THE CHANGING STRUCTURE, SOCIAL RELATIONS AND RHYTHMS of work have been the subject of intense policy debate

and speculation. Will there be sufficient paid jobs, and will the employment opportunities of the future assume a radically different character from the past? Is the evidence in line with claims that we are witnessing a radical re-drawing of the boundaries between paid and unpaid work, with potentially profound implications for the character and composition of households? With policymakers, `think tanks and other visionaries vying to impose their particular interpretations of the future, there is no shortage of responses to these complex questions. Commentators assert that the forces of globalization, new technologies and business restructuring are challenging long established patterns of paid work while imposing new burdens on families, individuals and households. As the twenty-four hour, seven-day working week gains ascendancy, the possibility of achieving a satisfactory work-life balance is proving an elusive goal for more and more people. Others however see positive benefits in the blurring boundaries between factory, office and home life as new technologies and changes in business structures release opportunities for greater individual discretion over how, when and where paid work is performed. The Future of Work Program, launched in 1998 by the Economic and Social Research Council, aims to rectify existing gaps in our understanding of the changing world of work. The Program is supporting twenty-seven projects and more than one hundred researchers at twenty-two UK universities. Topics under investigation include the nature of home-work, the employment choices of mothers of pre-school children, and the determinants and distribution of caring work. Other projects are investigating the sources of the long hours employment culture and the increased dissatisfaction of employees with their jobs and working lives. The Future of Work-Life Balance Key findings from the Program are being brought to the attention of policymakers and practitioners through an extensive series of publications, seminars, workshops and conferences. The aim is to help improve the quality of information available to all parties with a direct interest in shaping the political, economic and social determinants of the future of paid work and its bearing on other aspects of social life. This is the second Report by Robert Taylor, the renowned international expert on work and employment. It takes as its point of departure the results of a workshop held in October 2001 at the UK Department of Education and Skills. Led by Dr Diane Houston and Professor Clare Unger son, the discussion focused on the distribution, status and performance of paid and unpaid work and the role of governments in shaping the character and delivery mechanisms of care work. The Report mobilizes new research evidence from these and other projects under the Program to challenge the parameters, content and policy implications of the contemporary UK debate about work-life balance. Referencing past and present challenges to employment, Robert Taylor sets out a stimulating policy agenda for improvements in the quality of working life in the future.

Emergency child-care Definition: Employees may sometimes need emergency child care because their child-care centre or usual caregiver cannot look after their child or because they have to work overtime. A company generally makes arrangements with a community organization or private company that specializes in this type of service. Considerations: This measure may help lessen the stress experienced by employees since they know they have access to emergency child-care services. It may help lower the rate of unexpected employee absenteeism. However, this measure must not be used to force an employee to use the service or authorize a manager to change the employees schedule without notice because the manager knows that the employee can use the service. The costs associated with such a measure may be high. The managers must promote and be able to refer their employees to such services.

Emergency eldercare Definition: Employees may need emergency care for an elderly person whom they care for because they cannot do it themselves (for example, they have to work overtime unexpectedly). Such services may entail outside-the-home or in-home care. A company may make arrangements with a community organization or private company that provides such services. Considerations: This measure may help lessen the stress experienced by employees. However, this measure must not be used to force an employee to use the service or authorize a manager to change the employees schedule without notice because the manager knows that the employee can use the service.

This measure may help lower the rate of unexpected employee absenteeism. The costs associated with such a measure may be high. The managers must promote and be able to refer their employees to such services.

Financial assistance for child-care expenses Definition: Some employers offer financial assistance to their employees rather than set up a child-care service. This assistance may be paid directly to the employees or may subsidize a space in an existing child care centre. Considerations: This measure may help lessen the stress experienced by employees since they can manage their personal life more effectively. It allows employees to choose the child-care service that best meets their needs. Some employees may prefer to have their children looked after close to home or by a member of their family. This measure may be easier to administer than a child-care service and may also not be as costly. The managers must promote and be able to refer their employees to such services.

