Manufacturing Science Part 1

CHAPTER 1
The Structure of Metals
Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology
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Chapter 1 Outline
Figure 1.1 An outline of the topics described in Chapter 1
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Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Figure 1.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
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Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure
Figure 1.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
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Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure

Figure 1.4 The hexagonal closepacked (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells. Source: W. G. Moffatt, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. 1, John Wiley & Sons, 1976.
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Slip and Twinning

Figure 1.5 Permanent deformation (also called plastic deformation) of a single crystal subjected to a shear stress: (a) structure before deformation; and (b) permanent deformation by slip. The size of the b/a ratio influences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause slip.
Figure 1.6 (a) Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile load. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the direction of the pulling force. This behavior can be simulated using a deck of cards with a rubber band around them. (b) Twinning in a single crystal in tension.
Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology 2001 Prentice-Hall Page 1-6
Slip Lines and Slip Bands

Figure 1.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines and slip bands in a single crystal (grain) subjected to a shear stress. A slip band consists of a number of slip planes. The crystal at the center of the upper illustration is an individual grain surrounded by other grains.
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Edge and Screw Dislocations

Figure 1.8 Types of dislocations in a single crystal: (a) edge dislocation; and (b) screw dislocation. Source: (a) After Guy and Hren, Elements of Physical Metallurgy, 1974. (b) L. Van Vlack, Materials for Engineering, 4th ed., 1980.
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Defects in a Single-Crystal Lattice
Figure 1.9 Schematic illustration of types of defects in a single-crystal lattice: selfinterstitial, vacancy, interstitial, and substitutional.
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Movement of an Edge Dislocation
Figure 1.10 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress. Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals in much lower than that predicted by theory.
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Solidification
Figure 1.11 Schematic illustration of the stages during solidification of molten metal; each small square represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal; note that the crystallographic orientation of each site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidification continues. (d) Solidified metal, showing individual grains and grain boundaries; note the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other. Source: W. Rosenhain.
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Grain Sizes
TABLE 1.1 ASTM No. 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Grains/mm2 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128 256 512 1,024 2,048 4,096 8,200 16,400 32,800
Grains/mm3 0.7 2 5.6 16 45 128 360 1,020 2,900 8,200 23,000 65,000 185,000 520,000 1,500,000 4,200,000
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Preferred Orientation
Figure 1.12 Plastic deformation of idealized (equiaxed) grains in a specimen subjected to compression (such as occurs in the rolling or forging of metals): (a) before deformation; and (b) after deformation. Note hte alignment of grain boundaries along a horizontal direction; this effect is known as preferred orientation.
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Anisotropy
(b)
Figure 1.13 (a) Schematic illustration of a crack in sheet metal that has been subjected to bulging (caused by, for example, pushing a steel ball against the sheet). Note the orientation of the crack with respect to the rolling direction of the sheet; this sheet is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack (vertical dark line at the center) developed in a bulge test; the rolling direction of the sheet was vertical. Source: J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology.
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Annealing
Figure 1.14 Schematic illustration of the effects of recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth on mechanical properties and on the shape and size of grains. Note the formation of small new grains during recrystallization. Source: G. Sachs.
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Homologous Temperature Ranges for Various Processes
TABLE 1.2 Process Cold working Warm working Hot working
T/Tm < 0.3 0.3 to 0.5 > 0.6
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CHAPTER 2
Mechanical Behavior, Testing, and Manufacturing Properties of Materials
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Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials at Room Temperature

TABLE 2.1 Strength Glass fibers Graphite fibers Kevlar fibers Carbides Molybdenum Steels Tantalum Titanium Copper Reinforced Reinforced Thermoplastics Lead Hardness Diamond Cubic boron nitride Carbides Hardened steels Titanium Cast irons Copper Thermosets Magnesium thermosets thermoplastics Lead Rubbers Toughness Ductile metals Reinforced plastics Thermoplastics Wood Thermosets Ceramics Glass Ceramics Reinforced Thermoplastics Tin Thermoplastics Stiffness Diamond Carbides Tungsten Steel Copper Titanium Aluminum Tantalum plastics Wood Thermosets Strength/Density Reinforced plastics Titanium Steel Aluminum Magnesium Beryllium Copper
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Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine

(b)
Figure 2.1 (a) A standard tensile-test specimen before and after pulling, showing original and final gage lengths. (b) A typical tensile-testing machine.
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Stress-Strain Curve
Figure 2.2 A typical stressstrain curve obtained from a tension test, showing various features.
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Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature

TABLE 2.2 Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature
Metals (Wrought)
Aluminum and its alloys Copper and its alloys Lead and its alloys Magnesium and its alloys Molybdenum and its alloys Nickel and its alloys Steels Titanium and its alloys Tungsten and its alloys
E (GPa)
6979 105150 14 4145 330360 180214 190200 80130 350400
Y (MPa)
35550 761100 14 130305 802070 1051200 2051725 3441380 550690
UTS (MPa)
90600 1401310 2055 240380 902340 3451450 4151750 4151450 620760
Elongation in 50 mm (%)
454 653 509 215 4030 605 652 257 0
Nonmetallic materials
701000 1402600 0 Ceramics Diamond 8201050 140 Glass and porcelain 70-80 Rubbers 0.010.1 780 10005 Thermoplastics 1.43.4 101 250 20120 Thermoplastics, reinforced 35170 0 Thermosets 3.517 3500 0 380 Boron fibers 20003000 0 275415 Carbon fibers 0 Glass fibers 7385 35004600 0 2800 Kevlar fibers 62117 Note: In the upper table the lowest values for E, Y, and UTS and the highest values for elongation are for pure metals. Multiply gigapascals (GPa) by 145,000 to obtain pounds per square in. ( psi), megapascals (MPa) by 145 to obtain psi.
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Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test Specimen

Figure 2.3 Schematic illustration of the loading and the unloading of a tensile- test specimen. Note that, during unloading, the curve follows a path parallel to the original elastic slope.
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Elongation versus % Area Reduction

Figure 2.4 Approximate relationship between elongation and tensile reduction of area for various groups of metals.
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Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve

Figure 2.5 (a) Load-elongation curve in tension testing of a stainless steel specimen. (b) Engineering stress-engineering strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5a. (c) True stress-true strain curve, drawn from the data in Fig. 2.5b. Note that this curve has a positive slope, indicating that the material is becoming stronger as it is strained. (d) True stress-true strain curve plotted on log-log paper and based on the corrected curve in Fig. 2.5c. The correction is due to the triaxial state of stress that exists in the necked region of a specimen.
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Typical Values for K and n at Room Temperature

TABLE 2.3
K (MPa)
Aluminum 1100O 2024T4 6061O 6061T6 7075O Brass 7030, annealed 8515, cold-rolled Cobalt-base alloy, heat-treated Copper, annealed Steel Low-C annealed 4135 annealed 4135 cold-rolled 4340 annealed 304 stainless, annealed 410 stainless, annealed 180 690 205 410 400 900 580 2070 315 530 1015 1100 640 1275 960
n
0.20 0.16 0.20 0.05 0.17 0.49 0.34 0.50 0.54 0.26 0.17 0.14 0.15 0.45 0.10
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True Stress-True Strain Curves

Figure 2.6 True stress-true strain curves in tension at room temperature for various metals. The curves start at a finite level of stress: The elastic regions have too steep a slope to be shown in this figure, and so each curve starts at the yield stress, Y, of the material.
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Temperature Effects on Stress-Strain Curves

