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Gender Equality and Women's Empowerment: A Critical Analysis of the Third Millennium Development Goal Author(s): Naila Kabeer Reviewed work(s): Source: Gender and Development, Vol. 13, No. 1, Millennium Development Goals (Mar., 2005), pp. 13-24 Published by: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. on behalf of Oxfam GB Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20053132 . Accessed: 02/04/2012 02:39
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13

Gender women's a critical

Development
Naila Kabeer

equality

and

empowerment: of the third Millennium analysis

Goal1

This article discusses the thirdMillennium Development Goal (MDG), on gender equality and women's empowerment. It explores the concept of women's empowerment and highlights ways in which the indicators associated with this Goal - on education, employment, and political participation
can contribute to it.

Gender

equality

and

women's

is the third of eight empowerment It is an intrinsic rather than MDGs. an instrumental goal, explicitly valued as an end in itself rather than as an instrument achieving education other Important goals. is, the translation of this goal into the target of eliminating gender disparities at all levels of education within a given time narrow. However, period is disappointingly
the indicators the goal to are monitor somewhat progress more wide in achieving

of these resources certainly has the potential to bring about positive changes in women's lives, but, in each case, it is the social access to the that govern relationships resource extent Thus, in question that will determine the to which this potential is realised.

for as

in each case, there is both positive and evidence about the impact of negative
access to these resources on their

women's

lives. There
both. other The

are lessons
also that have

to be learned
some been

from
of the

article

considers

'resources'

overlooked

ranging: closing levels;

increasing

by the gender gap in education at all

the MDGs, important

but

equally

could be considered for the goal in question.

women's

share

of

Conceptualising
wage

employment
sector;

in

the non-agricultural

empowerment: resources, and

agency, achievement

increasing held by women

and

of seats the proportion in national parliaments.

In this article, I interpret this as meaning that each of the three 'resources' implied by these
indicators education, employment, and

it is important to clarify what First, however, is implied by 'empowerment' in this article. One way of thinking about power is in terms to make of the ability choices. To be means to be denied choice, disempowered
while empowerment refers to the processes

political essential
equality

participation to the achievement

and women's

is

considered of gender
Each

by which ability ability.

Gender

those who to make In other words,

and Development

have been denied acquire empowerment

13, No.

choices

such

the an

empowerment.

entails
2005

Vol.

1,March

14

Gender and Development change. People who exercise a great deal of choice in their lives may be very powerful, but they are not empowered, in the sense in I use the term, because which they were never disempowered in the first place.
However, for there to be a real choice,

The explored
dimensions:

concept

can be of empowerment three closely interrelated through

agency, Agency resources, represents and the

achievements.

processes by which choices are made and put into effect. It is hence central to the concept of
empowerment. Resources are the medium

certain conditions must There must have

be fulfilled: - the ability to and Poverty

be alternatives differently.

through
achievements

which
refer

agency

is exercised;

and

chosen

to the outcomes

of agency.

go hand in disempowerment generally hand, because an inability to meet one's

basic ence needs on and powerful resulting to do others the depend so rules

is considered Below, each of these dimensions in turn, as is their interrelationship in the

context of empowerment.

out the capacity for meaningful choice. This absence of choice is likely to affect women and men differently, because often inequalities gender-related the effects of poverty. intensify Alternatives
must are also most be

Agency Agency
connotations: Its

has

both

positive
-

and

negative
-

positive

sense

the

'power

to'

refers

must
seen effective as such.

not only
to exist. when Gender Power

to people's ability to make and act on their own life choices, even in the face of
others' opposition. sense the 'power over' -

exist,
are

they
not

relations

perceived

they often

Its negative

operates

through
power.

the unquestioned
Thus women who,

acceptance
for example,

of on

internalise
household

their
resources,

lesser
or accept

claim
violence

to the capacity of some actors to override the agency of others through, for example, the exercise of authority or the use of violence and other forms of refers
coercion. However, as noted earlier, power also

at the hands of their husbands, do so to behave because is otherwise realm of considered outside the These forms of behaviour possibility.
could be said to reflect 'choice', but are

operates
agency.