Information and referral service Definition: Employees who have dependants may need an information and referral service so that they can obtain information, advice and recommendations about available services. More and more businesses and community organizations are specializing in this type of service. Considerations:

This measure may help lessen the stress experienced by employees since they can manage their personal life more effectively. It also helps lower the rate of absenteeism by reducing the number of calls and visits employees need to make before choosing a service.

This measure is inexpensive and easy to implement. It fits in well with a program designed to help employees balance their work and personal life.

Confidentiality is very important. The information in the services data banks must be comprehensive and updated regularly. The managers must promote and be able to refer their employees to such services.

Workplace child-care Definition: Employees may have their children looked after at or near the workplace. The child-care centre may be owned by the company or be managed by a board of directors that includes representatives of the company and parents whose children go to the centre. It is sometimes also open to children in the community. It must comply with provincial and municipal regulations. Work-related child care centres accept preschoolers and infants. Considerations: This measure may help lessen the stress experienced by employees. Parents may have easier access to a child care service. A work-related child care centre may accommodate the company employees schedules more readily. It may be perceived as an important employee benefit and be conducive to the recruitment of new employees. If the centre is open to children in the community, this measure may help improve the companys image. For a company, the costs of such a measure may be high. Employers generally contribute by paying an amount that covers the rent, start-up costs, etc. It is important to assess employees needs carefully by conducting a proper survey.

Managers must promote and be able to refer their employees to such services.

References: Vanier Institute of the Family, The Manager's Work-Family Toolkit. Nepean, 1998. Stanton, Danielle. Travail-famille : un tandem de coeur- et de raison : guide destin aux milieux de travail / - [Qubec] : Bureau qubcois de l'Anne internationale de la famille, 1994. (in french) Annualized hours Definition: Flexible working time arrangements can also be provided in the form of "annualized" hours. These essentially allow employees to choose, within certain boundaries, their days and hours of work, with the proviso that they work a specified number of hours in a year. This can also be calculated over a shorter averaging period, be it on a monthly, biweekly, or other basis. Such arrangements combine elements of flextime and compressed work weeks and can have the added advantage of reducing recourse to overtime. Considerations: Employers may also benefit from such arrangements if they can be used to meet seasonal variations and peak hours. Moreover, output and product quality can be improved if employees work during their most productive periods of the day. One potential disadvantage of annualized hours for supervisors is the difficulty in monitoring and coordinating the work of employees. Examples of collective agreements clauses

Compressed work weeks Definition:

A compressed work week is an arrangement whereby employees work longer shifts in exchange for a reduction in the number of working days in their work cycle (i.e. on a weekly or biweekly basis). Considerations: This can be beneficial for employees in terms of additional days off work (e.g. longer weekends allowing "mini-vacations") and reduced commuting time, whereas employers can extend their daily operating hours, with less need to resort to overtime. Compressed work week arrangements may be particularly useful for employees who wish to reduce the number of days per week spent at work, but who can not financially afford to decrease their working hours. Compressed work week provisions are not necessarily designed as a means of balancing work and family responsibilities. In some cases, they may be initiated by an employer solely in order to improve operational efficiency and to maximize production.

Flextime Definition: Flextime is an arrangement whereby employees can vary the scheduling of their working hours within specified guidelines. Essentially, it allows employees, on an individual or collective basis, to determine (or be involved in determining) the start and end times of their working day.. It is the result of an agreement between the employee and the manager and usually takes the form of a pre-arranged alternative schedule. Considerations: Employees have some discretion that allow them to plan their workday around their personal lives. They can manage their work hours more efficiently by introducing, in agreement with the manager, a work schedule that is in the best interest of both the employee and the organization. This practice has been credited with reductions in tardiness and absenteeism, increases in employee morale and deemed an incentive for recruitment and retention. An employer may introduce flextime in order to maintain or increase work efficiency and improve services offered to the public.