Figure 2.7 Typical effects of temperature on stress-strain curves. Note that temperature affects the modulus of elasticity, the yield stress, the ultimate tensile strength, and the toughness (area under the curve) of materials.
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Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in Manufacturing Processes

TABLE 2.4
Process
Cold working Forging, rolling Wire and tube drawing Explosive forming Hot working and warm working Forging, rolling Extrusion Machining Sheet-metal forming Superplastic forming
True strain
0.10.5 0.050.5 0.050.2 0.10.5 25 110 0.10.5 0.23
Deformation rate (m/s)

0.1100 0.1100 10100 0.130 0.11 0.1100 0.052 -4 -2 10 -10
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Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate Tensile Strength

Figure 2.8 The effect of strain rate on the ultimate tensile strength for aluminum. Note that, as the temperature increases, the slopes of the curves increase; thus, strength becomes more and more sensitive to strain rate as temperature increases. Source: J. H. Hollomon.
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Disk and Torsion-Test Specimens

Figure 2.9 Disk test on a brittle material, showing the direction of loading and the fracture path.
Figure 2.10 Typical torsion-test specimen; it is mounted between the two heads of a testing machine and twisted. Note the shear deformation of an element in the reduced section of the specimen.
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Bending
Figure 2.11 Two bend-test methods for brittle materials: (a) three-point bending; (b) fourpoint bending. The areas on the beams represent the bendingmoment diagrams, described in texts on mechanics of solids. Note the region of constant maximum bending moment in (b); by contrast, the maximum bending moment occurs only at the center of the specimen in (a).
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Hardness Tests
Figure 2.12 General characteristics of hardness-testing methods and formulas for calculating hardness. The quantity P is the load applied. Source: H. W. Hayden, et al., The Structure and Properties of Materials, Vol. III (John Wiley & Sons, 1965).
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Brinell Testing
Figure 2.13 Indentation geometry in Brinell testing; (a) annealed metal; (b) work-hardened metal; (c) deformation of mild steel under a spherical indenter. Note that the depth of the permanently deformed zone is about one order of magnitude larger than the depth of indentation. For a hardness test to be valid, this zone should be fully developed in the material. Source: M. C. Shaw and C. T. Yang.
(c)
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Hardness Conversion Chart

Figure 2.14 Chart for converting various hardness scales. Note the limited range of most scales. Because of the many factors involved, these conversions are approximate.
S-N Curves
Figure 2.15 Typical S-N curves for two metals. Note that, unlike steel, aluminum does not have an endurance limit.
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Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength versus Tensile Strength

Figure 2.16 Ratio of endurance limit to tensile strength for various metals, as a function of tensile strength. Because aluminum does not have an endurance limit, the correlation for aluminum are based on a specific number of cycles, as is seen in Fig. 2.15.
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Creep Curve
Figure 2.17 Schematic illustration of a typical creep curve. The linear segment of the curve (secondary) is used in designing components for a specific creep life.
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Impact Test Specimens

Figure 2.18 Impact test specimens: (a) Charpy; (b) Izod.
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Failures of Materials and Fractures in Tension

Figure 2.19 Schematic illustration of types of failures in materials: (a) necking and fracture of ductile materials; (b) Buckling of ductile materials under a compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in compression; (d) cracking on the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression.
Figure 2.20 Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals--see also Fig. 1.6a; (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals; (d) complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area.
Ductile Fracture
Figure 2.21 Surface of ductile fracture in low-carbon steel, showing dimples. Fracture is usually initiated at impurities, inclusions, or preexisting voids (microporosity) in the metal. Source: K.-H. Habig and D. Klaffke. Photo by BAM Berlin/Germany.
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Fracture of a Tensile-Test Specimen
Figure 2.22 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) the rest of the cross-section begins to fail at the periphery, by shearing; (e) the final fracture surfaces, known as cup- (top fracture surface) and cone- (bottom surface) fracture.
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Deformation of Soft and Hard Inclusions
Figure 2.23 Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and of their effect on void formation in plastic deformation. Note that, because they do not comply with the overall deformation of the ductile matrix, hard inclusions can cause internal voids.
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Transition Temperature
Figure 2.24 Schematic illustration of transition temperature in metals.
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Brittle Fracture Surface
Figure 2.25 Fracture surface of steel that has failed in a brittle manner. The fracture path is transgranular (through the grains). Magnification: 200X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
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Intergranular Fracture
Figure 2.26 Intergranular fracture, at two different magnifications. Grains and grain boundaries are clearly visible in this micrograph. Te fracture path is along the grain boundaries. Magnification: left, 100X; right, 500X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
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Fatigue-Fracture Surface
Figure 2.27 Typical fatigue-fracture surface on metals, showing beach marks. Magnification: left, 500X; right, 1000X. Source: Courtesy of B. J. Schulze and S. L. Meiley and Packer Engineering Associates, Inc.
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Reduction in Fatigue Strength

Figure 2.28 Reductions in the fatigue strength of cast steels subjected to various surfacefinishing operations. Note that the reduction becomes greater as the surface roughness and the strength of the steel increase. Source: M. R. Mitchell.
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Residual Stresses
Figure 2.29 Residual stresses developed in bending a beam having a rectangular cross-section. Note that the horizontal forces and moments caused by residual stresses in the beam must be balanced internally. Because of nonuniform deformation during metalworking operations, most parts develop residual stresses.
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Distortion of Parts with Residual Stresses
Figure 2.30 Distortion of parts, with residual stresses, after cutting or slitting: (a) flat sheet or plate; (b) solid round rod; (c) think-walled tubing or pipe.
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CHAPTER 3
Physical Properties of Materials
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Physical Properties of Selected Materials at Room Temperature

TABLE 3.1 Physical Properties of Selected Materials at Room Temperature
Metal Aluminum Aluminum alloys Beryllium Columbium (niobium) Copper Copper alloys Iron Steels Lead Lead alloys Magnesium Magnesium alloys Molybdenum alloys Nickel Nickel alloys Tantalum alloys Titanium Titanium alloys Tungsten Zinc Zinc alloys Density 3 (kg/m ) 2700 26302820 1854 8580 8970 74708940 7860 69209130 11,350 885011,350 1745 17701780 10,210 8910 77508850 16,600 4510 44304700 19,290 7140 66407200 23005500 24002700 19002200 9002000 400700 Melting Point (C) 660 476654 1278 2468 1082 8851260 1537 13711532 327 182326 650 610621 2610 1453 11101454 2996 1668 15491649 3410 419 386525 5801540 110330 Specific heat (J/kg K) 900 880920 1884 272 385 377435 460 448502 130 126188 1025 1046 276 440 381544 142 519 502544 138 385 402 750950 500850 840 10002000 24002800 Thermal conductivity (W/m K) 222 121239 146 52 393 29234 74 1552 35 2446 154 75138 142 92 1263 54 17 812 166 113 105113 1017 0.61.7 510 0.10.4 0.10.4
Nonmetallic
Ceramics Glasses Graphite Plastics Wood
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Physical Properties of Material