in the absence
Institutional

of explicit
bias can

forms of
constrain

really based on the denial of choice. Not are equally relevant to the Some have greater definition of power. than others in terms of their significance for people's lives. Strategic life consequences to live, whether and choices include where all choices to have children, whether to have, who children has many over of freedom children, custody
and association, and so on. These

people's ability tomake strategic life choices. or ideological norms may deny Cultural either that inequalities of power exist or that are unjust. Subordinate such inequalities are likely to accept, and even collude groups this with, their lot in society, if challenging or carries not appear possible either does heavy personal and social costs. implies actively only exercising choice, but also doing this inways that challenge power relations. Because of in and values of beliefs the significance a process of legitimating inequality, empowerment
encompasses not

whom how

to marry,

Agency therefore,

in relation not

to empowerment,

movement

that may be help for the quality of one's day-to-day important its defining life, but do not constitute other choices
parameters. Finally, the capacity to exercise

to frame

often begins
only 'decision

from within.
making' and

It

choices should not on the part of others. capacity strategic

violate

this

other forms of observable

meaning, motivation,

action but also the

and purpose that

Gender equality and women's empowerment individuals

their sense

15

bring
of

to their actions;
Empowerment

that is,
is

women's

sense

of

independence,

rather

than

agency.

rooted in how people see sense of self-worth. This bound up with how they around them and by their
Resources

- their themselves in turn is critically are seen by those society.

simply meeting

survival needs. between agency,

The interrelationship
resources, and

achievements

There

Resources

are the medium through which are distributed is exercised. agency They and institutions the various through in a society. In institutions, relationships certain actors have a privileged position over
others concerning are conventions how interpreted, rules, norms, as well and as how

is a distinction, therefore, between 'passive' forms of agency (action taken when there is little choice), and 'active' agency is also a There behaviour). (purposeful between distinction further important
'effectiveness' is 'transformative'. greater of agency, The efficiency former in and agency relates to out

greater that

women's

carrying

are put into effect. Heads of households, they chiefs of tribes, directors of firms, managers a and elites within of organisations, all have decision-making in particular institutions by virtue authority of their position. The way inwhich resources are distributed thus depends on the ability to community define priorities and enforce claims. Equally it defines the terms on which importantly,
resources primary are made form of available. access If a woman's is as a to resources

the their given roles and responsibilities, latter to their ability to act on the restrictive in aspects of these roles and responsibilities in them. For example, order to challenge child of overall the reduction India, has been associated with rising mortality female literacy. This can be interpreted as the on the part of product of 'effective' agency
women in their role as mothers. However,

the reduction
five mortality

of gender disparities
rates has

in under

transformative

of the family, her member tomake strategic choices is likely to capacity be limited. dependent Achievements
Resources and agency make up people's

it shows a form of because implications, that is acting against the grain of agency patriarchal values, which define daughters as having less worth than sons. is on in this focus article The forms of agency on the part transformative and on those achievements that of women a greater ability on the part of poor suggest
women to question, analyse, and act on the

capabilities:
the lives they

that is, their potential

want. The term

for living

'achievements'

refers to the extent to which this potential is realised or fails to be realised; that is, to the
outcomes empowerment, of people's achievements efforts. In relation have been to

in their constraint structures of patriarchal that make up the lives. The three dimensions
concept of empowerment can be seen as

representing
these processes

the pathways
of empowerment

through which
can occur.

considered
exercised

in terms
and its

of both
consequences.

the agency
For

Changes
to changes

in any one dimension

in others. For

can

lead

instance,

example, regarded
progress

taking up waged by the MDGs

in women's

work would as evidence

empowerment.

be of

be far more it would However, likely to ifwork was taken constitute such evidence or in to a new opportunity up in response
search a of greater sale' of self-reliance, labour. rather It is also than far more as 'distress

in one sphere of life can form 'achievements' seek improve the basis on which women ments in other spheres in the future. Policy access to changes that provide women with new collective 'resources' may be the result of their action to achieve this change. Such
over the life course of an as or across generations,

occur may changes or individual group

likely to be empowering

if it contributes

to

mothers

seek

to give

their daughters

the

16

Gender and Development chances

reverse

that they themselves

is also true.

never had. The

in one

immunised;

educated

women

were

more

Inequalities

in other sphere are likely to get reproduced of society if they go unchallenged. spheres are translated into the inequalities Today's as daughters of tomorrow inequalities inherit the same discriminatory structures that oppressed
We are,

ones to know about likely than uneducated but family planning; only secondary women an schooled revealed in-depth
understanding about disease and prevention.