This practice may be inappropriate in some industries or workplaces where the nature of the work requires that employees be present at given times for instance in the case of assembly line work.

Telework Definition: Telework, also referred to as telecommuting, is an arrangement whereby an employee, at least on a periodic basis, fulfils his or her regularly scheduled job responsibilities at a remote location which is not operated by the employer (a teleworkplace)usually an employees own residence. Working from home has been practised for decades in certain sectors, such as the garment industry. However, the rapid development of computer and information technologies in recent years has made teleworking feasible in an increasing number of job categories. Considerations: Telework can be advantageous for employees by allowing them: to organize their work day around their personal and family needs; to decrease work-related expenses; to reduce commuting time; and to work in a less stressful and disruptive environment. It may also help to accommodate employees who, because of particular disabilities, are unable to leave home. Although telework cannot normally be combined with child or eldercare-related tasks, it may nevertheless let employees work in closer proximity to their children and relatives, offering some peace of mind and giving the family a chance to spend more time together at lunch time as well as before and after school. Apart from improved productivity, efficiency and employee morale, employers can also benefit from lower overhead costs and from reduced disruptions in case of bad weather and other emergencies. The fact that employees who telework can use this added flexibility to capitalize on their personal peak productivity periods can also favourably influence a companys bottom line. Not all occupations are amenable to such an arrangement. Moreover, employers may be concerned by the initial implementation costs, potential legal liabilities, and difficulties in supervising and appraising the performance of teleworkers. Unions may disapprove of work-at-home clauses if they perceive them as leading to greater isolation of employees, reduced job security and promotion opportunities, and diminished health and safety protection.

Employees may work at home full-time or part-time. This measure can be permanent or temporary but it is not appropriate for all types of employment.

Gradual retirement Definition: Phased or gradual retirement allow older employees, usually with long service records, to progressively reduce their working time and workload over a period of time instead of abruptly shifting from full-time employment to retirement. Considerations: From the employer's point of view, phased retirement programs can be useful in retaining skilled older employees who would otherwise retire (especially in sectors where there is a shortage of entry-level job applicants), in reducing labour costs, or in arranging the training of replacement employees. Gradual retirement also allows employers to plan attrition and to a certain extent maintain employee morale when a company restructures its operations. This practice can also be beneficial for older workers, not only in easing the transition to retirement, but also in balancing their work and family responsibilities, particularly if they must care for an ageing spouse or elderly relative(s).

Job sharing Definition: Two employees share a full-time job. This practice involves not only sharing job duties and responsibilities, but pay and holidays as well. Considerations: Employees sharing a job must be able to work as a team and communicate effectively.

This practice may increase productivity particularly if employees who are sharing a job have complementary skills.

It can also be attractive if a job must be filled full-time or if there are few part-time jobs in the company. It can prove an incentive to the retention of experienced employees who want to reduce significantly reduce their hours of work for personal reasons (e.g. employees who are considering gradual retirement).

Voluntary part-time work Definition: Employees choose to work fewer hours than the standard 37.5 or 40 hours per week. This practice may be temporary (that is, established for a specific period) or permanent. Considerations: Employees with health problems or with disabilities can maintain some link with the labour force. Employees may have more time to care for their dependents and may be less stressed. Employee benefits are often established on a prorata basis for part-time employees. Part-time work may limit or reduce access to some employee benefits or governmental programs (e.g. employment insurance, pension plans). This practice may also have a negative impact on promotion and training opportunities. This practice may help increase operational flexibility of companies during times of heavy workload. It may facilitate re-entry in the labour force for employees who had interrupted their labour market participation. It may increase productivity by helping to reduce tardiness and absenteeism, by increasing employee morale and it may also serve as an incentive to recruitment and retention. Flexible benefits
Definition:
Flexible benefit plans are an alternative way for companies to deliver benefits by using "flexible" options that are not always available with traditional "one-size fits all" plans. Employees are able to select the type and level of coverage from among a menu of available benefits commonly including such options as: health, dental, life insurance, accidental death and dismemberment, and long-term disability. These programs are generally implemented to permit employees to build an individualized benefit program that most closely meets their coverage needs and budget requirements and to change their benefit elections over time as their life circumstances change.

