
3

10
.
71

10
1
< <3 .
71
7

,
[61] ( 14).
=

n-,
. n- i = 2r sin r
, n-
c = 2r tan . n i < C < n c

2r

n sin < < n tan .

n
k ,

( 2 ) < < 2 n sin ( 2 )

2 k n sin

(6),

k
.

n=6

sin = 1 , tan =
2

(6)

14

,
. k = 4 96

34

 , 310

71

< < 3 1 ,
7

( 2 ) = cot + cos ec

cot

( 2 ) = 1 + cot ( 2 ), cot( 2 )
cos ec( ) cot cos ec .
2
cos ec 2

3 265

153

, 12-

349450 153

591 1 153 . 96
8
10 .

, .
, [5] (60 ..)
,
ti

pantj kklou permetroj prj tn dimetron mezona mn lgon cei < n

cei> mka awoe prj m$ zuma, lssona d n cei[n] miq zwph prj m$ btna
ll' pe otoi o riqmo prj tj metrseij ok eqetosi, katabibzontai
ej lacstouj riqmoj, j tn kb prj t z.
,

211875 : 67441 < < 197888 : 62351 3,14163... < < 3,1738... ,

1896.
,
3 1

35

, 22

. Tannery

195882 : 62351 > > 211872 : 67441 3,1416016 > > 3,1415904 .
, = 3,141596 .
[2]
3, Pantj kklou permetroj tj diamtrou

triplaswn st ka ti percei lssoni mn bdmJ mrei tj diamtrou,

mezoni d dka bdomhkostomnoij.,
310

71

< < 3 1 , 3,140845... < < 3,142857...

7

3,1419.

. H


.
. ,

,
.


. [13] Estin d tde e

ka eqea gramm n pipdJ mnontoj to trou pratoj sotacwj

perienecqesa pokatastaq plin qen rmasen, ma d t gramm
periferomnv frhta ti sameon sotacwj
at aut kat tj eqeaj rxmenon
p to mnontoj pratoj, t sameon lika
gryei n t pipdJ.


,

36

15

 .
, ,
15,
.
. x,
. ,
.
, Ox,
= a ,
.
15 [20], ,
P
, R. OR
Q . [13]
R
PS , S
OU ( 20).
,
. = SOP = .
, = a
.
,
OR = 2 ( ) / ' ( ) . ' ( ) = a ,

16

OR = a 2 = p = arcPS .
=

, OU = 1 OT .
2

, OU 1

. OU = 1 2 OT 2OU
= .
4
OT

37

OUT

1 OU OT = 1 OT 1 OT = 1 OT 2 .
2
2
2
4

. 16

OU.
, ,
.
.

.

(30 ),

. o = 3

177
= 3,1416 .
1250

Paul Tannery Recherches sur lhistoire de lastronomie ancienne

= 3,1416 .

(87-165 ..) 317

38

120

3,1417), .
19 ,
.
,
.

39

 17

40

 .

,
.

415 . .
.
, 3,
4.
3

1
1
3 [16].
8
7

O (1 . ..)
4 12 1
, = 3,12 = 25

[22], [60], [8].

(91161 ..).
.
[12], [8],
3 8 30 .

3+ 8

60

+ 30

3600

3,1416 3,1417 [20], [8].

.
0,003 ,
.

. 1000
,
.
. 5 . ..

41

 3,1416 ,
.

(1 . . .), (3 . . .), ( 3 .
..)
.
,
, ..

.

42

, 2 8 . . .
,
,
,
,
2 8 . . .

.
.
12 .. . = 3 ,
1 . . ..
,
.
1122 . . 255 .., 200 .
. 200 . . 600 . ..
,

.

.
1 . . . Liu Hsiao = 3,1547 .

[60]. Chang Hng ( 78 139 . .)
- 2 . .. .
130 .. Ling Hsin
.
,
,

43

 5 8.

16

1,

Chang

Hng

= 5 = 10 . 3,162 [22].
8

, .

Wang Fan ( 219 257 ..). Chin

Sung

[52],

Wang Fan

142, 45.

= 3,156 .
3 . . . Liu Hui,

. 263 . . ,
. 31
32 ,

157
3927
= 3,14 =
= 3,1416 .
50
1250

B.L.Van der
Waerden [66]. 31
30 pu 10 pu.
32, ,

.
E =

1 1
(1), ,
2 2

. 31
E =

1
1
30 10 = 75 pu. O Liu Hui
2
2

44

 71

103
pu.
157

(1) E =
= 30 pu =

1 2
,
4

157
Liu Hui.
50

157
= 3,14 .
50

;
,
650
. 1,
17,
. AB = 6 = R , 18.

12-,24-,48, 96- 192-.
2 4

18

. E 4 4
2. ,

() = 1 = 1 2 R ,
2

1
E 4 = 2 2 R (2).
2

4 R,
, ( )

= R 2 ,
2

()2 = ( )2 + ( )2

2
2

R
R
.
+

2
2

() = 4

= 2 R 2 R 4 R 2 22 (3).

R = 1 6 = 1 (3) ,

45

12 = 0,517638 ,

24 = 0,261052 ,

96

48 = 0,130806 ,

96 = 0,065438 .

96

R =1

96 = 96 96 = 96 0,065438 = 6,282048 . 96

6,282048
= 3,141024 . (2)
2

192

R =1

1
E192 = 96 0,065438 1 = 3,141024 . (1)
2
E =

1
1
1
1
= 2R 2 R = R 2 = R = 1 .
2
2
2
2

3,14.
= 3,14 =

157
.
50

E192
. ,
32 1
.
, .
..
,
.
(3) 48 = 0,130806 ,

1
E96 = 48 48 R = 3,139344 .
2
= 192 96 = 3,141024 3,139344 = 0,001680 . 2
96 18.
2 E96

46

2 + 96 = 0,003360+ 3,139344= 3,142704

= < 3,142704 .
,
3,141024
3,142704.
= 0,00168 =

105

62500

36 105
E192 .

36
= 3,141024 + 0,000577 = 3,141601
62500
3927
. = 3,1416 =
. Liu Hui
1250
,

E = E192 +

Liu Hui(264 ..) 18

.

19

1536 , (2)
3072
. .
= 3,14159 ,
.
Liu Hui
, .
,
,
. Heath [34],
5 . . .,
. O Tannery
= 3,1416 .
Liu Hui 3 . . ., Aryabhata
6 . . Bhaskara 12 . . .,

47

 [3]. Liu Hui

[58], [61].

Liu Hui .
Liu Hui

[48].
96- Liu Hui
192- .
Heath [33], Liu
Hui ,

.
5 . . . Tsu Chung Chih (430-501 ..)
Tsu Cheng-Chih, 3,1415926 < < 3,1415927 [20],
[16], [61].
24.576 ,
12 .
8 = 3,14159265


. 16 . . .
. , ,

,
.
Tsu Chung Chih Tsu ChengChih.
Tsu Chung Chih ,
[60]. .

22
, 3 . . .
7

48

355
= 3,1415929203 ,
113

16 . . .
,

3,1415926 < < 3,1415927 , Vite 1593

[3].
.
Chui Shu,
. .
Mikami [3] Tsu
Chung Chih, Sui.
= 100.000 chang.
, 31.415.926 < < 31.415.927 .
3,1415926 < < 3,1415927 .
Tsu Chung Chih Li Yen Chun-Suan
Shih Lung-Tsnang, 1933. Tsu Chung
Chih 3 < <

22 x + 3 y
= 3,1415265
7x + y

22
(4)
7

22 16 y + 3 y 22 16 + 3 355
=
=
.
7 16 y + y
7 16 + 1 113

x = 15,99 y x 16 y .

, , ,
(4)

+
,
.

+

3 22 x + 3 y 3
22 x + 3 y 355

=
=
.
1
7x + y
1
7x + y
113

Tsu Chung Chih Chien Pao-Tsung

Chung-Kuo Shuhseh-Shih, 1964
. Tsu
Chung Chih S 2 < S < S 2 + (S 2 S ) , S x

49

 x
S. ,

S12288 = 3,1415925 S 24576 = 3,14159261

2 3,1415926 < < 3,1415927 .
,
,

0. ,
.

.
,
,

.
,

.
,
, Sulva Sutra.

. Loria [50]
200 - 400 . . O Kaye [46]
200 . .
200 . .
[3] 3 4 . . .,
.
,
, .
Thibaut [64] 19 .

50

 . Sulva
Sutra
.
20, : 1
1
1

R = a + 1 a 2 a = a 1 + 2 (1),
2
3
2
2
3
2

( 20). , = 3,0884
,

.

R = 2a +
a=

2
R (2)
15

1
1
1
R 1

+
1 +
(3).
2 8 8 29 8 29 6 8 29 6 8

20

. (1) (2)
Apastamba Baudhyana, (3) Baudhyana.
(3) (1)

2a

.
Salvasutras [3].
(2) , = 3,0044 .
.
d

10

51

10d = 8a 2 , = 3,125 .

d
7

d 13
d, = 3,125
15

= 3,0044 .
[3]. Salvasutras

.