their mothers.
therefore, interested in

Education increases the likelihood that women will look after their own well-being along with that of their family. A study in rural Zimbabwe found that among factors that increased the likelihood
women accessing

the of
and

transformative simply
are used

address

forms of agency that do not immediate inequalities but

longer-term processes of

to initiate

antenatal
maternal

care - both
and

contraception

of which
well-being

change in the structures of patriarchy. While and agency of changes in the consciousness are an important individual women starting point own for such processes, to undermine of itwill do little on its the systemic Institutional
along a movement

improve
were

survival

reproduction
transformation

inequality.

and paid work (Becker). In rural cent of women 96 per with Nigeria, and higher education, 53 per cent secondary of those with primary education, and 47 per cent of those with little or no education had education
sought There post-natal are also care. other effects associated

requires

of fronts: number to from individual collective agency, from private negotiations to public action, and from the informal to the formal arenas of struggle sphere where exercised. The power is legitimately then is what the three resources question identified 3 contribute to these by MDG

with

a that suggest in change within and outside the power relationships In rural Bangladesh, household. educated education
in rural of decisions areas participate than uneducated in a wider ones. range

women

movements.

Whereas in an average the latter participated of 1.1 decisions, the number increased to 1.6,
2.0, and 2.3 among and women secondary with middle, primary, education

Access

to

education

respectively. The positive effects of education There is considerable evidence for the claim can bring about that access to education in cognitive ability, which is essential changes
to women's capacity to question, to reflect on, found that

A less
over,

study

from Tamil
women

Nadu
scored

better-educated

higher

than

educated
resources,

women
their as well access as

on
their

a
to,

composite and control role

index

measuring

in economic

decision-making.

and to act on the conditions of their lives and to gain access to knowledge, information, and new ideas that will help them to do so (see review in Jejeebhoy 1995). This is evident in instances. In Kenya, itwas found everyday at least four years of that women with able to correctly understand for oral administering salts; but only those with at least rehydration secondary education were able to explain the
environmental causes of diarrhoea. In

also appear less likely to suffer from domestic violence. A study by Sen in West that educated Bengal noted women were better able to deal with violent
husbands: education contributory capacity 'access may role to exercise to have in secondary an stages important ... of

Educated

women

schooling were instructions

women's enhancing in their control lives

through
numeracy

a combination
skills, and

of

literacy
self-esteem'

and

enhanced

less educated women Nigeria, as educated ones to have

were their

as likely children

were (Sen 1999, 12). Similar findings recorded in rural Bangladesh (Schuler et al. 1996).

Gender

equality

and women's

empowerment the same

17

Education

appears

to

increase

women's

resourced,

schools,

but,

even

within

the outside world, capacity officials and service including government providers of various kinds. In rural Nigeria, uneducated women preferred not to deliver in hospitals because of the treatment they
received at the hands of nurses, a treatment

to deal with

school, treated
sometimes are

different
made

groups Dalit differently.

to sit abused,

of

children children
from for

are are

verbally

separately are used

others, running

out to the more educated and self confident women who were surveyed (cited to in Jejeebhoy 1995). Finally, the exposure new ideas can translate into direct collective not meted challenges
documented

menial errands, and are physically punished more often than higher-caste children. There is also evidence of widespread gender bias, with teachers showing more attention to boys and having a lower opinion of girls' abilities.
The absence, is or a minority problem presence, in many of female areas. teachers

tomale

prerogatives.
anti-liquor

The widely
movement

mounted by members a literacy programme was sparked off by action primer Limits
However,

against

of Mahila Samakhya, in India, for women of collective images in their literacy alcoholism

Reinforcing
services, it can

the male

dominance
to girls'

of public
access to

act as a barrier

and completion of schooling. in Africa also have Teachers

attitudes towards male and female

different
students,

(Niranjana 2002). to education

there are

as a route to
also studies that

on the basis that boys need careers and girls need husbands. They tend to be dismissive and discouraging
more suggest classroom

towards
time to

empowerment that the changes associated with education are likely to be conditioned by the context in it is provided which and the social that it embodies and promotes. relationships In societies that are characterised by extreme forms
women's

girls and to give

boys, who are

usually
are

more

demanding.
to pursue

Even when
a career, they

girls
are

encouraged

expected to opt for the 'caring' professions, in other words teaching and nursing. The curriculum' of school 'hidden practice
reinforces messages about girls' inferior

of gender
access

inequality,
to education

not

only

is
by

curtailed

on their mobility restrictions and their limited role in the wider economy, but its effects may also be more limited. Where women's role in society is defined purely in various
reproductive terms, education is seen in

status on a daily basis and provides with a negative learning experience,

creating aspirations. a culture of low self-esteem and

them thus
low

The
educational

less

hidden
curriculum

content
also mirrors

of

the
and

terms of equipping
and mothers, or

girls

to be better wives
their chances of

increasing

getting

suitable

husband.

