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Final Report
1

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Sergio Flores 2010-11793
Seoul National University

Final Report 1
Sergio Flores ()-2010-11793
1. The Electromagnetic model
Electromagnetics deals with the theory and applications of electric and magnetic fields.
Maxwells equations, formulated circa 1870, represent a fundamental unification of electric and
magnetic fields predicting electromagnetic wave phenomena which Nobel Laureate Richard
Feynman has called the most outstanding achievement of 19th-century science. Now, engineers
and scientists worldwide use computers ranging from simple desktop machines to massively
parallel arrays of processors to obtain solutions of these equations.
Sources quantities and basic units
Electric charge (Q)
Volume charge density
Surface charge density:
Line charge density:
Current (Rate of change of charge w.r.t. time):
Volume current density (J)
Surface current density (Js)

Maxwell equations

2.; Vector Analysis
There are two important quantities in vector analysis
Scalar: Completely specified by its magnitude
Vector: Defined by both magnitude and direction.
Vector algebra:
Magnitude and direction of a vector A:
Vector addition:

Vector substraction:

0
0
= V
= V
=
c
c
V
=
c
c
+ V
B
D
J
D
H
B
E
t
t
) C/m ( lim
3
0
v
q
v
A
A
=
A
) C/m ( lim
2
0
s
q
s
s
A
A
=
A
) C/m ( lim
0
l
q
l
l
A
A
=
A
) A or C/s (
dt
dq
I =
M H H B
P E E D
+ = =
+ = =
o
o

c c
A
A
a A =
Final Report 1

Dot product:

Vector or Cross Product:

Product of Three Vectors

Vector Triple Product:
Resumed in the following equation:

3.Orthogonal Coordinate Systems
An orthogonal coordinate system is a system of curvilinear coordinates in which each family of
surfaces intersects the others at right angles. The three basic orthogonal systems are the
following:
Cartesian system:

) ( ) ( ) ( B A C C A B C B A = =
z z y y x x
A A A a a a A + + =
=
=
=
y x z
x z y
z y x
a a a
a a a
a a a
y y y y x x
B A B A B A + + = B A
) ( ) ( ) (
x y y x z z x x z y y z z y x
B A B A B A B A B A B A + + = a a a B A
Final Report 1
Cylindrical system:

Spherical system:

Basic chart for this presentation (Useful when working on line integrals,etc)

Vector functions:
A vector-valued function also referred to as a vector function is a mathematical function of one or
more variables whose range is a set of multidimensional vectors or infinite-dimensional vectors.
Examples:

z z r r
A A A a a a A + + =
| |
(
(
(
(
(
(

=
(
(
(
z
r
z
y
x
A
A
A
A
A
A
|
| |
| |
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
| | u u
A A A
R R
a a a A + + =
| | u u
B A B A B A
R R
+ + = B A
) ( ) ( ) (
R R R R R
B A B A B A B A B A B A
u u | | | u u | | u
+ + = a a a B A
dv
V
}
F l d V
C
}
l F d
C
}
s A d
S
}
Final Report 1
4. Gradient and Divergence
Gradient: The gradient is a vector operation which operates on a scalar function to produce a
vector whose magnitude is the maximum rate of change of the function at the point of the
gradient and which is pointed in the direction of that maximum rate of change.

And for the calculation aspect the gradient of a scalar field is defined as followed:

Divergence: The divergence of a vector field is proportional to the density of point sources of the
field. In Gauss' law for the electric field the divergence gives the density of point charges.

Also for the case of the divergence, this can be defined mathematicaly in the following fashion:
(In general curvilinear coordinates)

Divergence theorem:
The volume integral of the divergence of a vector function is equal to the integral over the
surface of the component normal to the surface.

5. Curl of a Vector Field, etc.
Curl: The curl of a vector field, denoted or (the notation used in this work), is defined as the
vector field having magnitude equal to the maximum "circulation" at each point and to be
oriented perpendicularly to this plane of circulation for each point.

3 2 1
3 2 1
l
V
l
V
l
V
V
u u u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V a a a
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 2 1
u h
V
u h
V
u h
V
u u u
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= a a a
(
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
V ) ( ) ( ) (
1
3 2 1
3
2 3 1
2
1 3 2
1 3 2 1
A h h
u
A h h
u
A h h
u h h h
A
} }
= V
S V
d dv s A A
| |
max 0
1
lim
curl
}

A
V
A C
n
s
d
s
l A a
A A
Final Report 1
Where all this turns into the following curvilinear equation that describes the curl of a vector field:

Stokes theorem:
The area integral of the curl of a vector function is equal to the line integral of the field around
the boundary of the area.