Siddhanta .
5 . . .
.
Paulisha Siddhanta 380 ..
= 10
. Surya Siddhanta,
, 5 .,
=
= 3

600
3,14136 .
191

177
3,1416 .
1250

, = 3 + 8

60

+ 30

(60)2

[3].

Aryabhata (5 6

. . .).

Aryabhatiya 499 ..
.

.
.

52

. ,
, .
, V = R 2 R 2 .

4
V = R 3
3
, =

16
.
9
2

16
= ,
9
Rhind [3].
Aryabhatiya :
4 100, 8, 62.000.
20.000.

= 62,832 20,000 = 3,1416

[16],

Siddhanta. Aryabhata ,
,
. Aryabhata
= 10 = 3,1623 .

Aryabhata,

Brahmagupta ( 598 ..).

= 22 7 , = 3,1416 = 10 = 3,1623 .
= 10 , .
12, 24, 48 96 ,
10

965 , 981, 986 , 987 .

,

1000 ,

= 1000 10 = 10 [20], [16]. Brahmagupta

3

10 .

,
, Aryabhata

53

 .
, Mahavira = 3 = 10 [60].
Bhaskara (1114 1185 ..)
= 22 = 3,142857 ,
7

. = 3

17
= 3,14166 ,
120

[60], [16]. ,
= 3927

1250

= 3,1416 ,

.

. ,
,
,
,
.
Muhammed ibn Musa
Al Khowarizmi( ~ 9 . . .).
Al Mamun ( 813 833 . .) Algebr
ve Almocabelah.
Al Khowarizmi, [20].

, .

54

 3 1 , 10 62.832
,
20.000
7
.

, .
Tabit ibn Qurra (
826 901 . .),
, Al Birouni (973 1048 . .) [3].
Al Kashi ( ~ 1430 . .), ,
,

= 3,14159265358988732 , 13 14 ,
[16]. Al Kashi

2 30 .
,
, ,
,
.

55

 .


.
,
- -
.
15 .
.

. , 16 .
30 , 18 . 140
19 . 707 , 526
.
H ,

. , 39

, [61].
.

. ,
,
,

S = n0 m + m 2 + m 3 + ... ,
m = 10 n0
[20]. S
,

56

 = 3+

n0
.
1 10

Lambert 1767 ,
.


.
,
Hermann Schubert o 1889 [20].

Andriaan

Anthoniszoon

(1527-1607

.),

1585

377

120

> > 333

[20]. i
106

= 355113 , 6 . 8 ,
1593 Franois Vite ,
3,1415926535 < < 3,1415926537 , 9
[20]. Andriaen van Rooman (1561-1615
..), 2 30 ,
, 15
[60].

, Ludolph van Ceulen (1539-1610 ..),
Andriaen van Rooman. Van den Circkel, 1596,

60 2 33 , 20
. H
, 1 cos A = 2 sin 2

1
A
2

[16], [60].
, van Ceulen

57

 . 1615 ,
De Arithmetische en Geoetrische fondamenten
32 ,

2 62 . Snell [20].
van Ceulen 35
[16], [21].
.
, die
Ludolphsche Zahl, [20], [60]. To 1630 o
Grienberger [16], [60], [58] 39 ,
.

, 17 . . .

. Abraham Sharp
(1651- 1742 . .) 72
[20]. , 1706, John Machin (1680-1752 . )
100
[20], [58]. 1717, De Lagny (16601734 . .) 127 .
80 , 1794 Vega (1754-1802 ..)
,
Euler, 140 [20].
Vega De Lagny, 113
7 8.
1.
18 . . .
,

. Takebe Kenk (1664-1739 . .)
1024 1690,
41 [60]. Matsanuga

58

 1739, 50 .
, ,
[20].

1700

Sharp

72

1706

Machin

100

1717

De Lagny

127

1794

Vega

140

1824

Rutherford

208

1844

Strassnitzky Dase

200

1847

Clausen

248

1853

Rutherford

440

1855

Richter

500

1873

Shanks

707

1945

Ferguson

620

, William Rutherford 1841 208

, 153 1847
[16], [58]. L.K.Schulz von Strassnitzky
(1803-1852 . .)
,
Johann Martin Zacharias Dase. O Johann Martin Zacharias Dase (1824-1861
. .) ,
1844 200 [16],
[20], [58].
1847 Thomas Clausen (1801-1885 . .) 248
[16], [20]. O Clausen

59

= 2 1

1
1
+ 1
3
7

= 4 1

1
1
1
. Rutherford
5
239

1853 440 , 1855

Richter 500 . 1873-74 William Shanks
707 Proceedings
of the Royal Society [16], [20].
1945 Ferguson Shanks
527 . , 1946
620 , 1947 710
1947 808 [58], [20].


.


. Dase,
200 ,
.
, 16
Strassnitzky,
. 20 Strassnitzky

1
1
1
= arctan + arctan + arctan ( Strassnitzky)
4
2
5
8

,
205 200 [16], [20], [58].

2 , log 2 . ,

. ,

3 , log 2 log 3 , .

60

61

 13 . 15 . . .
.
.


.
. ,
,
.


.
,
.

.
T 1085,

.
, ,
.
11 13 .
.

. ,

.

.

62

 Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci ( 1175 1230 . X.)

.
Bonacci,
.
32 Liber Abaci,

,
[20].
, 96 ,
Leonardo
. Practica geometriae
1220 ,


,
. Leonardo
,
.
1440

458 4

< < 1440

458 1

= 864 275 = 3,141818 ,

. 0,0001
[20], [16].
Leonardo

. Gerbert ,
= 22

[20]. 400

, 3 1

( 9 ) .

= 16

,
. , Franco von Lutich
(~1040 . . )

63

 51, [20]. Albert von

Sachsen (1316-1390 ..), , De
quadratura circuli .
,

22

[20].

Dominicus Parisiensis (~1346..) Practica Geometriae,

,

= 22 7 [20].
Georg Peurbach (1423-1461 . .),
,
> 22 ,
7

= 377 : 120 = 10 [20].

, Nicolaus
Cusanus (1401-1464 . .) (.21),
1448
.

Nicolaus Cusanus.

.
H

21

.
2 n ,
2 ( ),
. . . n = 2 ( 22)

2 r < 2 < 2 R

1
1
< < , r , R
R
r

, [58], [26].

64

R= 2

r=1 ,
4

1 = 3,313708

1 = 0,172116 .
Rn +1 = Rn rn +1 , rn +1 =

Rn + rn

2

.

, n = 18
.
Cusanus

= 3,1423 [20]. Regiomontanus

22

Johann Miller (1436-1476 .

.) Cusanus,
1533, [22], [26].

Christiaan Huygens (1629-1693 . X.),
Cusanus [20], [21].

De circuli

magnitude inventa
, 23.

23
Snelius
Cusanus, AB' = 3r tan (1). OCB

sin =

sin
5 + 2 cos

(2). (2)

65

tan , (1)

AB' =

3r sin
.
2 + cos

arcAB = r , Cusanus.

Huygens
, .
Pn ' + 2 Pn < 6R < 4 P2 n Pn Pn '
Pn
. n = 6 3,1411< <3,1423.

66

. 16 17
.

.

, 17 . . .
.
,
.
, .
,

[20].

. ,

, Nicolas Copernicus (1473- 1543 . .) Johann
Kepler (1571-1630 . .),
.
17 . Jobst Brgi,

,
John Napier,

[20].


.

67

Leonardo da Vinci.
24


.

, Leonardo da Vinci (14521519) ( 24). Leonardo
.
,
.

[20] (
25). ,
.

25
,
E =

1
= 2 .
2

Leonardo :
.

.
Leonardo la intera revolutione della rotta qualla la
grossezza sia equale al suo semidiamitro lasscia di se vesstigio equalle alla

68

quadratura del suo cierchio, ,

[20].
,
,
Albrecht Drer (1471-1528 . .).
,
,
. Underweysung der messung mit dem zirckel und rictsheyt
( ), 1925,
, = 3 1 [20].
8

,
,

, Franois Vite (1540 1603 ..)

( 26). Vite
,
, .

Franois Vite.

[20].

26

,
, .

.
,
,
- 2-. 1593
Variorum de Rebus Mathematicis Responsorum, Liber VIII (
, 8) 1
,
2 ,

. A

69

 . 27()
- 2-. -

E (n) = n EOAB = 1 nr 2 sin 2 = nr 2 cos sin (1).