TABLE 3.2 Physical Properties of Materials, in Descending Order
Density
Platinum Gold Tungsten Tantalum Lead Silver Molybdenum Copper Steel Titanium Aluminum Beryllium Glass Magnesium Plastics
Melting point
Tungsten Tantalum Molybdenum Columbium Titanium Iron Beryllium Copper Gold Silver Aluminum Magnesium Lead Tin Plastics
Specific heat
Wood Beryllium Porcelain Aluminum Graphite Glass Titanium Iron Copper Molybdenum Tungsten Lead
Thermal conductivity
Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Magnesium Graphite Tungsten Beryllium Zinc Steel Tantalum Ceramics Titanium Glass Plastics
Thermal expansion
Plastics Lead Tin Magnesium Aluminum Copper Steel Gold Ceramics Glass Tungsten
Electrical conductivity
Silver Copper Gold Aluminum Magnesium Tungsten Beryllium Steel Tin Graphite Ceramics Glass Plastics Quartz
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Figure 3.1 Specific strength (tensile strength/density) and specific stiffness (elastic modulus/density) for various materials at room temperature. (See also Chapter 9.) Source: M.J. Salkind.
Specific Strength and Specific Stiffness
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Specific Strength versus Temperature
Figure 3.2 Specific strength (tensile strength/density) for a variety of materials as a function of temperature. Note the useful temperature range for these materials and the high values for composite materials.
CHAPTER 4
Metal Alloys: Their Structure and Strengthening by Heat Treatment
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Induction-Hardened Surface
Figure 4.1 Cross-section of gear teeth showing induction-hardened surfaces. Source: TOCCO Div., Park-Ohio Industries, Inc.
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Chapter 4 Outline
Figure 4.2 Outline of topics described in Chapter 4.
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Two-Phase System
Figure 4.3 (a) Schematic illustration of grains, grain boundaries, and particles dispersed throughout the structure of a two-phase system, such as a lead-copper alloy. The grains represent lead in solid solution in copper, and the particles are lead as a second phase. (b) Schematic illustration of a twophase system consisting of two sets of grains: dark, and light. The dark and the light grains have separate compositions and properties.
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Cooling Curve
Figure 4.4 Cooling curve for the solidification of pure metals. Note that freezing takes place at a constant temperature; during freezing the latent heat of solidification is given off.
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Nickel-Copper Alloy Phase Diagram

Figure 4.5 Phase diagram for nickelcopper alloy system obtained at a slow rate of solidification. Note that pure nickel and pure copper each has one freezing or melting temperature. The top circle on the right depicts the nucleation of crystals. The second circle shows the formation of dendrites (see Section 10.2). The bottom circle shows the solidified alloy, with grain boundaries.
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Mechanical Properties of Copper-Nickel and Copper-Zinc Alloys

Figure 4.6 Mechanical properties of copper-nickel and copper-zinc alloys as a function of their composition. The curves for zinc are short, because zinc has a maximum solid solubility of 40% in copper. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Lead-Tin Phase Diagram

Figure 4.7 The lead-tin phase diagram. Note that the composition of the eutectic point for this alloy is 61.9% Sn-38.1% Pb. A composition either lower or higher than this ratio will have a higher liquidus temperature.
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Iron-Iron Carbide Phase Diagram

Figure 4.8 The iron-iron carbide phase diagram. Because of the importance of steel as an engineering material, this diagram is one of the most important of all phase diagrams.
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Austenite, Ferrite, and Martensite
Figure 4.9 The unit cells for (a) austenite, (b) ferrite, and (c) martensite. The effect of percentage of carbon (by weight) on the lattice dimensions for martensite is shown in (d). Note the interstitial position of the carbon atoms (see Fig. 1.9). Note, also, the increase in dimension c with increasing carbon content; this effect causes the unit cell of martensite to be in the shape of a rectangular prism.
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Iron-Carbon Alloy Above and Below Eutectoid Temperature
Figure 4.10 Schematic illustration of the microstructures for an ironcarbon alloy of eutectoid composition (0.77% carbon), above and below the eutectoid temperature of 727 C (1341 F).
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Pearlite Microstructure
Figure 4.11 Microstructure of pearlite in 1080 steel, formed from austenite of eutectoid composition. In this lamellar structure, the lighter regions are ferrite, and the darker regions are carbide. Magnification: 2500X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
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Extended Iron-Carbon Phase Diagram
Figure 4.12 Phase diagram for the iron-carbon system with graphite (instead of cementite) as the stable phase. Note that this figure is an extended version of Fig. 4.8.
Microstructures for Cast Irons

(a) (b) (c)
Figure 4.13 Microstructure for cast irons. Magnification: 100X. (a) Ferritic gray iron with graphite flakes. (b) Ferritic Ductile iron (nodular iron), with graphite in nodular form. (c) Ferritic malleable iron; this cast iron solidified as white cast iron, with the carbon present as cementite, and was heat treated to graphitize the carbon. Source: ASM International.
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Austenite to Pearlite Transformation
Figure 4.14 (a) Austeniteto-pearlite transformation of iron-carbon alloy as a functionof time and temperature. (b) Isothermal transformation diagram obtained from (a) for a transformation temperature of 675 C (1247 F). (continued)
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Austenite to Pearlite Transformation (cont.)

Figure 4.14 (c) Microstructures obtained for a eutectoid iron-carbon alloy as a function of cooling rate. Source: ASM International.
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Hardness and Toughness of Annealed Steels

Figure 4.15 (a) and (b) Hardness and (c) toughness for annealed plain-carbon steels, as a function of carbide shape. Carbides in the pearlite are lamellar. Fine pearlite is obtained by increasing the cooling rate. The spheroidite structure has spherelike carbide particles. Note htat the percentage of pearlite begins to decrease after 0.77% carbon. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Mechanical Properties of Annealed Steels
Figure 4.16 Mechanical properties of annealed steels, as a function of composition and microstructure. Note (in (a)) the increase in hardness and strength and (in (b)) the decrease in ductility and toughness, with increasing amounts of pearlite and iron carbide. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Eutectoid Steel Microstructure
Figure 4.17 Microstructure of eutectoid steel. Spheroidite is formed by tempering the steel at 700 C (1292 F). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
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Martensite
(b)
Figure 4.18 (a) Hardness of martensite, as a function of carbon content. (b) Micrograph of martensite containing 0.8% carbon. The gray platelike regions are martensite; they have the same composition as the original austenite (white regions). Magnification: 1000X. Source: Courtesy of USX Corporation.
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Hardness of Tempered Martensite

Figure 4.19 Hardness of tempered martensite, as a function of tempering time, for 1080 steel quenched to 65 HRC. Hardness decreases because the carbide particles coalesce and grow in size, thereby increasing the interparticle distance of the softer ferrite.
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End-Quench Hardenability Test
Figure 4.20 (a) End-quench test and cooling rate. (b) Hardenability curves for five different steels, as obtained from the end-quench test. Small variations in composition can change the shape of these curves. Each curve is actually a band, and its exact determination is important in the heat treatment of metals, for better control of properties. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Aluminum-Copper Phase Diagram

Figure 4.21 (a) Phase diagram for the aluminum-copper alloy system. (b) Various microstructures obtained during the age-hardening process. Source: L. H. Van Vlack; Materials for Engineering. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc., 1982.
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Age Hardening
Figure 4.22 The effect of aging time and temperature on the yield stress of 2014-T4 aluminum alloy. Note that, for each temperature, there is an optimal aging time for maximum strength.
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Outline of Heat Treatment Processes for Surface Hardening