Flexible benefit plans are generally paid for using credits (sometimes termed flex credits) that are assigned to each employee by crediting them to a form of health spending account. The employee then allocates his/her flex credits to various benefits according to what they need. Unused credits are commonly deposited back into the health care spending account, cashed out, carried forward or put towards an RRSP. Another form of flexible benefit plan is structured in such a way that the employer provides a base level of standard coverage for all employees, but allowing individual employees to select a level of coverage for each benefit, ranging from no coverage to a premium level of coverage with a dollar value being assigned to each level of coverage above or below that standard.

Considerations:

Flexible benefit plans offer employees the opportunity to select those benefits they need, while helping the employer manage benefit plan costs and meet the diverse needs of its workforce. Employers can define the level of funding for the plan each year, rather than having it dictated by increases in the premium costs of insurance benefits. This is usually a defined contribution based on a flat dollar amount per employee or a percentage of each employee's salary. Employers can help control plan costs by choosing benefits with cost control features and by designing or pricing these benefits attractively. Generally, employees are offered the choice to examine their benefits choices on an annual basis.

Leave for personal reasons

Definition:
Leave for personal reasons can provide employees with periods of time off, with or without pay, to deal with family obligations or other personal commitments. In a nutshell, what is provided in labour standards legislation ?

In general, this type of leave does not exist in labour standards legislation. However, labour standards legislation may include a variety of other leaves intended to help employees meet their personal obligations. Among these other leaves available in some jurisdictions are annual vacation leave, bereavement leave (9 jurisdictions), leave for family responsibility (3 jurisdictions), court/jury leave (at least 10 jurisdictions have legislation pertaining to court/jury duty leave), mariage leave (Quebec).

Considerations:

The total number of days of personal leave available in one year is limited, as is the number of days employees may take consecutively. Access to personal leave allows employees to avoid the necessity of having to use vacation time for personal needs. This measure improves employee morale and helps recruit and retain staff. It may also help reduce conflict between employees who have access to leave for family responsibilities and those who do not because they have no dependants. This leave can be combined with leave for family responsibilities.

Examples of collective agreements clauses

Maternity leave
Definition:
The purpose of this type of leave is to allow mothers to take time off work following the birth of a child. In a nutshell, what is provided in labour standards legislation?

An employee who gives birth is, under certain conditions, entitled to 17 weeks' unpaid leave ( 15 weeks in Alberta, 18 weeks in Quebec and Saskatchewan). Employees must give their employer notice in writing a few weeks prior to the start of such leave. In some jurisdictions, the leave can also start up to 16 or 17 weeks prior to the expected due date, terminating 17 or 18 weeks after the actual date of delivery, depending on the jurisdiction. Extensions are also possible in some jurisdictions. When she comes back to work, the employee usually returns to her former position or be assigned equivalent duties, with the same salary and benefits. Generally, the employee must have worked for the same employer for a certain period, except in British Columbia, New Brunswick and Quebec, which do not have such a requirement. In the federal and Quebec jurisdictions, a pregnant woman or nursing mother may ask her employer to temporarily modify her duties or to assign her to another position, if continuation of her present duties puts her health or that of her unborn child or nursing infant at risk. This request must, however, be accompanied by a certificate from a qualified physician. If it is impossible to reassign the employee or to modify her duties, she may take leave immediately. In several jurisdictions, labour standards legislation stipulates that benefits may continue throughout the leave period, provided the employee makes all the contributions she would normally have made, within a reasonable period of time. In some jurisdictions she may also be required to pay the employer's share of these benefits. Under federal jurisdiction, an employer may not dismiss, lay off or demote an employee because of her pregnancy or intention to take maternity leave. The employer also may not use an employee's pregnancy as grounds for denial of promotion or training. or at

More information on your jurisdictions labour standards is available on Provincial Labour Departments websites the Employment Standards Legislation in Canada web page.