2
2- E (2n ) = 2n EOCB = nr 2 sin (2). (1) (2)
E (n )

E (2n )

= cos . 2-

E (2n )
E (n )

E (4n )

E (4n )

, E (n )

= cos

E (4n )

= E (n )

E (2n )

E (2n )

( ) = cos cos

E 22 n

-
E (n )
E (n )

( )
k

E2 n

= E (n )

E (2n )

E (2n )

E (4n )

k 1
..... E 2 n

( )
k

E2 n

( )

E 2k n

= cos cos

.... cos

2k

(3).
, 2 k n -

( )

. lim k E 2 k n = r 2 (4).
(1) (4) (3)

Vite

cos cos

1 n sin 2
2

n = 4, = 45 0 , cos = sin =

cos

2 cos

3 .... cos

(5) [20], [21].

2k

1
.
2

(5),
cos =
2

1 1
+ cos
2 2

2
1 1 + 1 1 1 + 1 1 + 1 1 ....
2 2
2
2 2
2 2
2
2

70

 27()

27()

71

 Vite ,
, 8 [20], [21].
,
SC
27().
- ( 2- )
, -
2-. cos ,
.
Vite,
,
.

.
.
Vite ,
,
, .
[26].
, , ,
,
. Vite ,
,
[20].
, Vite

.
,
, .
, Vite

cos , .

72

 (5) = 2

sin

( 2 ) cos( 2 ) (cos 2 )....

cos

( < ) (6).

Leonard Euler 200

Vite, ,

(5) (6), (5)

(6) =

, Vite
2 .
k
. F.Rudio [20], 1891,
Vite . Vite
,
.
,
, Vite
. 16

393.216 ,

3,1415926535 < < 3,1415926537 ,

9 [26].
, Vite
,
. Vite

,
quantitas, in quam cum multiplicetur diameter, proveniet circumferential .

73


[20].
Vite 9 ,

.
,
,
.
.

. 1559 De quadratura
circuli, Johannes Buteo (1492-1572 . .) [20]. To

,
.
Joseph Scaliger (1540-1609 . .) [20],
1594 Cyclometria elementa.
Scaliger, 12-

.
1900 ,

.
, ,
.
Willebrord Snellius (1580-1626 . .),
Leyden
. 1621
Cyclometricus, ,

74

 ,
. ,
, . 28()

28

Snellius D
DE
. D
,

K,

BG > arcBF , .

. F ,
F , K.
BK < arcBF [20], [60].
.

3 < < 3,464 . Snellius
3,14022 < < 3,14160 ,
96- .
96- Snelius 3,1415926272 < < 3,1415928320
[16], [20]. 35
Ludolph van Ceulen,
. Snellius

75

 ,
, 1900 ,
. Snellius
,
[20].
Snellius
, Christiaan
Huygens (1629-1695 . .) ( 29),
. To 1654
De circuli magnitude inventa
[21], [20] Huygens
Snellius 14
,
.

. 1 1

Christiaan Huygens.
29

, 1 1

. 2 2

2 , 2

Ren Descartes.
30

.

16 Huygens,
[20].

76

(V)

E > 2 + 1 ( 2 1 )
3

(VI) E < 2 E1 + 1 1
3
3
(VII) P > p 2 + 1
(IX)

( p 2 p1 )

P < 2 p1 + 1 P1
3
3

(XIII) p 2 =

(P2 p1 )

(XIV) P 3 < p12 P1

(XVI) P > p 2 + (4 p 2 + p1 ) / (2 p 2 + 3 p1 )
. Huygens
,

3,1415926533 < < 3,1415926538 .

Snellius
,
400.000
Huygens Snellius,

Ren

Descartes (1596 1650 ..) ( 30).

Renatus Cartesius, .
, ,
.
Vite,
,
.
[20].
31(),
L.

77

 31. ()()

( 2)

L = 2nr

(1).

, rk =

( 2)

L
2k n

(2).
Descartes , n = 4 =

(1)

L

= = lim k 2 k k .
2r
2

.
.
31(), ABCD,
L, AB =

L
. AC
4

CC1B1 1

.
, C2,C3.Cn,
1
.

78

 ABk = x k , AB = x0 .

xk =

x k ( x k x k 1 ) =

x02

4k

4 x0

k . 4 x0 = L (2)
k
2
2

n = 4 . n
L.

..Kochansky 1685 [20]. 32, BOC 30
BC

32
AD r .
CD .
BC = r 30 0 = r

CD = AB + ( AD BC )
2

.
2

= 4r + 3r r = 40 6 3 r 2 .
3
3

CD = = 3,141533... ,
r
6 10 5 .

79

 Jacob de Gelder, , 1849,

Kochansky.
6

= 355113 = 3 + 4

(7

+ 82

= 355113 .

Gelder [20].

33()()
CD = 1, CE = 7 , AF = 1 FG CD,
8
2
FH EG ( 33).
AH = 4

(7

+ 82

. Hobson
1913, ,
[20].
33, OA = 1, OD = 3 , OF = 3 , OE = 1 ,
5
2
2
DGE, AHF DE AF .
AF G
. GH GH = 1,77246... ,

80

= 1,77245... 2 10 5 . GH 2

81

17 - 18

.
,
,
.

. van
Ceulen 17 , Vite, o Snellius
Huygens

,
. Snellius
Huygens
,

.
17 Blaise Pascal
(1623-1662 . .).
,
[20]. Liebniz Pascal, Trait
des sinus du quart de cercle (
), 1658, .
Pascal
. O Pascal
n ,
DI EE = RR AB .
, Liebniz

Pascal

82

. Pascal
[20].

34
( 34), Pascal

a

a n +1
0 x dx = n + 1 n 0 .
n

[20].
Pascal
[20]. Johann Kepler
, .

, Evangelista Toricelli (1608-1647 . .), Gilles Persone de
Roberval (1602-1675 . .) Girard Desargues (1591-1661 ..). Pierre
Fermat (1601-1665 . .)
.
ewton Cambridge, Isaac Barrow
(1630-1677 . .),

83

600 1600 . .
,
. 17

10 ,
. , , Tsu Chung Chih
Tsu Keng-Chih , 355

113

5 . .
1663 . .
[22],
.

, . ,
7 ,
3,14.

. 1712
16 1722 Tkebe Hikojir Kenk (1664
1739 ..) [20], [22] 41 ,
2 .
,
[19] 35 () ().

84

 35(),()
35() ,

. n ,

j-

(1n ) 1 j n

= lim n

4
n2

n 2 j 2 .

j =0

,
n .
Vite,
.
1722

[22],
, 24
. 3,14
,

85

10 . ,

10 19 .. .

,
Tsu Chung Chih .
17 3,15025
[22].

3,125 [22].
18
. 1713
- -,

19 .

, 17

,

. John Wallis (16161703 ..) (.36)

[20], [60].
( ),

John Wallis.
36

.
,
1

1 x 2 dx =

86

. ,
,
1 x 2 . ,

, 1655 Arithmetica
infinitorum

2 2 4 4 6 6 ...
.( Wallis)
1 3 3 5 5 7 ...

.
Wallis :

sin
0

2m

1 3 5...(2m 1)

xdx =
2 4 6...2m
2

sin

2 m +1

xdx =

2 4 6...2m
.
1 3 5...(2m + 1)

m , ,
Wallis.
, Vite, ,

. ,
Wallis
, ,
.
Viscount Brouncker (1620-1684 . .) (.37)

.
Wallis [60], [20], [42], ,

Viscount Brouncker.
37

= 1+

12
32
2+
52
2+
72
2+
92
2+
2 + ...

( Brouncker)

87

 1, 3 2,15 13,105 76, 945 789,...

Brouncker
. Wallis
,
Brouncker.
Euler 1775. [20].

S = a0 + a1 + a1 a 2 + a1 a 2 a3 + a1 a 2 a3 a 4 + .....

S = a0 +

a1
a2

1 + a2

a3
1 + a3 ...

arctan x = x x 3 3 + x 5 5 x 7 7 + ...

a 0 = 0 , a1 = x , a 2 = x 2 3 , a3 = 3x 2 5 ,

x
x2

arctan x =
1+

9x 2

3 x +
2

5 3x 2 +

25 x 2
7 5 x 2 + ...

x = 1, arctan 1 = 4 ,
Brouncker.
,
,
James Gregory (1638-1675) (.38) [20], [58]. ,
,

88

 .

1
, (0,x) arctan x .
1+x2

,
x

dx

1+ x

= arctan x .

Cavalieri
,

James Gregory.
38

arctan x = x x

arctan(1) =

+x

+ .... ( Gregory).

= 4 1 13 + 15 1 7 + ... ,
3 .
Gregory
1671, . x = 1 Liebniz
1674, 1682.
Liebniz [20].
Gregory ,
.
, ,
[20], [58].
2 300
,
3 1

. De Lagny 117

100
10 50 .

89

 Liebniz Isaac Newton (1642-1727) (.39)

. Newton

.

, .

.
,

Isaac Newton.
39

, [20].
Newton , ,

dx
1 x2

= arcsin x (1) .