TABLE 4.1
Process Carburizing Metals hardened Low-carbon steel (0.2% C), alloy steels (0.080.2% C) Element added to surface C Procedure Heat steel at 870950 C (16001750 F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous gases (gas carburizing) or carboncontaining solids (pack carburizing). Then quench. Heat steel at 700800 C (13001600 F) in an atmosphere of carbonaceous gas and ammonia. Then quench in oil. General Characteristics A hard, high-carbon surface is produced. Hardness 55 to 65 HRC. Case depth < 0.51.5 mm ( < 0.020 to 0.060 in.). Some distortion of part during heat treatment. Surface hardness 55 to 62 HRC. Case depth 0.07 to 0.5 mm (0.003 to 0.020 in.). Less distortion than in carburizing. Surface hardness up to 65 HRC. Case depth 0.025 to 0.25 mm (0.001 to 0.010 in.). Some distortion. Surface hardness up to 1100 HV. Case depth 0.1 to 0.6 mm (0.005 to 0.030 in.) and 0.02 to 0.07 mm (0.001 to 0.003 in.) for high speed steel. Extremely hard and wear resistant surface. Case depth 0.025 0.075 mm (0.001 0.003 in.). Surface hardness 50 to 60 HRC. Case depth 0.7 to 6 mm (0.030 to 0.25 in.). Little distortion. Same as above Typical applications Gears, cams, shafts, bearings, piston pins, sprockets, clutch plates
Carbonitriding
Low-carbon steel
C and N
Bolts, nuts, gears
Cyaniding
Nitriding
Boronizing
Low-carbon steel (0.2% C), alloy steels (0.080.2% C) Steels (1% Al, 1.5% Cr, 0.3% Mo), alloy steels (Cr, Mo), stainless steels, high-speed tool steels Steels
C and N
Heat steel at 760845 C (14001550 F) in a molten bath of solutions of cyanide (e.g., 30% sodium cyanide) and other salts. Heat steel at 500600 C (9251100 F) in an atmosphere of ammonia gas or mixtures of molten cyanide salts. No further treatment.
Bolts, nuts, screws, small gears
Gears, shafts, sprockets, valves, cutters, boring bars, fuel-injection pump parts
Part is heated using boron-containing gas or solid in contact with part.
Tool and die steels
Flame hardening
Medium-carbon steels, cast irons
None
Surface is heated with an oxyacetylene torch, then quenched with water spray or other quenching methods. Metal part is placed in copper induction coils and is heated by high frequency current, then quenched.
Induction hardening
Same as above
None
Gear and sprocket teeth, axles, crankshafts, piston rods, lathe beds and centers Same as above
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Heat Treatment Processes

Figure 4.23 Heat-treating temperature ranges for plain-carbon steels, as indicated on the iron-iron carbide phase diagram. Source: ASM International.
Figure 4.24 Hardness of steels in the quenched and normalized conditions, as a function of carbon content.
Properties of Oil-Quenched Steel

Figure 4.25 Mechanical properties of oil-quenched 4340 steel, as a function of tempering temperature. Source: Courtesy of LTV Steel Company
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Induction Heating
Figure 4.26 Types of coils used in induction heating of various surfaces of parts.
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CHAPTER 5
Ferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications
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Blast Furnace
Figure 5.1 Schematic illustration of a blast furnace. Source: Courtesy of American Iron and Steel Institute.
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Electric Furnaces
Figure 5.2 Schematic illustration of types of electric furnaces: (a) direct arc, (b) indirect arc, and (c) induction.
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Basic-Oxygen Process
Figure 5.3 Schematic illustrations showing (a) charging, (b) melting, and (c) pouring of molten iron in a basic-oxygen process. Source: Inland Steel Company
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Continuous Casting
Figure 5.4 The continuous-casting process for steel. Typically, the solidified metal descends at a speed of 25 mm/s (1 in./s). Note that the platform is about 20 m (65 ft) above ground level. Source: Metalcaster's Reference and Guide, American Foundrymen's Society.
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Typical Selection of Carbon and Alloy Steels for Various Applications

TABLE 5.1 Product
Aircraft forgings, tubing, fittings Automobile bodies Axles Ball bearings and races Bolts Camshafts Chains (transmission) Coil springs Connecting rods Crankshafts (forged)
Steel
4140, 8740 1010 1040, 4140 52100 1035, 4042, 4815 1020, 1040 3135, 3140 4063 1040, 3141, 4340 1045, 1145, 3135, 3140
Product
Differential gears Gears (car and truck) Landing gear Lock washers Nuts Railroad rails and wheels Springs (coil) Springs (leaf) Tubing Wire Wire (music)
Steel
4023 4027, 4140, 1060 3130 1080 1095, 1085, 1040 1045, 1085 4032 4340, 8740
4063, 6150 4063, 9260, 6150 1055
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Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and Alloy Steels in Various Conditions

TABLE 5.2 Typical Mechanical Properties of Selected Carbon and Alloy Steels in the Hot-Rolled, Normalized, and Annealed Condition
AISI Condition Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 448 441 393 1010 965 615 891 689 1279 744 632 536 Yield Strength (MPa) 346 330 294 586 524 375 599 422 861 472 385 357 Elongation in 50 mm (%) Reduction of area (%) Hardness (HB)
1020
1080
3140 4340 8620
As-rolled Normalized Annealed As-rolled Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed Normalized Annealed
36 35 36 12 11 24 19 24 12 22 26 31
59 67 66 17 20 45 57 50 36 49 59 62
143 131 111 293 293 174 262 197 363 217 183 149
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AISI Designation for High-Strength Sheet Steel

TABLE 5.3 Yield Strength psi x 10 35 40 45 50 60 70 80 100 120 140
3
Chemical Composition S = structural alloy
Deoxidation Practice F = killed plus sulfide inclusion control
MPa 240 275 310 350 415 485 550 690 830 970
X = low alloy K = killed W = weathering O = nonkilled D = dual phase
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Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Applications of Annealed Stainless Steels

TABLE 5.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Annealed Stainless Steels Ultimate tensile Yield Elongation AISI strength strength in 50 mm (UNS) (MPa) (MPa) (%) Characteristics and typical applications 303 550620 240260 5350 Screw machine products, shafts, valves, bolts, (S30300) bushings, and nuts; aircraft fittings; bolts; nuts; rivets; screws; studs. 304 (S30400) 316 (S31600) 565620 240290 6055 Chemical and food processing equipment, brewing equipment, cryogenic vessels, gutters, downspouts, and flashings. High corrosion resistance and high creep strength. Chemical and pulp handling equipment, photographic equipment, brandy vats, fertilizer parts, ketchup cooking kettles, and yeast tubs. Machine parts, pump shafts, bolts, bushings, coal chutes, cutlery, tackle, hardware, jet engine parts, mining machinery, rifle barrels, screws, and valves. Aircraft fittings, bolts, nuts, fire extinguisher inserts, rivets, and screws.
550590
210290
6055
410 (S41000)
480520
240310
3525
416 (S41600)
480520
275
3020
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Basic Types of Tool and Die Steels

TABLE 5.5 Type High speed Hot work AISI M (molybdenum base) T (tungsten base) H1 to H19 (chromium base) H20 to H39 (tungsten base) H40 to H59 (molybdenum base) D (high carbon, high chromium) A (medium alloy, air hardening) O (oil hardening) S P1 to P19 (low carbon) P20 to P39 (others) L (low alloy) F (carbon-tungsten) W
Cold work Shock resisting Mold steels Special purpose Water hardening
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Processing and Service Characteristics of Common Tool and Die Steels