legitimate aspirations, the society. However, to question girls and women

around assigned them, to them. and the

are These given the realities of they do little to equip the world
status subordinate

inequalities, labour (largely the denigrating physical of poor people) and domestic preserve activities (largely the preserve of women). in the curriculum Gender stereotyping
portrays while boys girls are as modest, passive, as assertive, seen and brave, shy, and

legitimates

wider

social

relationships
education.

A second set of qualifications in the delivery embodied

Social inequalities are

concerns

the of the
only

ambitious. This reinforces traditional gender roles in society, and acts to limit the kinds of futures that girls are able to imagine for themselves. The design of educational curricula has not yet taken account of the fact
that labour many more women around market are the entering the world, making

often

reproduced
school system.

through
In India,

interactions within
for example, not

do the children of poor and scheduled-caste attend different, and differently households

critical

contributions

to household

income

18

Gender and Development own and their frequently heading makers often continue to households. Policy see the benefits of educating girls and women in terms of improving family health
and welfare, rather equal place than for a more preparing in the economy women and in initiate or expand women's own income

of skills partly society. continue to be confined to explains why they the poorer paid and more casualised forms of paid work.
These to limitations do to education not negate as a route the earlier empowerment

Women's

lack

the fact that activities, generating despite to be largely home-based these continued (Hashemi et al. 1996; Schuler et al. 1996). A recent survey of the impact of various microfinance (MFOs) in India organisations and Bangladesh noted that longer-term of such groups also led to membership various categories of wider impact, including higher
improved programmes,

levels

of
access and

political
to practical

participation,
skills, government as well as

positive findings, but they suggest the need for caution in assuming that the effects of can be taken for granted or that education they will be uniform across all contexts. They point to the various aspects of educational that militate provision against not only its empowerment potential but even its ability to attract in school, and retain girls those from poor backgrounds. particularly

knowledge society, in dealing with public officials, confidence and the likelihood of participating in protests and

of

the wider

self

(Kabeer, campaigns forthcoming). the study notes that these impacts However, depend not only on the provision of financial services of various kinds, but also on the kinds of group that MFOs promote. labour in implications of wage agriculture the most striking feature of recent However, decades has been the large-scale entry of
women into the labour market across the

Positive

Access
There show
women's

to paid

work

is also a solid body of evidence to that access to paid work can increase
agency in strategic ways.

world:
The

the 'f?minisation'
rise of non-traditional

of the labour force.

agricultural

Positive implications of self-employment Even paid work carried out in the home has to shift the balance of power the potential within the family. A detailed study of women in industrial homework inMexico engaged in households noted that where City
women's economic contribution was critical

export
African led

(NTAE) production
and Latin in wage and American employment large-scale

in a number
countries for women production

of
has

to a rise

in medium-

units.

Studies suggest that this income has a number about of economic brought
improvements for women themselves and

to household
to negotiate

survival, women
a greater degree

had been able

of respect

for

their
a

families,
considerable (see,

and
for

show
say

that
the

they
their

exercise money

in how

1987). Studies of the (Beneria and Roldan in societies where impact of microcredit women been excluded have traditionally from the cash economy have found that
women's positive access changes to credit in led to a number of own women's

is spent

instance,

review

in Dolan in and Sorby 2003). A study more than 80 per cent of Ecuador found that women in the flower industry managed their
own wages. Among female employees in the women industry, Kenyan vegetable single own and controlled their wages, managed women married while usually managed

and their role in of themselves, perceptions decision making household (Kabeer 2001; It also led to a long Kabeer forthcoming).
term as an were reduction increase stronger in domestic in women's when these violence, assets. loans Such were as well effects used to

their incomes jointly with husbands. evidence There is also significant

the vegetable industries of Guatemala

from
and

the Dominican

Republic,

and

the flower

Gender equality and women's empowerment

industry of Mexico, that women's

19

Bangladesh,

participation greater independence

making. In some

inwage

employment has led to in household decision

as among women

cases,

women in Turkey had to work outside been permitted previously for family the home only if itwas necessary survival. In a study of the clothing industry,
many of those interviewed no

in the fresh vegetable industry in working the Dominican Republic, ithas allowed them
to escape abusive marriages. Women

however,

in the flower industry in Colombia working in their social networks reported widening have proved otherwise that would ways in the fresh difficult in rural areas. Workers not only in Kenya industry vegetable independence, reported greater economic for meeting with but also new opportunities
women from other parts of the country.