4 , (1)

1 3 4 1 3 5 6
1

= 1 + x 2 +
x +
x + ...dx . (2)
24
246
2

1 x
dx

, (2) (3),

arcsin x = x +

(3), x =

1 x3 1 3 x5
+
+ ... (3).
2 3 24 5

1
1
, arcsin = ,
2
2 6

,
Gregory - Liebniz.

90

1
2

= 6 +

1
1 3

+
+ .... ( Newton)
3
5
23 2
2452

[20], Newton ,
.

40
(.40) y = x x 2 ,
. 1

1 ,0 . ADB
2
1

( ADB) =

x x 2 dx =

= (2 3)x

(1 5)x

) (

x 1 x dx =

(1 28)x

) (

(1 72 )x

) (

= 2 / 3.2 3 1 5.2 5 1 28.2 7 1 72.2 9 ....

Newton
. ADB
ACD BCD.
BD

, 60 .

91

 ACD

32

24

BCD

. ADB

24

32

ADB

3 3
1
1
1
1

+ 24

... .
5
7
9
4
28 2
72 2
12 5 2

Newton 16
22 (
),
. Newton
, .
1665-6, Woolsthorpe,
[20].

Newton ,
Gregory , .

. Abraham Sharp ( 16511742 ..) [20], x =

(1 3) ,

1
1
1
1

+ 2 3 + ... ( Abraham Sharp)

1
3 33 3 5 3 7

72 [16].
1706 John Machin (1680-1752 . .) (.41)
[20], [58] tan = 1 5 , tan 2 =

92

2 tan
5
=

2
1 tan 12

tan 4 =

2 tan 2
120
=
,
2
1 tan 119
1
119

. arctan 1 =

tan 4 1 120 119 1

1

tan 4 =
=
=
,
4 1 + tan 4 1 + 120 119
239

arctan( 1 239 ) = 4 4 = 4 arctan 1 5 4 .

Gregory,

1
1
1
1
1
1

+
.... ,
= 4
+
....
3
5
3
5
4
55
5 239
5 35
239 3 239

1
1
= 4 arctan arctan
,
4
5
239

( Machin).

H ,
John Machin 100
[16].
17 ,
, John Machin.

.
Machin

1719,

John Machin.
41

De Lagny (1660-1734 ..) [20], [58],

Sharp 127 ,

x=

[16], [58]. , , 1794,

Georg Vega (1754-1802 ..) [20], [16], [58], 140

93

 112 127 De Lagny.

136 .

18
18 ,

. Leonhard Euler (1707-1783 . .)

(.42) [20] ,
.


.

Leonhard Euler.
42

886 800
. Euler
.
, ,
e,i, , f(x) [20].
,
Euler, Introductio in Analysin infinitorum, 1748
.

. Liebniz, ,
,
. Jacques Bernoulli
.

1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 + ...... ( ) (1)
2
1
2
3

94

 Euler 1736 [20]

Newton

x3 x5 x7
sin x = x
+

+ ..... (2)
3! 5! 7!
sin x = 0

x 2 = y . , y 0 .

y y2 y3
1 +

+ .... = 0 .(3)
3! 5! 7!
0, ,2 ,3 ,....
sin x = 0 , 2 ,4 2 ,9 2 ,.... 0 . Euler

, ,

1
(3),
3!

(2 )2 (3 )2

2
1
1
1
1
+ ... = 2 + 2 + 2 + ... =
. (4)
3!
6
1
2
3

(1),
2 . Euler
.
, .

2
8

1 1
1
+ 2 + 2 + .... (5)
2
1
3
5

(4) (5)

95

2
6

2
8

1
1
1
1
1
1
+ 2 + 2 + ..... 2 2 2 2 2 2 ....
2
1
2
3
1
3
5

2
12

1
1
1
1
2 + 2 2 + .... (6)
2
1
2
3
4

Euler,

j = 1,2,3,...

Bernoulli, (6),

. , 4
,

1
1
1
22
....
+
+
+
=
4
4
4
4
5!3
1
2
3
26 ,

1
1
1
2 24 76977927 26
+
+
+
=
....
.
27!
126 2 26 3 26
Euler ,
, ,
.

22
32
52
72
= 2

....
6
2 1 32 1 5 2 1 7 2 1

John Machin
, Euler,
[20]. ,
,

96

arctan

1
1
q
= arctan
+ arctan 2
p
p+q
p + pq + 1

arctan

x
ax y
ba
c b
= arctan
+ arctan
+ arctan
+ ..... ,
y
ay x
ab + 1
cb + 1

.
,b,c,, ,

= arctan

1
1
1
+ arctan + arctan + ....
2
8
18

, Euler

,

24 2 246 3
y 2

y +
y + .... (7),
arctan x = 1 + y +
35
35 7
x 3

y =

1
7

x2
.
1+ x2

Machin

3
(7)
79

= 20 arctan + 8 arctan

, Euler 20 ,
.
Euler
, .

,

97

 .
, uler
[20].
.
, ;
,
.
. Euler .

; ,
,
,

e ix = cos x + i sin x ( Euler).

, .
[20]

1
(e 1) =
2

1
1

1+

14 +

7 x+

1
9 x + ...

2 x+

5 x+

1
18 + ...

tanh ( x 2) =

3 x+

10 +

1 x+

6+

, tanh x =

6 x+
10 x +

1
14 x + ....

Lambert, Legendre.
1755 De relatione inter ternas pluresve quantitates instituenda,

98

 ,

. uler
107 .

, Pierre Simon Laplace
(1749-1827 ..).
,
.
20 ,
16 .
,

Comte de Buffon.
43

George Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon (17071788) (. 43). 1777 :

L
d ,
; (d > L) [20], [29].

( )
,
. ,
x
.

99

To Comte de Buffon.
44

. 44(),
x <

1
L sin .
2

P x < L sin .
2

, xx yy
x, 44(b). x,
0 < x <

d
0 < < . , (,x)
2
2

.
f ( ) =

1
L sin ,
2

(,x)
, .
Buffon

100


P=

1 L sin d 1 L sin d
2L

2
= 2 0
=
. ( Buffon) (8)
d
d 2
d 2

,
. ,
,
.

,
.
35 ,
Pierre Simon Laplace
.

Thorie

analytique

des

probabilities 1812,
.
Buffon
Pierre Simon
Laplace.

(8)

2L
, (9)
dP

45

.
L d
L = d. To P
,
.
, Laplace,
,
. 1855 Mr. A. Smith of Aberdeen
3204 ,
= 3,1553 [16]. De Morgan,
600 = 3,137 . 1864
Captain Fox 1120

101

 = 3,1419 [16], [20].

, k ,
. k ,
.
5 , 3.400 ,
1.5%. , Laplace

500
, 1,8
[20]. (x,)
.
,

x<

1
L sin .
2

, (9) .
BASIC ,
10 LET N = 0
20 PRINT NO. OF THROWS, PI
30 FOR J = 1 TO 24
40 FOR K = 1 TO 500
50 LET X = RND(X)
60 LET U = SIN (3.1415927*RND(F))
70 IF X GT U THEN 90
80 LET N = N + 1
90 NEXT K
100 LET T = 500*J
110 LET P = 2*T/N
120 PRINT T, P
130 NEXT J
140 END

102

 12.000 3,1417725 ,
53 . 60
,
0 180 .
,
,
Euler [20].

103

 .
To ,

.
,
.
, .

, , .

250 .


. .
: quantitas, in quam cum multiplicetur
diameter, proveniet circumferential, [20]
, .

multiplicatio
medietatis diametric in se ejus, quod proveniet, in quantitatem, in quam cum
multiplicatus diameter provenit circumferential, aequalis superficies circuli.
,
,
,
E = p 2 .


.

104


William Oughtred (1574-1660 . .) 1647 [16], [60].

. John
Wallis

[22], [60]. 1685,

.

1689, . ,
,
e. [22]. 1697
David Gregory

[16]. 100
,

c
, ,c
r

,r .
Newton
.
William Jones (1675-1749 ..)
Newton
. 1706 Synopsis Palmariorum
Matheseos, [21].
, ,
,
,

.
.

105

 243 263.

. 243, 4,
30, t . Jones

, periphery,o 1.
100 ,
John Machin,
. 263,
5,
3,14159.
.
.

106

Jones ,

. Leonhard Euler
(1707-1783 . .). 1734 p
g

. 1737

Variae Observationes circa series infinitas.

Euler Jones.
Euler . Johan Bernoulli
Euler 1739 c,
[16]. Nicolaus Bernoulli
Euler .
Euler Introductio
in Analysin Infinitorum, 1748,
[22], [16].

18 . [22].

107

 , .. 23 2:3.
. . 1:
, .
u u
n+1 . 1771
.
1794 Legendre lments de Gomtrie.

. 1799
.

.
(n ) ,
n [22].

108

 .
, Euler
, . ,
; ;

,
. . ,

5 . x 2 2 = 0 , x = 2 .
Euler
.

.
.
Liouville
1840, Johann Heinrich Lambert
(1728- 1777 . .) Andrien-Marie Legendre (1752-1833 . .). Lambert
1767, Legendre

Lambert, .
.