TABLE 5.6 Processing and Service Characteristics of Common Tool and Die Steels
AISI designation M2 T1 T5 H11, 12, 13 A2 A9 D2 D3 H21 H26 P20 P21 W1, W2 Resistance to decarburization Medium High Low Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium Medium High High Highest Resistance to cracking Medium High Medium Highest Highest Highest Highest High High High High Highest Medium Approximate hardness (HRC) 6065 6065 6065 3855 5762 3556 5461 5461 3654 4358 2837 3040 5064 Machinability Medium Medium Medium Medium to high Medium Medium Low Low Medium Medium Medium to high Medium Highest Toughness Low Low Low Very high Medium High Low Low High Medium High Medium High Resistance to softening Very high Very high Highest High High High High High High Very high Low Medium Low Resistance to wear Very high Very high Very high Medium High Medium to high High to very high Very high Medium to high High Low to medium Medium Low to medium
Source: Adapted from Tool Steels, American Iron and Steel Institute, 1978.
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CHAPTER 6
Nonferrous Metals and Alloys: Production, General Properties, and Applications
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Approximate Cost per Unit Volume for Wrought Metals and Plastics Relative to Carbon Steel
TABLE 6.1 Approximate Cost per Unit Volume for Wrought Metals and Plastics Relative to Cost of Carbon Steel
Gold 60,000 Magnesium alloys 24 Silver 600 Aluminum alloys 23 Molybdenum alloys 200250 High-strength low-alloy steels 1.4 Nickel 35 Gray cast iron 1.2 Titanium alloys 2040 Carbon steel 1 * Copper alloys 56 1.12 Nylons, acetals, and silicon rubber * Zinc alloys 1.53.5 0.21 Other plastics and elastomers Stainless steels 29 *As molding compounds. Note: Costs vary significantly with quantity of purchase, supply and demand, size and shape, and various other factors.
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General Characteristics of Nonferrous Metals and Alloys

TABLE 6.2
Material Nonferrous alloys Aluminum Magnesium Copper Superalloys Titanium Refractory metals Precious metals Characteristics More expensive than steels and plastics; wide range of mechanical, physical, and electrical properties; good corrosion resistance; high-temperature applications. High strength-to-weight ratio; high thermal and electrical conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good manufacturing properties. Lightest metal; good strength-to-weight ratio. High electrical and thermal conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good manufacturing properties. Good strength and resistance to corrosion at elevated temperatures; can be iron-, cobalt-, and nickel-base. Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all metals; good strength and corrosion resistance at high temperatures. Molybdenum, niobium (columbium), tungsten, and tantalum; high strength at elevated temperatures. Gold, silver, and platinum; generally good corrosion resistance.
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Example of Alloy Usage

Figure 6.1 Crosssection of a jet engine (PW2037) showing various components and the alloys used in manufacturing them. Source: Courtesy of United Aircraft Pratt & Whitney.
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Properties of Selected Aluminum Alloys at Room Temperature

TABLE 6.3
Alloy (UNS) 1100 (A91100) 1100 2024 (A92024) 2024 3003 (A93003) 3003 5052 (A95052) 5052 6061 (A96061) 6061
7075 (A97075) 7075
Temper O H14 O T4 O H14 O H34 O T6

O T6
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 90 125 190 470 110 150 190 260 125 310
230 570
Yield strength (MPa) 35 120 75 325 40 145 90 215 55 275

105 500
Elongation in 50 mm (%) 3545 920 2022 1920 3040 816 2530 1014 2530 1217
1617 11
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Manufacturing Properties and Applications of Selected Wrought Aluminum Alloys

TABLE 6.4
Characteristics* Alloy 1100 2024 3003 Corrosion resistance A C A Machinability CD BC CD Weldability A BC A Typical applications Sheet metal work, spun hollow ware, tin stock Truck wheels, screw machine products, aircraft structures Cooking utensils, chemical equipment, pressure vessels, sheet metal work, builders hardware, storage tanks Sheet metal work, hydraulic tubes, and appliances; bus, truck and marine uses Heavy-duty structures where corrosion resistance is needed, truck and marine structures, railroad cars, furniture, pipelines, bridge rail-ings, hydraulic tubing Aircraft and other structures, keys, hydraulic fittings
5052 6061
A B
CD CD
A A
7075
BD
* A, excellent; D, poor.
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All-Aluminum Automobile
Figure 6.2 (a) The Audi A8 automobile which has an allaluminum body structure. (b) The aluminum body structure, showing various components made by extrusion, sheet forming, and casting processes. Source: Courtesy of ALCOA, Inc.
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Properties and Typical Forms of Selected Wrought Magnesium Alloys

TABLE 6.5
Composition (%) Alloy AZ31 B AZ80A HK31A ZK60A Al 3.0 8.5 Zn 1.0 0.5 Mn 0.2 0.2 3Th 5.7 0.7 0.55 Zr Condition F H24 T5 H24 T5 Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 260 290 380 255 365 Yield strength (MPa) 200 220 275 200 300 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 15 15 7 8 11
Typical forms Extrusions Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings
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Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Copper and Brasses

TABLE 6.6
Type and UNS number Electrolytic tough pitch copper (C11000) Red brass, 85% (C23000) Nominal composition (%) 99.90 Cu, 0.04 O Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 220450 Yield strength (MPa) 70365 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 554
85.0 Cu, 15.0 Zn
270725
70435
553
Cartridge brass, 70% (C26000)
70.0 Cu, 30.0 Zn
300900
75450
663
Free-cutting brass (C36000) Naval brass (C46400 to C46700)
61.5 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 35.5 Zn 60.0 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn
340470 380610
125310 170455
5318 5017
Typical applications Downspouts, gutters, roofing, gaskets, auto radiators, busbars, nails, printing rolls, rivets Weather-stripping, conduits, sockets, fas-teners, fire extinguishers, condenser and heat exchanger tubing Radiator cores and tanks, flashlight shells, lamp fixtures, fasteners, locks, hinges, ammunition components, plumbing accessories Gears, pinions, automatic highspeed screw machine parts Aircraft turnbuckle barrels, balls, bolts, marine hardware, propeller shafts, rivets, valve stems, condenser plates
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Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Bronzes

TABLE 6.7
Nominal composition (%) 57.0 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 40.0 Zn 95.0 Cu, 5.0 Sn, trace P Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 415 (As extruded) 325960 Yield strength (MPa) 140 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 30
Type and UNS number Architectural bronze (C38500) Phosphor bronze, 5% A (C51000)
130550
642
Free-cutting phosphor bronze (C54400) Low silicon bronze, B (C65100) Nickel silver, 6510 (C74500)
88.0 Cu, 4.0 Pb, 4.0 Zn, 4.0 Sn 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si
300520 275655
130435 100475
5015 5511
65.0 Cu, 25.0 Zn, 10.0 Ni
340900
125525
501
Typical applications Architectural extrusions, store fronts, thresholds, trim, butts, hinges Bellows, clutch disks, cotter pins, diaphragms, fasteners, wire brushes, chemical hardware, textile machinery Bearings, bushings, gears, pinions, shafts, thrust washers, valve parts Hydraulic pressure lines, bolts, marine hardware, electrical conduits, heat exchanger tubing Rivets, screws, slide fasteners, hollow ware, nameplates
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Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel Alloys