longer saw their work as subordinate to their familial roles, to be abandoned when they or had children. Rather, they got married
saw it as a more permanent way of life. The

majority overwhelming to enter factory work, decision their reasons their desire tomake use of their skills and to be outside the home. Forty per cent of the workers, who were mainly young

had made

their own giving as

Positive wage
Evidence

implications labour
of changes

of non-agricultural
in women's life chances

as a result of entry into waged work appears to be more marked when it occurs in the non sector of (see the review agricultural This is forthcoming). is because such employment partly associated with migration by generally literature
women out of rural areas and away from the

to indicated their preference single women, distance from home in work a considerable order to escape the control exercised by their to They wanted family and neighbours. could move work somewhere where they about freely during take the opportunity their lunch breaks and to meet their friends,

in Kabeer,

patriarchal
community.

controls
In a country

of
where

kinship
women

and
had

in export workers in the Philippines found manufacturing jobs most of them earned at least as much as that earned more than - the legal and many minimum wage, and they also enjoyed more benefits of alternative forms to had the opportunity employment. They and childbirth, and the scope delay marriage than
for personal independence and self

including boyfriends. A study of women

previously
employment,

been
women

denied
workers

public

forms
export

of

in

in the

garment industry in Bangladesh expressed their satisfaction at having a 'proper' job and
regular wages, compared with the casual,

determination wages and

that had poorly paid forms of employment been their only options. Many previously had used their new-found earning power to
renegotiate to others their leave relations abusive within marriages. marriage, Women

(compared

relatively high stable employment relatively in the informal with work may factory employment satisfaction in itself, itwas lead to that it could gradually
personal and

that comes with

economy). While not provide much suggested

positive household

who had previously not been able to help out their ageing parents once they got married now insisted on their right to do so. Yet
others used their earnings to postpone early

in women's changes circumstances. young, single

In China,

women

migrate

from the countryside

export-processing

to live and work

zones in the south.

in the
Such

and to challenge the practice of marriage In addition, valued the new dowry. they were able to build social networks that they
with their co-workers, and the greater sense

jobs are fiercely competed

side, than women because agricultural previously never they women Young they work. worked received wanted

for in the country

remunerative many farms Moreover, on an family

are more

of independence they now enjoyed. evaluations positive Similarly

reported in a number of other studies. As

are
in

where wage.

independent to earn money,

20

Gender and Development not only to help their families but also to buy to without things for themselves having
account to someone for whatever they spent. Honduras, for example, were more likely to

report month

a health

in the previous problem than those who had been working

to meet used their earnings Others the for repayment demand of bride price or child support whom by husbands they to divorce. wished
In Honduras, women working in

elsewhere, and they had less leisure. Studies and Bangladesh from Vietnam both found hours of work in the same position to be long the major
women

source various

of
in

complaint
the export

among
sector,

workers

manufactured maquiladoras (assembling for export) earned higher wages than goods
workers elsewhere, and they reported

together with with this. Moreover,

findings

ailments

associated

not all studies

women's

in household improvements relationships in domestic and help work from male were more members. They likely to have voted in elections and more likely to feel that they carried some
These

report positive
capacity to

concerning

have greater women who

in towns,

control over their lives. Many leave rural areas to take up jobs
to make new friends and

in order

weight
became

with
stronger

the

government.

trends

over time. This may

workers wanted

explain why, while most

to see improvements,

build a life for themselves, do not have time to take up such opportunities. The division of labour in domestic chores and child care is
rarely renegotiated between the sexes.

96 per cent their wages, especially were very (49 per cent) or reported that they somewhat (47 per cent) satisfied with their in jobs. Similarly, married women workers in
export-oriented number of manufacturing Caribbean countries factories reported in a

their increased labour input into Despite women paid work, (particularly married women) burden to bear the main either continue of domestic work, or share it with other female members of the household often their daughters. By and large, gender in work burdens appear to be inequalities
intensified. their work, Despite women the workers collective nature sectors of in these

improvements result of contributions,

decision making

in household relations as a their economic greater of with greater sharing

with male partners.