Considerations:

During maternity leave, eligible employees may receive Employment Insurance maternity benefits for 15 weeks, after serving a 2-week waiting period. Some employers provide a supplemental unemployment benefit plan that partially or wholly makes up the difference between Employment Insurance maternity benefits and the worker's salary.

Examples of collective agreements clauses

Parental leave
Definition:
Parental leave is designed to provide either or both parents with time to spend with their newborns. For the mother, parental leave provisions commonly stipulate that the leave be taken immediately after maternity leave, thereby extending the total leave period. For the father, parental leave provisions allow time off to help with the care of the newborn; sometimes collective agreement language that is gender-specific to the father is referred to as paternity leave. In a nutshell, what is provided in labour standards legislation ?

In all Canadian jurisdictions, employees who meet eligibility requirements are entitled to unpaid parental leave ranging from 12 to 52 weeks.

Employees must give notice in writing to the employer a few weeks prior to the start of such leave. When they come back to work, employees must normally return to their former position or be assigned equivalent duties with the same salary and benefits. In ten jurisdictions, the full parental leave is available to both parents if they are eligible. However, in Alberta, New Brunswick, the Yukon and the federal jurisdiction, parental leave may be shared between both parents as long as the total period of leave does not exceed the legislated maximum. Some jurisdictions allow employees to continue their participation to benefit plans during the leave, provided they make all contributions they would normally have made, within a reasonable period of time. In some jurisdictions the employee may be required to pay the employer's share of these benefits. or at

More information on your jurisdictions labour standards is available on Provincial Labour Departments websites the Employment Standards Legislation in Canada web page.

Considerations:

During their parental leave, eligible employees may receive 35 weeks of Employment Insurance parental benefits. A limited number of employers have a supplemental unemployment benefit plan that partially makes up the difference between Employment Insurance parental benefits and the worker's salary.

Examples of collective agreements clauses

Paternity leave
Definition:
Paternity leave enables a father to take a few days or weeks off work after a child is born. In a nutshell, what is provided in labour standards legislation?

Paternity leave was replaced by parental leave in the 1990s in many jurisdictions. Generally, parental leave is considered to be similar to long term paternity leave for fathers who wish to take time off work to care for their child. or at

More information on your jurisdictions labour standards is available on Provincial Labour Departments websites the Employment Standards Legislation in Canada web page.

Considerations:

This leave enables a father to take time to look after his child and the child's mother. Approximately one third of collective agreements include a provision for a few days paternity leave. Paternity leave of several weeks' duration is rarely offered by Canadian employers.

Examples of collective agreements clauses

Sick leave
Definition:

Sick leave enables employees to take time off work when ill. It is not really leave for family obligations although it may sometimes be used as such. In a nutshell, what is provided in labour standards legislation?

Employees may not be dismissed, suspended, laid off or demoted when on sick leave in 6 juridictions (federal jurisdiction, Quebec, Yukon, Newfoundland, New Brunswick and Saskatchewan) and is unpaid. More information on your jurisdictions labour standards is available on Provincial Labour Departments websites the Employment Standards Legislation in Canada web page. or at

Considerations:

Some companies offer employees, as part of their benefit plans, the opportunity to be off work for a set period of time for illness without loss of wages. Generally, some of these days may be taken each year without a medical certificate. If the employee needs to take a longer sick leave because of health reasons, he may be entitled to take longer unpaid sick leave. He may then be eligible for Employment Insurance sickness benefits or benefits from other compensation plans for work-related illness or injury. Some employees may allow their employees to use part of their banked sick leave for certain family obligations. Sick leave may also be combined with maternity leave if there are complications related to the birth of a child.

Examples of collective agreements clauses

Vacation
Definition:
Vacations are one of the most common labour policies and practices. Companies may help their employees by allowing them sufficient flexibility to:

break their leave up into shorter periods; take vacation at the same time as their spouse; take annual leave during the summer when children are at home.