TABLE 6.8 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel Alloys (All are Trade Names)
Nominal composition (%) None Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 380550 Yield strength (MPa) 100275 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 6040
Type and UNS number Nickel 200 (annealed)
Duranickel 301
4.4 Al, 0.6 Ti
1300
900
28
Monel R-405 (hot rolled) Monel K-500 Inconel 600 (annealed)
30 Cu 29 Cu, 3 Al 15 Cr, 8 Fe
525 1050 640
230 750 210
35 30 48
Hastelloy C-4 (solutiontreated and quenched)
16 Cr, 15 Mo
785
400
54
Typical applications Chemical and food processing industry, aerospace equipment, electronic parts Springs, plastics extrusion equipment, (age hardened) molds for glass, diaphragms Screw-machine products, water meter parts Pump shafts, valve stems, springs (age hardened) Gas turbine parts, heat-treating equipment, electronic parts, nuclear reactors High temperature stability, resistance to stress-corrosion cracking
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Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870 C

TABLE 6.9 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870 C (1600 F) (All are Trade Names)
Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) 770 255 885 215 285 340 840 730 620 690 525 Yield strength (MPa) 690 180 695 200 275 330 760 605 550 635 515 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 25 50 6 110 125 88 4 8 19 27 35
Alloy Astroloy Hastelloy X IN-100 IN-102 Inconel 625 lnconel 718 MAR-M 200 MAR-M 432 Ren 41 Udimet 700 Waspaloy
Condition Wrought Wrought Cast Wrought Wrought Wrought Cast Cast Wrought Wrought Wrought
Typical applications Forgings for high temperature Jet engine sheet parts Jet engine blades and wheels Superheater and jet engine parts Aircraft engines and structures, chemical processing equipment Jet engine and rocket parts Jet engine blades Integrally cast turbine wheels Jet engine parts Jet engine parts Jet engine parts
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Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Titanium Alloys

TABLE 6.10 Properties and Typical Applications of Selected Wrought Titanium Alloys at Various Temperatures
Nominal composition (%) UNS Condition Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) Elongation (%) Reduction of area (%) Temp. (C) Ultimate tensile strength (MPa) Yield strength (MPa) Elongation in 50 mm (%) Reduction of area Typical Applications
99.5 Ti
R50250
Annealed
330
240
30
55
300
150
95
32
80
5 Al, 2.5 Sn
R54520
Annealed
860
810
16
40
300
565
450
18
45
6 Al, 4V
R56400
Annealed
1000
925
14
30
300
725
650
14
35
Airframes; chemical, desalination, and marine parts; plate type heat exchangers Aircraft engine compressor blades and ducting; steam turbine blades Rocket motor cases; blades and disks for aircraft turbines and compressors; structural forgings and fasteners; orthopedic implants
Solution + age
1175
1100
10
20
425 550 300
670 530 980
570 430 900
18 35 10 12 22 12
40 50 28 35 45
13 V, 11 Cr, 3 Al
R58010
Solution + age
1275
1210
425
1100
830
High strength fasteners; aerospace components; honeycomb panels
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CHAPTER 7
Polymers: Structure, General Properties and Applications
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Range of Mechanical Properties for Various Engineering Plastics

TABLE 7.1 Material ABS ABS, reinforced Acetal Acetal, reinforced Acrylic Cellulosic Epoxy Epoxy, reinforced Fluorocarbon Nylon Nylon, reinforced Phenolic Polycarbonate Polycarbonate, reinforced Polyester Polyester, reinforced Polyethylene Polypropylene Polypropylene, reinforced Polystyrene Polyvinyl chloride
UTS (MPa) 2855 100 5570 135 4075 1048 35140 701400 748 5583 70210 2870 5570 110 55 110160 740 2035 40100 1483 755
E (GPa) 1.42.8 7.5 1.43.5 10 1.43.5 0.41.4 3.517 2152 0.72 1.42.8 210 2.821 2.53 6 2 8.312 0.11.4 0.71.2 3.56 1.44 0.0144
Elongation (%) 755 7525 505 1005 101 42 300100 20060 101 20 12510 64 3005 31 100015 50010 42 601 45040
Poissons ratio () 0.35 0.350.40 0.460.48 0.320.40 0.38 0.38 0.46 0.35
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Chapter 7 Outline
Figure 7.1 Outline of the topics described in Chapter 7
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Structure of Polymer Molecules
Figure 7.2 Basic structure of polymer molecules: (a) ethylene molecule; (b) polyethylene, a linear chain of many ethylene molecules; molecular structure of various polymers. These are examples of the basic building blocks for plastics
Molecular Weight and Degree of Polymerization

Figure 7.3 Effect of molecular weight and degree of polymerization on the strength and viscosity of polymers.
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Polymer Chains
Figure 7.4 Schematic illustration of polymer chains. (a) Linear structure-thermoplastics such as acrylics, nylons, polyethylene, and polyvinyl chloride have linear structures. (b) Branched structure, such as in polyethylene. (c) Cross-linked structure--many rubbers or elastomers have this structure, and the vulcanization of rubber produces this structure. (d) Network structure, which is basically highly cross-linked-examples are thermosetting plastics, such as epoxies and phenolics.
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Polymer Behavior
Figure 7.5 Behavior of polymers as a function of temperature and (a) degree of crystallinity and (b) cross-linking. The combined elastic and viscous behavior of polymers is known as viscoelasticity.
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Crystallinity
Figure 7.6 Amorphous and crystalline regions in a polymer. The crystalline region (crystallite) has an orderly arrangement of molecules. The higher the crystallinity, the harder, stiffer, and less ductile the polymer.
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Specific Volume as a Function of Temperature

Figure 7.7 Specific volume of polymers as a function of temperature. Amorphous polymers, such as acrylic and polycarbonate, have a glass-transition temperature, Tg, but do not have a specific melting point, Tm. Partly crystalline polymers, such as polyethylene and nylons, contract sharply while passing through their melting temperatures during cooling.
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Glass-Transition and Melting Temperatures of Some Polymers

TABLE 7.2 Material Nylon 6,6 Polycarbonate Polyester Polyethylene High density Low density Polymethylmethacrylate Polypropylene Polystyrene Polytetrafluoroethylene Polyvinyl chloride Rubber Tg (C) 57 150 73 90 110 105 14 100 90 87 73 Tm (C) 265 265 265 137 115 176 239 327 212
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Behavior of Plastics
Figure 7.8 General terminology describing the behavior of three types of plastics. PTFE (polytetrafluoroethylene) has Teflon as its trade name. Source: R. L. E. Brown.
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Temperature Effects
Figure 7.9 Effect of temperature on the stress-strain curve for cellulose acetate, a thermoplastic. Note the large drop in strength and the large increase in ductility with a relatively small increase in temperature. Source: After T. S. Carswell and H. K. Nason.
Figure 7.10 Effect of temperature on the impact strength of various plastics. Small changes in temperature can have a significant effect on impact strength. Source: P. C. Powell.
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Elongation
(a) (b) Figure 7.11 (a) Loadelongation curve for polycarbonate, a thermoplastic. Source: R. P. Kambour and R. E. Robertson. (b) High-density polyethylene tensile-test specimen, showing uniform elongation (the long, narrow region in the specimen).
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General Recommendations for Plastic Products