.
Lambert, 1766, Vorlufige Kenntnisse fr die, so die
Quadratur und Rectification des Circuls suchen (
),
1767 Mmoire sur quelques proprits remarquables des
quantities transcendentes circulaires et logarithmiques [8], [21],
.

109

Euler e x,
,

1
ex 1
(1)
=
x
1
e +1 2 +
1
x 6
+
1
x 10
+
x 14
+ ....
x

x =

1
1
1

1
x 3

1
x 5

1
x 7

x 9
.....
x

(2).

:
1. x 0, (1)
(2) .
2. (1) (2) ,
x .
(1) x = 1 , e,
1 . (2) x =

= 1 , 2

.
Lambert,
. Legendre [20], 1794,
Elements de Gometrie ( ),
. 2

.

,
.
. ,
88
. Legendre,

110

Liouville

.
, Ivan Niven [1].
f ( x ) = x n (1 x ) / n!.
n

:
) 0 < f (x ) < 1 / n! 0 < x < 1 .
) k f (k ) (0) f (k ) (1) .
2 , 2 = a / b , ,b
.
n

F ( x ) = b n ( 1) f (2 k ) (x ) 2 n 2 k .
k

k =0

:
) F (0 ) F (1) .
) 2 a n f ( x )sin x =

d
{F (x )sin x F (x ) cos x}
dx
1

) F (1) + F (0 ) = n a n f ( x )sin xdx

0

) () () 0 < F (1) + F (0 ) < 1

n .
) ).
.
Lambert ,
1

= 3+

7+

15 +

1+

292 +

1+

1+
1+

1
2 + ...

Lambert.

111

1:3
7:22
106:333
313:355
33102:103993
33215:104348
66317:208341
99532:312689
265381:833719
364913:1146408
1360120:4272943
1725033:5419351
25510582:80143857 ...
[20]. 3
7:23.
22 7 3 . .

. 333 106 Andriaan

Anthoniszoon, 1583. 355 113 Valentine
Otho 1573 [60], Anthoniszoon, Metius Vite 16 .
.
. sin x = 0 .
,

x3 x5
x
+
+ ... = 0
3! 5!
n x
. , ,
. x = 0 x = .

112

 .
.

.
1840
Joseph Liouville (1809 1882 . .). Liouville,
, .

.

.

.

[8]:
n, F ( ) = 0
.

p

q

(,), .

p
.
q

p A
, F = n , A 1 ,
q q

p
p
1
. F n (3).
q
q q

p
= h (4) . Taylor F ( ) = 0 ,
q

p
F = hF ( + h ) , 0<<1 (5). F F
q
, ,

113

 (, ) F ( x ) < M (6). (3), (4), (5), (6),

p
1
> n +1 (7), q > M .
q
q

(7)
n, q > M .
Liouville ,

p
1
< n +1 (8), q n ,
q
q

.
Liouville =

a
a
a1
a
+ 122 + 1323 + ... + 12m3...m + ...
10 10
10
10

(9) , 0 ai < 10 .
m (9)
=

p
. (9)
q

a
p a m +1
+ m +1 + (m +m1)(+m2 + 2 ) + .... m > n + 1 (8).
q q
q

q = 10123...m ,
.
, Georg Cantor (1845 1918 ..)
Liouville . 1873
,
. ,
.
,
.
, .
[8]. Cantor
,
1-1
.
0

114

 1, .
0 1,
.

e.

Liouville Cantor, ,

. ,
, ,
. 1873, Charles Hermitte (1822 1901 ..)
e ,
.
e

1 1
1
1
e = 1+ +
+
+
+ ...... = 2,718281828459...
1 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 3 4
Leonard Euler
.


. ,
,
Euler e i + 1 = 0 .
Hermitte [21] .

C1e a + C 2 e b + C 3 e c + .... = 0

C1 , C 2 , C 3 ,..... a,b,c, ,
.

115

Hermitte. ,
.
Hermitte 1885,
Berichte der Berliner Akademie Karl Wilhelm Weierstrass [21] (18151897 ..). 1893 Mathematische Annalen
, Hilbert [21], Hurwitz Gordan.
Hilbert (1862-1943 . X.) [47], [8].
e
. F (e ) = c 0 + c1e + c 2 e 2 + ... + c n e n = 0 (10), ci
. (10)

MF (e) = M 0 c0 + M 1c1 + M 2 c 2 + ... + M n c n +

+ 1c1 + 2 c 2 + ... + n c n = 0

(11).

(11)
, (11)
.

.
,

M = z [(z 1)( z 2 )...(z n )]

+1

e z dz (12),

P1 = c0 + c1e + c 2 e
0

+ ... + c n e

P2 = c1e + c 2 e

116

+ ... + c n e

e z dz = ! ,

, !.
, z = z + 1, z = z + 2,..., z = z + n ,

e , e

,..., e

( + 1)! .

P1 !,

= (n!)

+1

z
+1 z
z e dz + N z e dz + ... ,

P1
+1
m c0 (n!) = ( + 1) , .
!

z ( z 1)( z 2 )...( z n )

(z 1)(z 2)...(z n )e z

k z (0, n ) ,

< kK , < 2kK ,...., < nkK .

m = c1e + 2 c 2 e 2 + .... + n c n e n k ,
P2 < mK .
(12) :

117

. c0 (n!) +1.
. m

K
< 1.
!

P1
+1,
!
P2

!

P1 + P2 = 0 . e
.
,
.
e .
C 0 , C1 ,...., C n ,

C 0 + C1e + C 2 e 2 + ... + C n e n = 0
0. n k, k
, 0 .

C 0 + C1e + ... + C n e n = 0
P1 + P2 = 0 ,

P1 = C 0 + C1e + C 2 e
0

+ ...C n e

P2 = C1e + C 2 e
0

+ ... + C n e

P1 + P2 = 0 .

P1
P
2
k!
k!

P1

k!

118

e x dx = j! , j

P2
< 1 k,
k!

[x(x 1)(x 2)...(x n )]k

(x 1)(x 2)...(x n )e x

x k [( x 1)( x 2 )...(x n )] e x .
k +1

x( x 1)( x 2 )...(x n )

lim k

(x 1)(x 2)...(x n )e x

[0, n]

Gk
= 0 G R
k!

.
Hermitte, 1882, F.
Lindemann

(.46)

Mathematische

Annalen, Ueber die Zahl [20], [21], [58].

Hermitte,
Hermitte,
.

C1e a + C 2 e b + C 3 e c + .... = 0

A. F.
Lindemann.
46

Hermitte, a,b,c

C1 , C 2 , C 3 ,... , .
Lindemann :
a,b,cn , ,
C1 , C 2 , C 3 ,..., C n , ,
0,
,

C1e a + C 2 e b + C 3 e c + .... + nC n (13),

119

 . ( Lindemann)
,
Euler,

e i + 1 = 0 .( Euler)
, Euler
(13) C1 = C 2 = 1
. b = 0 ,
, 0 i
. i
.
Lindemann .
Uber die Zahl ,
13 .
.

Hilbert Mathematische Annalen 1882,
[8], [47], [21].
a1 = i
n .
a 2 , a3 ,..., a n ,
Euler e i + 1 = 0 ,

(1 + e )(1 + e )...(1 + e ) = 1 + e
a1

a2

an

1 ,, M

+ e 2 + ... + e N = 0 .(14)

. i 1 ,, M

120

f ( z ) = b0 z M + b1 z M 1 + ... + bM = 0 ,
b0 , b1 ,..., bM bM 0 .
(14)

a + e 1 + e 2 + ... + e M = 0 ,
. e,

z [g (z )]

+1

e dz ,

g ( z ) = b0M f ( z ) . (14)
P1 + P2 = 0 ,

P1 = a + e
0

+e

+ ... + e

P2 = e

+e

+ ... + e

, z = i
,
z = + .

z = 0 z = i .

e,

121

1
b0( +1)M bM +1 = ( + 1)T , .

! 0

z = z + i , g ( i ) = 0 ,

e i

= ( z + i )[g ( z + i )]

+1

e z dz = ( + 1)G ( i ) .

G ( i ) i ,

( + 1)M
1 ,..., M

b ( +1)M .

f ( z ) = b0 z M + b1 z M 1 + ... + bM = 0 ,

, b0
.
G ( 1 ) + G ( 2 ) + ... + G ( M )

. P1
!

P1
ab0( +1)M bM +1 = ( + 1) (15).
!
k ,
zg ( z ) g ( z )e z z = 0 z = i
,
i

< i kK , i = 1,2,..., M .

122

m = 1e 1 + 2 e 2 + ... + M E M k ,

P2 < mK . :

. ab0 bM ,
.

mK
< 1,
!

P1
, (15),
!

+ 1 , .

P2

!

P1 + P2 = 0 .

.

.

, .
.

.
5 :
.
.
. .
. .
V. .
V.
,

.