Considerations:
Breaking vacation time into shorter periods means that managers do not have to replace certain essential employees. This measure enables employees to divide up vacation time in a way that best suits them. Allowing employees to take vacation during the summer makes it easier for managers to plan for hiring seasonal workers.

EAP/EFAP
Definition:
The Employee Assistance Professionals Association defines an employee assistance program (EAP) as:

a worksite-based program designed to assist in the identification and resolution of productivity problems associated with employees impaired by personal concerns, including, but not limited to, health, marital, family, financial, alcohol, drug, legal, emotional, stress, or other personal concerns which may adversely affect employee job performance.

Considerations:

EAP services are usually provided by an external company specializing in this type of support, information and counseling service. EAP services are confidential and can be offered to either individuals or groups of employees. Most plans offer access to employees and their family members via a 24-hour, toll-free line. Counselors will meet or discuss the problem with the employee and if longer-term or specialized treatment is required, EAP counselors will link callers with appropriate community resources. The cost of an Employee Assistance Program is often based on utilization. The benefits of EAPs to an organization can include:

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decreased costs related to turnover, absenteeism, accidents and stress related disability; increased employee productivity; prevention of problems, which could negatively impact the employee's work and/or home life; and enhanced morale and commitment to the organization.

Wellness/health promotion
Definition:
Health and wellness are much more than the absence of illness. Health is an essential life ingredient that is influenced daily by personal circumstances, attitudes, beliefs and actions; and by the cultural, social, economic, and physical environments in which an individual exists. A healthy workplace provides mutual benefits for employers and employees within a common belief that good health practices by both will lead to individual and organizational self-fulfillment and productivity. Health promotion is the process of enabling employees to increase control over and to improve their physical, emotional and social health.

Considerations:

Programs should be designed for all employees, whether it be to improve the health of those with serious health problems or to assist those employees who are generally well to maintain their good health. Peoples habits affect their health. Some important habits involve eating, smoking, alcohol and drug use, physical activity and sleep. Individuals may develop counter productive or unhealthy habits in relation to any of the above that can impair their personal and work lives and will likely require a sustained effort and commitment on the part of the individual to achieve success in breaking the habit. Thus, results of health promotion programs and activities might not be evidenced in the immediate or short-term as they often require a long-term approach. At home and work, physical and social environments have major influences on a persons health. The physical environment can affect people directly in many ways, and includes noise levels, toxic substances, air quality and workplace design. The social environment has an impact on employee wellness through such factors as work schedules, coordinating home and work responsibilities, deadlines, work organization, available training and support. The social environment also has an effect through interpersonal relationships, including supervisor communications, feedback from co-workers and family relationships. People are also affected indirectly by worry, nervousness and stress. Therefore, the types of wellness/health promotion activities that can be implemented within an organization are numerous and target different aspects of an individuals physical, emotional, and social environment. Some examples of health promotion and/or wellness activities include:

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creation, promotion and maintenance of organizational occupational Health and Safety Committees; providing advice to employees and managers on dealing with issues concerning the use or wearing of scented products in the workplace;

workshops/seminars on HIV/Aids in the Workplace, dealing with stress in the workplace, time management, team building, safe winter driving, smoking cessation, first aid, cardio pulmonary resuscitation (CPR), elder care, or retirement planning; promotion of an organizational Employee Assistance Program; flu immunization and blood donor clinics; promotion of Workplace Injury Prevention Initiatives such as ergonomic or workplace assessments for employees by health professionals; promotion of a healthier lifestyle by encouraging employees to walk, run, or jog; and enforcement of a smoke-free work environment.

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References:

Health and Welfare Canada, Corporate Health Model: A Guide to Developing and Implementing the Workplace Health System in Medium and Large Businesses, 1991. Health and Welfare Canada, The Small Business Health Model: A Guide to Developing and Implementing the Workplace Health System in Small Businesses, 1992.