TABLE 7.3 Design requirement Mechanical strength Functional and decorative Applications Gears, cams, rollers, valves, fan blades, impellers, pistons Handles, knobs, camera and battery cases, trim moldings, pipe fittings Power tools, pumps, housings, sport helmets, telephone cases Lenses, goggles, safety glazing, signs, food-processing equipment, laboratory hardware Gears, wear strips and liners, bearings, bushings, roller-skate wheels Plastics Acetal, nylon, phenolic, polycarbonate ABS, acrylic, cellulosic, phenolic, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene, polyvinyl chloride ABS, cellulosic, phenolic, polycarbonate, polyethylene, polypropylene, polystyrene Acrylic, polycarbonate, polystyrene, polysulfone Acetal, nylon, phenolic, polyimide, polyurethane, ultrahigh molecular weight polyethylene
Housings and hollow shapes
Functional and transparent
Wear resistance
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Load-Elongation Curve for Rubber
Figure 7.12 Typical load-elongation curve for rubbers. The clockwise lop, indicating the loading and the unloading paths, displays the hysteresis loss. Hysteresis gives rubbers the capacity to dissipate energy, damp vibraion, and absorb shock loading, as is necessary in automobile tires and in vibration dampers placed under machinery.
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CHAPTER 8
Ceramics, Graphite, and Diamond: Structure, General Properties, and Applications
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Examples of Ceramics
(a) (b)
Figure 8.1 A variety of ceramic components. (a) High-strength alumina for high-temperature applications. (b) Gas-turbine rotors made of silicon nitride. Source: Wesgo Div., GTE.
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TABLE 8.1 Type Oxide ceramics Alumina Zirconia Carbides Tungsten carbide
General Characteristics High hardness, moderate strength; most widely used ceramic; cutting tools, abrasives, electrical and thermal insulation. High strength and toughness; thermal expansion close to cast iron ; suitable for heat engine components. Hardness, strength, and wear resistance depend on cobalt binder content; commonly used for dies and cutting tools. Not as tough as tungsten carbide; has nickel and molybdenum as the binder; used as cutting tools. High-temperature strength and wear resistance ; used for heat engines and as abrasives. Second-hardest substance known, after diamond; used as abrasives and cutting tools. Gold in color; used as coatings because of low frictional characteristics. High resistance to creep and thermal shock; used in heat engines. Consists of silicon nitrides and other oxides and carbides; used as cutting tools. Consist of oxides, carbides, and nitrides; used in high-temperature applications. High temperature resistance; quartz exhibits piezoelectric effect; silicates containing various oxides are used in high-temperature nonstructural applications. Contain at least 50 percent silica; amorphous structures; several types available with a range of mechanical and physical properties. Have a high crystalline component to their structure ; good thermalshock resistance and strong. Crystalline form of carbon; high electrical and thermal conductivity; good thermal shock resistance. Hardest substance known; available as single crystal or polycrystalline form; used as cutting tools and abrasives and as dies for fine wire drawing.
Types and General Characteristics of Ceramics
Titanium carbide Silicon carbide Nitrides Cubic boron nitride Titanium nitride Silicon nitride Sialon Cermets Silica
Glasses Glass ceramics Graphite Diamond
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Properties of Various Ceramics at Room Temperature

TABLE 8.2
Transverse rupture strength (MPa) 140240 725 1400 100750 480600 14001900 10302600 620 Compressive strength (MPa) 10002900 7000 7000 1300 7003500 31003850 41005900 Elastic modulus (GPa) 310410 850 8301000 70 240480 300310 310410 520700 200 Hardness (HK) 20003000 40005000 70008000 550 21003000 20002500 18003200 18002400 1100 Poissons ratio () 0.26 0.25 0.14 0.24 0.30 Density (kg/m3) 40004500 3480 3500 3100 3300 55005800 10,00015,000 5800
Material Aluminum oxide Cubic boron nitride Diamond Silica, fused Silicon carbide Silicon nitride Titanium carbide Tungsten carbide Partially stabilized zirconia
Symbol Al2O3 CBN SiO2 SiC Si3 N4 TiC WC PSZ
Note: These properties vary widely depending on the condition of the material.
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Properties of Various Glasses

TABLE 8.3 Soda-lime glass High Low Low Moderate Good Good Poor Fair Poor Lowest Lead glass Highest Low Low Best Best Good Fair Poor Poor Low Borosilicate glass Medium Moderate Good Good Fair Poor Good Good Fair Medium 96 Percent silica Low High Better Good Poor None Better Good Good High Fused silica Lowest Highest Best Good Poorest None Best Best Good Highest
Density Strength Resistance to thermal shock Electrical resistivity Hot workability Heat treatability Chemical resistance Impact-abrasion resistance Ultraviolet-light transmission Relative cost
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Graphite Components
Figure 8.2 Various engineering components made of graphite. Source: Poco Graphite, Inc., a Unocal Co.
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CHAPTER 9
Composite Materials: Structure, General Properties, and Applications
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Application of Advanced Composite Materials

Figure 9.1 Application of advanced composite materials in Boeing 757-200 commercial aircraft. Source: Boeing Commercial Airplane Company.
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Methods of Reinforcing Plastics

Figure 9.2 Schematic illustration of methods of reinforcing plastics (matrix) with (a) particles, and (b) short or long fibers or flakes. The four layers of continuous fibers in illustration (c) are assembled into a laminate structure.
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Types and General Characteristics of Composite Materials

TABLE 9.1 Material Fibers Glass Graphite Boron Aramids (Kevlar) Other fibers Matrix materials Thermosets Thermoplastics Metals Ceramics Characteristics High strength, low stiffness, high density; lowest cost; E (calcium aluminoborosilicate) and S (magnesia-aluminosilicate) types commonly used. Available as high-modulus or high-strength; low cost; less dense than glass. High strength and stiffness; highest density; highest cost; has tungsten filament at its center. Highest strength-to-weight ratio of all fibers; high cost. Nylon, silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, boron carbide, boron nitride, tantalum carbide, steel, tungsten, molybdenum. Epoxy and polyester, with the former most commonly used; others are phenolics, fluorocarbons, polyethersulfone, silicon, and polyimides. Polyetheretherketone; tougher than thermosets but lower resistance to temperature. Aluminum, aluminum-lithium, magnesium, and titanium; fibers are graphite, aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, and boron. Silicon carbide, silicon nitride, aluminum oxide, and mullite; fibers are various ceramics.
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Strength and Stiffness of Reinforced Plastics

Figure 9.3 Specific tensile strength (tensile strength-to-density ratio) and specific tensile modulus (modulus of elasticity-to-density ratio) for various fibers used in reinforced plastics. Note the wide range of specific strengths and stiffnesses available.
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Typical Properties of Reinforcing Fibers

TABLE 9.2 Tensile strength (MPa) 3500 Elastic modulus (GPa) 380 Density 3 ( kg/m ) 2600
Relative cost Type Boron Highest Carbon High strength 3000 275 1900 Low High modulus 2000 415 1900 Low Glass E type 3500 73 2480 Lowest S type 4600 85 2540 Lowest Kevlar 29 2800 62 1440 High 49 2800 117 1440 High Note: These properties vary significantly depending on the material and method of preparation.
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Fiber Reinforcing
Figure 9.4 (a) Cross-section of a tennis racket, showing graphite and aramid (Kevlar) reinforcing fibers. Source: J. Dvorak, Mercury Marine Corporation, and F. Garrett, Wilson Sporting Goods Co. (b) Cross-section of boron fiber-reinforced composite material.
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Effect of Fiber Type on Fiber-Reinforced Nylon