123

 ,

.

.

6
7 .

.
Descartes 15 .
,
.
,
. ,
1.
, ,
,
.
.
,

1.

.
y =

y=

a
x (1)
b

ax + c
(2), 2. ,
b

, ,

124


(1) (2).

8 .

125

 .

, 9 .
m n (3), m , n
(1) (2) n 0 . (3)

.
(1),(2) (3),
, , ,
. , ,
, 1 2
. ,
1 2 .
Galois [8], [4]:
1) , ,
,
,
(1)

10

2) ,
,
m + n r , m, n r .
1) 2)

r1 , r2 ,..., rn , (1) rn

.
. x ,
, x =

A C
F
+ + ... + (4), , , ,G
B D
G

rn ,

D,,G 0 . (4) ,

x=

A0 + A1 + A2 + .... + Am
,
B0 + B1 + B2 + .... + Bm '

126

Am , Bm m, m .

(a + b )

A5 =

c d + e

f . m m'

x
.
x x =

p + q Qn
r + s Qn

(5), n

m, m, p,q,r,s n 1 .
(5) r s Qn x = p1 + q1 Qn (6),
p1 , q1 n 1 .

p1 =

p 2 + q 2 Rn
r2 + s 2 Rn

q1 =

r ' 2 + s ' 2 Rn

x = p 3 + q 3 Rn + p ' 3 + q ' 3 Rn

p1 = p3 + q3 Rn

) (

p ' 2 + q ' 2 Rn

Qn .

(6)

q1 = p'3 + q'3 Rn .

x ,
x.

x = m + m1n Qn + m2 n Rn + ... n

(
+ (m

+ m12 n Qn Rn + m13n Qn S n + ... n

123 n

( x)

Qn Rn S n + ... n

+ ....

( )n n ,

n = 1,2,...., n . Q, R,

S, ,
.

x.
+ -, 2
x ( 2

127

 ).
.

, [8].
Abel.
,
.

;
2 .
x. O
2 .

x1 , x 2 ,....., x 2 .

F ( x ) = (x x1 )( x x 2 ).....(x x 2l ) (7), 2 ,
x1 , x 2 ,....., x 2 . x
.
(1)

( x ) = 0 . x,
Abel,
. (7)
(7),
( x ) = 0 . F ( x ) = ( x )F1 ( x ) ,
( x )

x1 .

F1 ( x ) , F (x ) ,
x1 , x 2 ,....., x 2 . Abel

x1 , x 2 ,....., x 2 .

F1 ( x ) = ( x )F2 ( x ) . ,

F ( x ) = [ ( x )] (8).
k

(8) , , 2
k . k

128

 2. , ( x ) = 0

2 s (1).
, x1 , ,
(1).
, ( x ) = ( x ) ( x ) . ( x ) ,

(x ) x1
( x ) (1) x1 ,
. , :
, (1),
x1
, 2.

(1) x1 , :
(1)
2, x1 .
x1 K

r1 , r2 ,..., rn ,

.
.
2,
.
Legendre
,
,

2v

. Lindemann
,
,
, .

129

 .

,
. homas Elsner [55]
47,
.

47
BA =

2R
= R . B = R + R .
2

= ,

B R + R
. 47
=
2
2
2

R + R
2
y=
x .
2

130

KA =

R + R
2

R=

R R
2

R
R + R R R
4 = R .
A =

=
2
2 2

( ) = (R

)(

R = R 2 ,

131

 .
O
.
.
,
.
,
.
. ,
,
.
, .
.
,

.
,
.

48

132



, .

.

.
,
.
16 . . .
Nicolaus Cusanus (1401-1464 . .) ,

.
.
,
,
.
16 17 .
, ,

[22].

.
1668 De
Problematis Physicis , 3 1 .
8

,
[22].
1775
, cadmie Franaise
( )
[22], [20]. ,
,

133

 .
,

.
19 . A budget of Paradoxes [22].

.

. O
morbus
cyclometricus, [22].
Mathematical Crunks ,
. . 1982 3,0625
[22].
, ,


.
,

, 2,91421351481511+,
,

. . 1874
The Quadrature of the Circle,

,

[22].
,
.

134

 ,
.

, 3,14159265 [22].

,
.
.
[22].
Lambert 1761 ,
.

1.
Lindemann
1882 .

.
,
,
.

, . 1988
T. ,
,
[22]. , 1897,
Indiana ..., ,
,
, 3,2 4. , 1897
.
[22], [58], [20].

135

 Mathematical Crunks,

,
Lindemann ,
,
.


,
. 12

3,140625 [22].

,
,

.

.
1967 Unique Mathematical Geometrical Findings
; ,
. ,

[22].


,
.

136

 . 20
20
18 19 . 18 19

, 20

. 1967
500.000 26 40 , 1
30
.
18 .
.
A . H
[68] 1949
Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer
ENIAC. Ballistic
Research 2.037 70 ,
.
Machin,

1
5

1
. ( Machin)
239

= 16 arctan 4 arctan

1954 1955 Dahlgren Virginia,

Naval Ordnance Research Calculator NORC,
3.089 13 . ,
1957, Ferranti Computer Centre ,
Pegasus 10.021 33

137

.
Strassnitzky [68].

1
1
1
= arctan + arctan + arctan ( Strassnitzky)
4
2
5
8

,
, 7.480 .
1958,
.
1958, Paris Data Processing Center,
704 10.000 1 40 .
Machin
Gregory [20].

1
1
1
1
1
1

= 4
+
....

+
.... ( Machin)
3
5
3
5
4
55
5 239
5 35
239 3 239

1959, Commissariat lEnergie Atomique ,

704,
16.167 4 30 .
Machin
7090, Data Centre 1961 [20].
20.000 39 .
,

. 1961 Data
Processing

Center

Shanks

Wrench

[62]

.
, 7090,
,
1896 Strmer.

138

1
8

1
1
+ 4 arctan
( Strmer)
57
239

= 24 arctan + 8 arctan

2 7 , 3 7
2 20 .
42
8 43 .
100.000 , 100.265 ,
100.000
5.000 .

,

Shanks

Wrench

Gauss, . ,

, .
,
, .
1960 1970,
,
. O Shanks Wrench
5-7
1.000.000 [62].
. 12 1973
Jean Guilloud artine Bouyer
[22].
,
,
. 70,

139

 .
,
. 1.000.000 23
. 128.000.000 ,
7 ( 128 = 2 7 ),
, 43
[58].
T 1976 Eugene Salamin [59]

. a 0 , b0 , c 0
2

a 0 = b0 + c 0 .
a n bn :

an =

1
1
(a n1 + bn1 ), bn = (a n1bn1 ) 2 .
2

c n ,

c n = a n bn .

- (agm)

a n , bn , agm(a 0 , b0 ) = lim a n = lim bn .

- ,
.

4agm(1, k )agm(1, k ' )

1 j =1 2 j c 2j + c' 2j

( Salamin)

O .
,

140

 1, 2 . Salamin

Gauss . Gauss
,
Salamin .
Richard Brent
[27], Gauss-Brent-Salamin
20 .
Brent-Salamin
:
a 0 = 1, b0 = 1
ak =

s 0 = 1

. k = 1,2,3,... ,

a k 1 + bk 1
,
2

bk = a k 1bk 1 ,
c k = a k2 bk2 ,
s k = s k 1 2 k c k
pk =

2a k2
. p k [19].
sk

1,4,9,20,42,85,173,347,697 ... .
25 45
.
.
1982 Yosaki Tamura International Latitude Observatory
Yasumasa Kanada
8.388.608 .
Salamin Hitac M-280H
. 1983 16.000.000
Hitachi S-810.
Borwein Chudnovsky

. Jonathan

141

Peter Borwein

Srinivasa Ramanujan (1887

1919) (.49),

Srinivasa
Ramanujan.

. 1914

49

Ramanujan ,

8 (4n )!(1.103 + 26.390n )

, ( Ramanujan) [23], [35].

9.801 n =0
(n!)4 396 4n

. 8 .

1987, Borwein ,

( 1)n (6n )! ( A + nB ) ( Borwein),

3
n+ 1
n = 0 (n!) (3n )!
C 2

= 12

: 212175710912 61 +1657145277365
: 13773980892672 61 +107578229802750
C : [5280(236674+30303 61 )] 3

31 . Borwein
(.50,51)

Ramanujan

. Borwein [19]:
a 0 = 6 4 2 y 0 = 2 1 ,

142

y k +1

( )
=
1 + (1 y )
1 1 y k4

4
k

1
1

4
4

a k +1 = a k (1 + y k +1 ) 4 2 2 k +3 y k +1 (1 + y k +1 + y k2+1 ) .
a k

1

ak

k.
. 1988 David Bailey
Borwein 29.360.000
.
Borwein.

Cray-2 Nasa Ames
Peter Borwein.