The limits to empowerment through paid work On the other hand, most of these studies also conditions of work the exploitative highlight are generally in which women found. The greatest attention has been paid to women in the agro and manufacturing to seek which industries, compete of internationally through the promotion flexible labour practices. Export-oriented is associated with extremely manufacturing long hours of work during busy seasons, often combined with lay-offs in the slack who work
season, and poor conditions. In China, most

are either forbidden difficult to do so. Moreover, despite

to unionise the

or find

it of in of
to

visibility

export-oriented waged agriculture and industry,

women in low-income

employment the vast majority

continue

countries

work
forms

in the informal
of economic

economy

in various
or may

activities

that may

not be affected
characterised

by global markets,
by far worse

but are poorer

the and most low

conditions.

Within
women casualised value to see domestic construction

this
are forms

informal
concentrated of waged

economy,
in labour,

own-account how earnings service, sites

enterprises. generated or daily which

It is difficult by sex work, labour is where on the

women

in which from the localities these industries are based shunned such work if with higher they could find employment
or that was less tedious. There are also

poorest women
do much status to at home

are likely to be found - will

subordinate

status

health

hazards.

Maquila

workers

in

women's improve or at work.

Gender

equality

and women's

empowerment

21

Political
The
progress empowerment on

representation
for monitoring
gender relates and women's equality to the number of seats

selection; concerns. culture extent

promotion

and Most in which to which

of

identify important

last of the indicators

parties it is conducive

policy is the political operate and the to the

in involvement

relevant

women's

in national parliaments. It held by women moves into the the focus of empowerment arena of politics, and the struggle for in decision and representation participation
making structures.

politics: patriarchal pluralist

the

strength

or weakness existence
reforms. important.

of

the ideology, forms of organisation,

to gender are also

of the degree of
The

religious opposition Electoral systems

effects of national representation As half of the population, women are clearly in to at least half entitled the seats
parliament. Such an achievement could,

Positive

ones

more

political
person

into likely to bring women office are those where more than one
represent a constituency; those

can

with most
singled

certain ambitious
out

the represent qualifications, of the three forms of change

progress on women's

that have multiple for parties competing and those that practise proportional votes; (PR) in party lists. representation Those less likely to do so are majoritarian systems which create the incentive to field a single candidate per constituency and appeal
to the majority, rather than accommodating

to measure

empowerment
potential for

and could have

transformation.

the greatest
Furthermore,

qualifications, address many of the constraints potentially that limit the life chances of poor women.
However, relate to the because same these constraints qualifications that have

again with

certain

it could

diversity. A review of 53 legislatures in 1999 found that national assemblies in PR systems had nearly 24 per cent of women, compared with
almost

11 per cent inmajoritarian

every case where women

systems.
exceed

In
15

from all social classes and prevented women in groups from having a 'strategic presence' national
the

it is also the form of parliaments, social change least likely to be achieved in

near future. A review of the relevant

per cent of elected representative bodies, this has been the result of special measures that to female accord positive advantage candidates: Mozambique female parliamentarians,
has 29 per cent. India, reserved government. Tanzania, seats Bangladesh, and for women

has 30 per cent while South Africa

Burkina Uganda in national all or Faso, have local

statistics suggests
systems, the

that, regardless
of

of political
women in

proportion

national
extremely

parliaments
low, averaging

around
13.8

the world
per cent

is
in

2000 (Goetz 2003). This

under-representation

is an extraordinary
of women in the

structures highest countries. Various institutions

sphere discrimination more -

in their of governance forms of bias in the of civil society and the political
so operate than to exclude conscious women,

The way that quotas are applied makes a difference towhether the presence of women or a is 'token' of form legitimate as in Where, representation. Bangladesh, seats were women's filled by the party in power, they simply became an additional vote bank for the ruling regime. In South Africa, on the other hand,
the women's

including women The structure

makes a difference

from privileged elites. of the political sphere

to how many women are

there have been attempts

movement to encourage

by

fielded This parties

as candidates and how many win. includes the extent to which political have have taken clear institutional rules about root candidate in

society;

from within their ranks to enter A woman MP there was active in politics. initiating the process of examining national and the budgets from a gender perspective; Women's in Initiative, established Budget

members

22

Gender and Development and 1995, brought together parliamentarians to scrutinise the allocation of public NGOs resources and Vetten (Budlender, Hicks, 2002). At the same time, it should be noted
at present, the women are not who generally enter parliaments drawn that many of the elected women were

gaining priorities
development

self-confidence. of panchayat
programmes,

the They questioned (local government)

emphasised

that,
from

issues water,
alliances showed

national

affecting women and had begun

that among women themselves.

such as fuel and to build broad

One study were

the ranks of poor people, nor is there any guarantee that they will be more responsive to the needs and priorities of poor women
than many men in parliament.

representatives

from likely to allocate resources differently that their presence allowed men, suggesting a different set of priorities to be expressed.