Figure 9.5 The effect of type of fiber on various properties of fiber-reinforced nylon (6,6). Source: NASA.
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Fracture Surfaces of Fiber-Reinforced Epoxy Composites

(a) (b)
Figure 9.6 (a) Fracture surface of glass-fiber reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers are 10 m (400 in.) in diameter and have random orientation. (b) Fracture surface of a graphite-fiber reinforced epoxy composite. The fibers, 9 m-11 m in diameter, are in bundles and are all aligned in the same direction. Source: L. J. Broutman.
Tensile Strength of Glass-Reinforced Polyester
Figure 9.7 The tensile strength of glass-reinforced polyester as a function of fiber content and fiber direction in the matrix. Source: R. M. Ogorkiewicz, The Engineering Properties of Plastics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977.
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Example of Advanced Materials Construction

Figure 9.8 Cross-section of a composite sailboard, an example of advanced materials construction. Source: K. Easterling, Tomorrows Materials (2d ed.), p. 133. Institute of Metals, 1990.
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Metal-Matrix Composite Materials and Applications

TABLE 9.3 Fiber Graphite Matrix Aluminum Magnesium Lead Copper Aluminum Magnesium Titanium Aluminum Lead Magnesium Aluminum, titanium Superalloy (cobalt-base) Superalloy Applications Satellite, missile, and helicopter structures Space and satellite structures Storage-battery plates Electrical contacts and bearings Compressor blades and structural supports Antenna structures Jet-engine fan blades Superconductor restraints in fission power reactors Storage-battery plates Helicopter transmission structures High-temperature structures High-temperature engine components High-temperature engine components
Boron
Alumina
Silicon carbide Molybdenum, tungsten
2001 Prentice-Hall
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CHAPTER 10
Fundamentals of Metal-Casting
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-1
Cast Structures of Metals

Figure 10.1 Schematic illustration of three cast structures of metals solidified in a square mold: (a) pure metals; (b) solid-solution alloys; and (c) structure obtained by using nucleating agents. Source: G. W. Form, J. F. Wallace, J. L. Walker, and A. Cibula.
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Preferred Texture Development
Figure 10.2 Development of a preferred texture at a cool mold wall. Note that only favorably oriented grains grow away from the surface of the mold.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-3
Alloy Solidification
Figure 10.3 Schematic illustration of alloy solidification and temperature distribution in the solidifying metal. Note the formation of dendrites in the mushy zone.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-4
Solidification Patterns
Figure 10.4 (a) Solidification patterns for gray cast iron in a 180-mm (7-in.) square casting. Note that after 11 min. of cooling, dendrites reach each other, but the casting is still mushy throughout. It takes about two hours for this casting to solidify completely. (b) Solidification of carbon steels in sand and chill (metal) molds. Note the difference in solidification patterns as the carbon content increases. Source: H. F. Bishop and W. S. Pellini.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-5
Cast Structures
Figure 10.5 Schematic illustration of three basic types of cast structures: (a) columnar dendritic; (b) equiaxed dendritic; and (c) equiaxed nondendritic. Source: D. Apelian.
Figure 10.6 Schematic illustration of cast structures in (a) plane front, single phase, and (b) plane front, two phase. Source: D. Apelian.
2001 Prentice-Hall
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Riser-Gated Casting
Figure 10.7 Schematic illustration of a typical riser-gated casting. Risers serve as reservoirs, supplying molten metal to the casting as it shrinks during solidification. See also Fig. 11.4 Source: American Foundrymens Society.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-7
Fluidity Test
Figure 10.8 A test method for fluidity using a spiral mold. The fluidity index is the length of the solidified metal in the spiral passage. The greater the length of the solidified metal, the greater is its fluidity.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-8
Temperature Distribution
Figure 10.9 Temperature distribution at the interface of the mold wall and the liquid metal during solidification of metals in casting.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-9
Solidification Time
Figure 10.10 Solidified skin on a steel casting. The remaining molten metal is poured out at the times indicated in the figure. Hollow ornamental and decorative objects are made by a process called slush casting, which is based on this principle. Source: H. F. Taylor, J. Wulff, and M. C. Flemings.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-10
Solidification Contraction for Various Cast Metals

TABLE 10.1 Volumetric solidification contraction (%) 6.6 6.3 3.8 2.53 4 4.9 Volumetric solidification contraction (%) 4.5 4 Expansion to 2.5 4.2 45.5 6.5
Metal or alloy Aluminum Al4.5%Cu Al12%Si Carbon steel 1% carbon steel Copper Source: After R. A. Flinn.
Metal or alloy 70%Cu30%Zn 90%Cu10%Al Gray iron Magnesium White iron Zinc
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-11
Hot Tears
Figure 10.11 Examples of hot tears in castings. These defects occur because the casting cannot shrink freely during cooling, owing to constraints in various portions of the molds and cores. Exothermic (heat-producing) compounds may be used (as exothermic padding) to control cooling at critical sections to avoid hot tearing.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-12
Casting Defects
Figure 10.12 Examples of common defects in castings. These defects can be minimized or eliminated by proper design and preparation of molds and control of pouring procedures. Source: J. Datsko.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-13
Internal and External Chills

Figure 10.13 Various types of (a) internal and (b) external chills (dark areas at corners), used in castings to eliminate porosity caused by shrinkage. Chills are placed in regions where there is a larger volume of metals, as shown in (c).
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-14
Solubility of Hydrogen in Aluminum

Figure 10.14 Solubility of hydrogen in aluminum. Note the sharp decrease in solubility as the molten metal begins to solidify.
2001 Prentice-Hall
Page 10-15

Manufacturing Science Part 1

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Manufacturing Science Part 1

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CHAPTER 1

The Structure of Metals

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Figure 1.1 An outline of the topics described in Chapter 1

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Body-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Face-Centered Cubic Crystal Structure

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Hexagonal Close-Packed Crystal Structure

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Slip and Twinning

Slip Lines and Slip Bands

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Edge and Screw Dislocations

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Defects in a Single-Crystal Lattice

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Movement of an Edge Dislocation

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Homologous Temperature Ranges for Various Processes

TABLE 1.2 Process Cold working Warm working Hot working

T/Tm < 0.3 0.3 to 0.5 > 0.6

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Relative Mechanical Properties of Materials at Room Temperature

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Tensile-Test Specimen and Machine

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Mechanical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Loading and Unloading of Tensile-Test Specimen

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Elongation versus % Area Reduction

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Construction of True Stress-True Strain Curve

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Typical Values for K and n at Room Temperature

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

True Stress-True Strain Curves

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Temperature Effects on Stress-Strain Curves

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Typical Ranges of Strain and Deformation Rate in Manufacturing Processes

Deformation rate (m/s)

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Effect of Strain Rate on Ultimate Tensile Strength

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Disk and Torsion-Test Specimens

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Hardness Conversion Chart

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Endurance Limit/Tensile Strength versus Tensile Strength

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology

Impact Test Specimens

Kalpakjian Schmid Manufacturing Engineering and Technology