Research Center.
1991 Borwein

50

[19]:

a 0 =

rk +1 =

s k +1 =

1
s 0 =
3

1 + 2 1 sk

3 1
.
2

rk +1 1
2

Jonathan
Borwein.

a k +1 = rk2+1 a k 3 k rk2+1 1 .

51

1
,
ak

.
m-
, m.
9 [19]:

143

 a 0 = 1 , r0 =
3

3 1

s 0 = 1 r03

13

t = 1 + 2rk ,

[ (

u = 9rk 1 + rk + rk2

)]

13

v = t 2 + tu + u 2
m=

27 1 + s k + s k2
,
v

a k +1 = ma k + 3 2 k 1 (1 m ) ,

(1 rk )3
s k +1 =
,
(t + 2u )v

rk +1 = 1 s k3 1 3 .

1
9 . ,
ak

..
Salamin-Brent.
, ,
.
1987 Yasumasa Kanada (.52) 201.326.000

Salamin Brent.
Borwein.
HITAC S-820,
5 57 [19]. Chudnovsky
1989 480.000.000 1989
525.229.270 . Kanada Tamura
536.870.898
1.073.741.799 ,
[19]. 1989 Chudnovsky
1.011.196.691 ,

144

 2.260.000.000 , 1994
4.044.000.000 [19].
Chudnovsky ,
.
, Gregory Chudnovsky
.
.
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Kanada

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d

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[29].
,

[16], [22].

, ,
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-

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, .
, 90%.

147

2 3

[11]. 20 .

.
J. Kepler (1571-1630), o

, .. .

,
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.
1900, David Hilbert 18
[11].
,
.
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,
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, 2002 anada 1.24
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,

148

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+ e,

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, .

,
10 9 [19].
, 17
, Gosper 1985.
1,24 ,
.

.

Liouville;
1767
Lambert, , 1794, Legendre
. 1882 Lindemann
.

. 1953 Mahler
Liouville [18]. ,
Liouville n, p q

0<

p
1
< n.
q q

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,

149

p
1
> 14,65 ,
q q

p, q , q .
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.

;
20 .
. [67], [41].
, . Borel 1909,

. :
x b ,
b .
m, b m m-
. lim n N (s, n ) = 1 m s mn
b
, (s,n) s n
b x.[67], [41].
, b
,
, ... [67], [41].
b,
.[67], [41].


. De Morgan 7 44
608 , .

150


.
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Lebesgue - 0.

0 1,
-.
-
[31].
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David Chudnovsky [61] Columbia university
,
.

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collision tests, BDSL test moment tests.
,
,
.

500 [51].

.

154

 fractals.

Mandelbrot.
To 1991 Dave Ball
,
Mandelbrot = 3,141592. [40].
,
Mandelbrot, fractals [43].
Benot Mandelbrot 1975
fractus .
Fractal ,
, ,
.
fractal [43],
[58]:

, .

Hausdorff,
.

Mandelbrot,
fractal. 53 Mandelbrot,
54 .
Manelbrot
[43].
.
Mandelbrot , x 2 + c c
. x0

155

 , x1 = ( x0 ) + c .
2

x 2 = ( x1 ) + c .
2

x1 ,

x3 = ( x 2 ) + c ,
2

x 4 = ( x3 ) + c ,
2

x5 = (x 4 ) + c ... x0 , x1 , x 2 ,... x0 ,
2

x 2 + c [43].

To Mandelbrot. 53

To Mandelbrot . 54

: ; ;
;
fractals.
c = 1 x0 = 0 , x0 = 0 , x1 = 1 ,
x 2 = 2 , x3 = 5 ,

x 4 = 26 , x5 = 677 , x6 = 458330 ,, .

156

 c = 0 x0 = 0 , x0 = 0 , x1 = 0 ,
x 2 = 0 , x3 = 0 ,

x 4 = 0 , x5 = 0 , x6 = 0 ,, .

c = 1 x0 = 0 , x0 = 0 , x1 = 1 ,
x 2 = 0 , x 3 = 1 ,

x 4 = 0 , x5 = 1 , x6 = 0 ,, 2.

c, 0 (.
x0 = 0 ) .
,
. Mandelbrot
0, x 2 + c , c
.
Mandelbrot M c
0 x 2 + c ,
.[43]
Mandelbrot ,
,
4. ,
c.
c 0
. c ,
c- .
.

Mandelbrot.
To 1991 o Boll, [58],
11 , c = 0.75 + 0i ,
Mandelbrot , .

c = 0.75 + i (

157

), 0 . 5
.

x2 + c .

0,1

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0,01

315

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( ). 6
.

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c = 0,25 ,
1991 .

158

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Boll ,
.
Mandelbrot N ( ) c = 0,25
2,36, . Guckenheimer
olmes [58].
x k +1 = x k2 + 0,25 + , x0 = 0 (1).
Euler, x (t ) = f ( x(t )) ,
x k +1 = x k + hf ( x k ) (2),
f Euler h. h = 1 , (2)

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159

1
+ xk .
4

x (t ) = x 2 (t ) x(t ) +

1
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4

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x k 1 , (1)
.
0,

t [58].

(3), 0 t,

x (s )

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2

1
+
4

ds = ds .
0

x (s )ds dx t x(t )
x (t )

dx
1
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4

= t .(4)

x
1

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x(t )
1

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2

1
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= t .

t , x(t ) = 1 ,

1
2 arctan
2

160

= t .

 0 ,

. lim t = . ,
.

c = 0,75 [58].

,
.

, .

.
, .

,
.,
Woolsthorpe,
1665-66. ,

.
,
[18].

.
,
[58].
,
.

161

 ,
, .
. ,

. ,
, ,

[19].
,
,
. .
Gardner [30],
, 100
, .

. 80
10 . 80
1 80
20 , 10 .
[9].
, ,
.

,
[19].
, ,
[19]. ,
,
.
,
. ,
.

162

.
,
,
, , , ,
. ,
,
. ,

.

-
,
, ,
,

,
, ,
, ,
.
.

. . 1

163

 , ,
, , , .
.

(3,14159).

164

2000 ..

= 3 1 .
8
= 256

1100 ..

81

= 3,16045 .

= 3 .

550 ..

= 3 .

434 ..

430 ..

335 ..

3...

96
310

71

< <31

211875 : 67441 = 3,14163 .

, .
225 ..

,
.

130 ..

Chang Hong = 10 = 3,1622 .

150 ..

= 30 8 30 = 377 120 = 3,14166.

250 ..

Wang Fan = 142 45 = 3,155555 .

263 ..

Liu Hui = 157 50 = 3,14159 .

480 ..

Tsu Chung Chi 355/113= 3,1415926

3,1415926< < 3.1415927 .

499 ..

Aryabhata = 62832 2000 = 3,1416 .

640 ..

rahmagupta = 10 = 3,1622 .

800 ..

Al-Khwarizmi = 3,1416 .

1220 ..

Leonardo of Pisa (Fibonacci) = 3,141818 .

165

1400 ..

Madhava = 3,1415926535 9 .

1430 ..

Al-Kashi = 3,1415926535 8979 .

1573 ..

Valentinus Otho 355 113 = 3,1415929 .

1593 ..

Francois Vite
. = 3,1415926536 .

1593 ..

Adriaen van Romanus = 3,1415926535 89793 .

1596 ..

Ludolph van Ceulen 32

= 3,1415926535 8979323846 ...

1610 ..

Ludolph van Ceulen 35

.

1621 ..

Snellius .

1654 ..

Huygens
Snellius.

1655 ..

Wallis .

1655 ..

Brouncker .

1663 ..

1665-1666

Newton 16

..

. 1737 (
). = 3,1415926535 897932 .

1671 ..

Gregory .

1674 ..

Leibniz .

1699 ..

Sharp 71 .

1700 ..

Seki Kowa 10 .

1706 ..

Machin 100 .

1706 ..

Jones
.

1713 ..

Su-li Ching-yn, 19
.

1719 . .

De Lagny 127 .

166

1722 ..

akebe Kenk 40 .

1748 . .

Leonard Euler Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum

Euler

2 .
1755 . .

Euler
.

1761 . .

Johann Heinrich Lambert .

1775 . .

Euler .

1794 . .

Georg Vega 140 .

Andrien Mari Legendr 2
.

1840 . .

Liouville .

1844 . .

Strassnitzky Dase 200

.

1855 . .

Richter 500 .

1873 . .

Hermite e .

1873-74. . Shanks 707 .

1874 . .

- 100 .

1882 . X.

Ferdinand Lindemann
.

1945 . .

D. F. Ferguson Shanks
527 .

1946 . X.

D. F. Ferguson 620 .

1947 . .

D. F. Ferguson 808 ,
, .

1949 . .

ENIAC 2.037 .

1954-55. . NORC 3.089 .

1957 . .

Pegasus 7.480 .

1959 . .

704 16.167 .

1961 . .

Shanks Wrench, IBM 7090, 100.265

8,72 .

167

1966 ..

Guilloud Filliatre 250.000

IBM 7030.