Positive There

effects of local government is some debate about whether greater in and local influence participation
government structures for poor seats women in national are more than relevant increasing The

Building
the grassroots It is clear

citizenship

from

goals women's

parliaments.

that the decisions former, after all, make most directly affect the lives of poor people. In recognition of this, a number of states in 33 per cent there is now India, where
reservation of seats for women in local

in that each of the resources had the potential to bring about the question to lead that could kinds of change between of the boundaries renegotiations and private life, to collective forms of public
struggle, and to women's greater represent

have added further induce government, to encourage ments to local communities women's Pradesh participation. Madhya
and Kerala, for example, require that one

making. could also provide the basis Together, they on which women could organise to address the other aspects of the patriarchal structures on which the MDGs are silent: reproductive
violence women, against rights, it is also and so on. However, unjust clear that laws, there

ation

in the structures

of decision

in the regular open third of participants are female before there is village meetings
considered to be a quorum. Kerala also

funds allocates 10 per cent of development received by local councils from the state to be
used for 'women's development' and to be

are likely to be powerful forces, some within the policy domain itself, that will militate It is only through the against this happening. of women, mobilisation poor particularly
women, who are primary stakeholders in all

managed by representatives groups of the village assembly. Clearly, all these measures,
reservation policy itself, are

of

female the

of the MDGs, including

open women's to abuse.

but particularly
that

the MDG
policy makers

on

empowerment,

in India discussion are merely that women about the possibility men or powerful for husbands proxies are their family or caste. Objections within raised on the grounds that only supporters There has been much of parties in power attend village meetings; are being harassed to spend or that women that do not benefit poorer funds in ways women. While these are valid concerns, they
may also alter over time, as women become

can be held accountable to ensure that the MDGs are followed through in the spirit of and meetings the international movements that gave rise to them. Yet it is precisely this that ismissing
MDGs. The

from the letter and spirit of the

vision and values of women's

the world groups and organisations have been translated into a series of technical goals, to be implemented mainly by the very actors and institutions that have blocked their realisation If the vision the demand in the past. and values for gender that gave equality rise to and

across

more

arena. in the political experienced showed from India, for example, Studies

Gender equality and women 's empowerment

women's empowerment in the first place are

23

Conclusion
Gender relations, like they all social relations, ideas, values, are

to be restored most at stake with accordance position which activities, to happen with it

to MDG in its

3, then those with in in a

implementation this spirit must be

multi-stranded:

embody

in the processes to participate by is translated into objectives, and outcomes. if the women This ismost likely in question, together and civil in these
of

and identities; they allocate labour between different tasks, activities, and domains; they determine the distribution of resources; and
they assign authority, agency, and decision

their allies in government to participate society, are mobilised

Sometimes to occur such because begun of

making

power.
are reduced

This means
multi-dimensional to some

that gender
and single and

inequalities cannot be

processes. have

mobilisations the nature

certain activities. We which microfinance building

action. We

have noted the way in can provide the basis for capacity for collective
such action noted how

universally agreed set of priorities. attempt to do so will run the danger of either too narrow (as the MDGs have accused of being) or a wish list that
long and complex to act on.