1967 . X.

Guilloud Dichampt 500.000

CDC 6600.

1973 . .

Guilloud Bouyer 1.001.250

CDC 7600.

1981 . .

Miyoshi Kanada 2.000.036

FACOM -200.

1982 . .

Guilloud 2.000.050 .

1982 . .

Tamura 2.097.144
MELCOM 900II.

1982 . .

Tamura Kanada 8.388.576

HITACHI M-280H.

1982 . .

Tamura, Kanada Yosino 16.777.576

HITACHI M-280H.

1983 . .

Ushiro Kanada 10.013.395

HITACHI S-810/20.

1985 . .

Gosper 17.526.200
SYMBOLICS 3670.

1986 . X.

Bailey 29.360.111
CRAY-2.

1986 . .

Kanada Tamura 67.108.839

HITACHI S-810/20.

1987 . .

Kanada, Tamura Kubo

134.217.700 NEC SX-2.

1988 . .

Kanada Tamura 201.326.551

HITACHI S-820/80.

1989 . .

Chudnovsky 480.000.000.
.

1989 . .

Kanada Tamura 536.870.898

.

168

1989 ..

Chudnovsky

1.011.196.691 .
1989 ..

Kanada Tamura 1.073.741.799

.

1991 ..

Chudnovsky

22.600.000.000 .
1994 . .

Chudnovsky

4.044.000.000

.
1995 . .

Kanada

Takahashi

6.442.450.938 .
1997 . .

Kanada Takahashi 51.539.600.000

.

1999 . .

Kanada

Takahashi

206.158.430.000 .
2002 . .

Kanada, Ushiro Kuroda

1.241.100.000.000 .

169

.
1. .
2.

l , l 0

=1

a1 a 2 ...a , .
3.

a
v =1

a , , . -
.
n
n
n
4. : (a + b ) = a k b n k .
k =0 k

5.

a n x n + ... + a1 x + a 0 = 0 , n
a j .
, .
6. .
7. ,

,
.
8. (, R) P. P(O, R )

(,

R)

P(O , R ) = OP 2 R 2 .

9. , .
. . 147-152.
10. [, , ,]
,
:( -) .
+ . .

170

+=+

).

+(+)=(+)+

( ). V. , 0
+0= ( ). V.
, +=. VI.
, =. VII.
=

).

VIII.

()=

()

( ). . , 1,
1=. . 0 IV,
0 = 0. . (+)=+ ( ).
. , =
/.
11.
.

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178

.
. ,

. ,
.
.
. . ,
,
.
. . ,
,

.
. ,

.
Tom Apostol,

.

179

.
Guilloud, 139, 168
Hales, 148
Heath, 19, 47, 175
Hermitte, 115, 116, 119
Hilbert, 116, 120, 148
Hurwitz, 116
Jaditz, 154, 175
Jones, 105, 106, 107, 166
Kanada, 6, 141, 144, 145, 151, 168,
169, 176
Kaye, 50, 176
Kenk, 58, 84, 167
Kepler, 67, 83, 148
Lagny, 58, 59, 89, 93, 166
Lambert, 6, 57, 98, 109, 110, 111,
135, 149, 167
Laplace, 6, 99, 101
Leclerc, 99
Legendre, 6, 98, 108, 109, 110, 129,
149
Liebniz, 5, 82, 89, 90, 94
Lindemann, 6, 119, 120, 129, 135,
136, 149, 167, 176
Liouville, 109, 111, 113, 114, 115,
149, 167
Liu Hsiao, 43
Liu Hui, 44, 47, 165
Loria, 6, 50, 176
Machin, 58, 59, 92, 93, 96, 97, 106,
137, 138, 166
Mahavira, 54
Matsanuga, 58
Metius, 112
Mikami, 49, 176
Muhammed ibn Musa, 54
Nehemiah, 8
Niven, 111
Otho, 112, 166
Oughtred, 105
Ramanujan, 142, 173, 174
Rhind, 12, 18, 53
Richter, 59, 60, 167
Rudio, 19, 73
Rutherford, 59
Salamin, 140, 141, 144, 145, 177
Salvasutras, 51, 52

Agnew, 8
Ahmes, 12, 14, 15
Al Birouni, 55
Al Kashi, 55
Al Khowarizmi, 54
Anthoniszoon, 57, 112
Apastamba, 51
Aryabhata, 47, 52, 53, 165
Aryabhatiya, 52, 53
Bailey, 143, 151, 168, 173
Baudhyana, 51
Bernoulli, 94, 96, 107
Bhaskara, 47, 54
Boll, 157, 158, 159
Borwein, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145,
173, 174
Bouyer, 139, 168
Brahmagupta, 53
Brent, 141, 144, 145, 174, 177
Buffon, 99, 100, 101, 147
Cantor, 114, 115
Captain Fox, 101
Ceulen, 57
Chang Hng, 43
Chase, 14
Chudnovsky, 141, 144, 145, 150,
154, 168, 169
Chui Shu, 49
Chung-Kuo, 49
Clausen, 59
Cusanus, 64, 65, 133
Dase, 59, 60, 167
Elsner, 130
Euler, 5, 58, 73, 88, 94, 95, 96, 97,
98, 103, 107, 109, 110, 115, 120,
147, 159, 160, 167, 174
Ferguson, 59, 60, 167
fractals, 155, 156
Gardner, 162, 174, 175
Gauss, 139, 141, 145, 148
Gillings, 16, 17, 175
Giza, 4, 7
Gordan, 116
Gregory, 5, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 105,
138, 145, 154, 166
Grienberger, 58

180

, 4, 23, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29,

30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38,
41, 42, 47, 48, 53, 54, 55, 62, 63,
64, 69, 72, 73, 74, 82, 112, 133,
165, 170, 172
, 11, 12, 165
, 8
, 41
, 24, 28, 45, 165
, 25, 28, 165
, 42
, 163, 174
, 36, 37, 132, 165, 170
, 3, 19, 25, 28, 41, 42, 55,
109, 123, 124, 132
, 107
, 20, 21
, 24, 29
, 41
, 43, 44
, 35, 42, 172
, 35, 172
, 23, 24
, 43
, 4, 43, 50, 53, 142
, 25
, 20, 22
, 136
, 3, 4, 5, 6, 19,
20, 23, 25, 28, 62, 69, 78, 123,
124, 126, 128, 129, 130, 132,
134, 135, 136
, 150, 151, 154
, 25
, 108
, 4, 43, 84, 86, 167
, 43, 50
, 38, 41
, 27, 28, 29, 35,
36, 38, 74, 172
- , 23
, 133
, 58
, 41
, 11
, 35, 54, 172
, 9
, 20

Schubert, 57
Shanks, 59, 60, 138, 139, 167, 177
Sharp, 58, 59, 92, 93, 166
Shuhseh-Shih, 49
Siddhanta, 52, 53
Smith, 101
Snell, 58
Strmer, 138, 139
Strassnitzky, 59, 60, 138, 167
Struve, 15, 177
Sulva Sutra, 50
Tabit ibn Qurra, 55
Tamura, 141, 144, 168, 169
Tannery, 35, 38, 47
Thibaut, 50, 177
Tsu Chung Chih, 48, 49
Tsu Cheng-Chih, 48
van Ceulen, 57, 75, 82, 166
Van der Waerden, 44, 177, 178
van Rooman, 57
Vega, 58, 59, 93, 167
Vite, 5, 49, 57, 69, 70, 72, 73, 74,
77, 82, 85, 87, 112, 166
Vogel, 15
Wallis, 5, 86, 87, 88, 105, 166
Wang Fan, 44, 165
Weierstrass, 116
Wrench, 138, 139, 167, 177, 178

, 12
, 110, 113, 118,
120
, 22, 24
, 19
, 23, 47, 72, 165
, 23, 24, 28, 45, 72
, 41, 48
, 25, 38, 41, 47, 54, 165
, 54, 104
, 4, 43, 54
- , 140
Liouville, 149
, 9
, 98, 110, 111, 129, 135,
149, 167
, 53, 67, 74

181

 , 3, 104, 105, 106, 107,

108, 166
, 20, 22, 23, 173
, 39, 80, 88, 111,
166
Mandelbrot, 155, 156, 157
, 25, 26, 27, 28, 38,
132
, 29
, 3, 28,
36, 54, 109, 132, 134, 136

, 130
, 9, 132,
133, 134, 135, 136
, 42
, 99, 109, 111,
113, 114, 115, 116, 119, 120,
123, 129, 135, 148, 149, 150, 167
, 133
, 23, 173
, 3, 164
, 133

, 134, 136
, 9
, 25
, 134, 136
, 56, 92, 161
, 9
, 25, 27, 42, 172
Rhind, 12
, 134
, 28, 36, 37
, 29
, 9
, 19
, 23, 24, 30, 46, 55, 57,
58, 73, 84, 165
, 20
, 9
, 108
, 41
, 52
, 133
, 27
, 105

182