Any being been is too

women's
have also

However,

gender
cohesive.

relationships
They contain

are not
contradictions

internally
and

can spill over into the political simply in the form of voting, interactions with

sphere, not but also in

imbalances,
been changes environment. aspect of

particularly
in the wider Consequently, relations

when

there have
a shift in one a series

locally represented in protests. We are officials and participation

also seeing evidence of greater willingness

socio-economic

social

can

initiate

on the part of women workers to challenge and the state through their employers such as SEWA (Self-Employed organisations Women's and Mahila Association) in India, and Kormojibi Nari and Samakhya Nijera Kori in Bangladesh. We have seen the innovation ofWomen's Budget Initiatives in
a number technical more function of exercise about and how how countries, but as not a way simply of as learning a

of

changes

in

other

aspects,
To that

with
extent,

unpredictable

consequences.

be argued that each of the three in MDG 3 has the indicators embodied a difference. to make Each can potential about immediate changes with longer bring
term consequences. Indeed, the same could

it could

be said of any set of policies

improve women's access

that seeks
Some

to

to resources.

governance resources are

structures raised and

may be more strategic than others, but all have transformatory potential as long as the of
change women's in question choices, is a rather genuine than of expansion a token gesture

allocated.
women mothers, as

It is through
women citizens but and

the mobilisation
also the as workers, that international

of paternalist However, unless provision

benevolence. this article has also to argued ensure that that

community to the needs world's

can ensure and

that theMDGs of half

interests

speak of the

is made

population. capacity of women and participate accountable the world's

Building this collective in all spheres of life to to hold authorities

in ways policy changes are implemented to participate, that allow women themselves to monitor, and to hold policy makers,
corporations, and other relevant actors

promises
gender

is thus the only basis on which can keep the policy makers that they have made on the issue of

accountable unlikely education

names on

for their actions, this potential access to be realised. Women's may

is to of a

equality.

good marriage provides

and courage

improve their chances or their capacity to sign their

but unless it also

a document,

them with
to question

the analytical
unjust

capacity
its

practices,

24

Gender and Development potential Women's

a greater

for change will be limited. access to paid work may give them
sense of self-reliance and greater

Africa:

into diverse initiatives' expanding Budgets Make More Cents, London: Secretariat Commonwealth Gender and K. Sorby (2003) Gender inHigh Value Agriculture Employment C.S. and Rural and

in

purchasing conditions their

benefits. governance

in power, that erode their health and exploit its labour, its costs may outweigh
Women's structures presence of society in the clearly

but if it is undertaken

Dolan,

Industries,

to change the potential unjust in question are but if the women practices, drawn from a narrow elite, if they have been invited rather than elected, and if they have carries
no grassroots constituency to represent and

Development Working DC: World Bank Paper series, no. 7, Washington effectiveness Goetz, A.-M. (2003) 'Women's political - a in A.-M. Goetz and framework', conceptual to Power: African S. Hassim (eds.) No Shortcuts Women Books Hashemi, 'Rural S.M., credit S.R. Sch?ler, and A.P. Riley and women's programs in Bangladesh', World (1996) in Politics and Policy Making, London: Zed

Agriculture

answer
one.

to, their presence will be only a token therefore, community

to women at

The question, the international provide support

is towhat
the

extent to

empowerment 24(4): 635-53 Development S. (1995) Women's Jejeebhoy, and Reproductive

Education,

Autonomy,

is prepared
grassroots

Behaviour:

support which will ensure that they have to play the collective capabilities necessary
this role.

Kabeer,

Countries, Developing N. (1999) 'Resources, reflections

Experience from Oxford: Clarendon Press

agency, achievements: on the measurement of women's Development 'Conflicts over and Change credit: potential World re of loans 30(3):

empowerment', 435-64 Kabeer, N. (2001)

Naila Kabeer isProfessorial Fellow at the Institute of Development Studies, University Sussex. She can be contacted at
n.kabeer@ids.ac.uk

of

evaluating to women

the empowerment in rural Bangladesh',

Kabeer,

29(1): 63-84 Development N. (forthcoming) 'From citizenship: wider social

social

exclusion

to

Note 1 in of a chapter Gender Mainstreaming in Poverty Eradication and the Millennium Goals: A Handbook for Development and Other Stakeholders, by Naila Policy-makers This article version Kabeer, published London, by the Commonwealth in 2003. is an edited

impacts of in J. Copestake, M. Greeley, N. microfinance', S. Johnson, and A. Simanowitz Kabeer, (eds.) Money With A Mission. Rugby: S. (2002) Microfinance ITDG Publications and Poverty

Reduction, Niranjana, within

Secretariat,

Panchayat in Andhra Pradesh' politicisation (ed.) The Violence of Development.

inflections 'Exploring gender institutions. Women's Raj in K. Kapadia The Politics of in India, Inequalities and A. and

Identity, Gender and Social New Delhi: Kali for Women Schuler, Akhter S.R., S.M. Hashemi, (1996) violence 'Credit

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