*A and A must exist and be continuous!
also we learned that:
Null identities: According to the mathematical concepts defined, if we work on the two following
operations we always get a zero:

Helmholtzs Theorem:
This theorem basically establishes 4 different types of vector spaces the ones that will be listed
below:
1. Solenoidal and irrotational:
2. Solenoidal but not irrotational
3. Irrotational but not solenoidal:
4. Neither solenoidal nor irrotational:

And also it states that a vector field can be described in the following fashion:

Using the gradient and curl operations.

6. Static electric fields:
Static electric fields: Static electric fields are produced by electrically charged bodies where an
electric charge is induced on the surface of an object within a static electric field. As a
consequence, the electric field at the surface of an object, particularly where the radius is small,
such as at a point, can be larger than the unperturbed electric field (that is, the field without the
object present). The field inside the object may be very small or zero. Electric fields are
experienced as a force by electrically charged objects; for example, a force will be exerted on
body hair, which may be perceived by the individual.
In mathematical terms this can be described as:
where the following properties are found:
) V/m ( lim
0
q
q
F
E
=
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
3 2 1
1
A h A h A h
u u u
h h h
h h h
u u u
c
c
c
c
c
c
= V
a a a
A
} }
= V
C S
d d l A s A) (
}
= V
S
d 0 ) ( s A
0 ) ( V V V
0 ) ( V V A
0 and 0 = V = V F F
0 and 0 = V = V F F
0 and 0 = V = V F F
0 and 0 = V = V F F
A F V + V = V
) N ( E F q =
0
c
= V E
V V = E
Final Report 1
Coloumbs law: According to this law:
directly proportional to the magnitude of each charge (q1, q2),
inversely proportional to square of the separation between their centers (r),
directed along the line connecting their centers
Also, mathematically this means:

Electric field for a continuous distribution of charge
In this case, we can mathematically compute the electric field by following the following formulas:
1. For a surface charge density:

2. For a line charge density:

7. Static Electric Fields
Gauss Law: This law states that If the volume within an arbitrary closed mathematical surface
holds a net electric charge Q, then the electric flux [Phi] though its surface is Q/[epsilon]0
Mathematically this means:

Electric potential:
Regarding this interest concept we know:
The potential energy per unit charge, U/qo, is
the electric potential
The potential is independent of the value of qo
The potential has a value at every point in an electric field
The potential is a scalar quantity
Since energy is a scalar
As a charged particle moves in an electric field, it will
experience a change in potential
The difference in potential is the meaningful quantity
We often take the value of the potential to be zero at some
convenient point in the field
Mathematically this means:

) N (
4
12
2
12 0
2 1
12
R
q q
F
R
tc
a =
s d
R
S
s
R
' =
}
'
2
0
4
1
tc
a E
l d
R
L
l
R
' =
}
'
2
0
4
1
tc
a E
0
c
Q
d
S
=
}
s E
) V or J/C (
2
1
}
=
P
P
d
q
W
l E
Final Report 1
Electric potential due to a charge distribution:
In this case, the electrical potential can be found using the following equations:

*For a surface charge density:

*For a line charge density:

- Materials:
In electromagnetics there are three main types of materials from an electric point of view:
Conductors: No resistance.
Insulators (or Dielectrics): High resistance.
Semiconductors: Few resistance.

And for the case of the conductors, the following are true regarding boundary conditions:

8. Static electric fields:
Important concepts:
- Dielectrics: Are materials which have no free charges but have bound charges.
- Induced electric dipoles: Macroscopically neutral but having small displacements of positive
and negative charges in opposite directions (polarized).
- Permanent dipole moments: Polar molecules, e.g. H2O (cf. nonpolar molecules) Electrets (waxes,
polymers, resins), e.g. HF microphones
If a material contains polar molecules, they will generally be in random orientations when no
electric field is applied. An applied electric field will polarize the material by orienting the dipole
moments of polar molecules.
This decreases the effective electric field between the plates and will increase the capacitance of
the parallel plate structure. The dielectric must be a good electric insulator so as to minimize any
DC leakage current through a capacitor.
) V (
4
0
R
q
V
tc
=
) (
4
1
1 0
V
R R
=

=
n
k k
k
q
V
tc
s d
R
V
S
s
' =
}
'

tc
0
4
1
l d
R
V
L
l
' =
}
'

tc
0
4
1
0 = A =
}
w E d
t
abcda
l E
0 =
t
E
0
c
S
n
E =
Final Report 1
The presence of the dielectric decreases the electric field produced by a given charge density.
The factor k by which the effective field is decreased by the polarization of the dielectric is called
the dielectric constant of the material.
In the case of a polarized material we define the polarization vector as:

And so with it we can defined the electric potential as:

In the same fashion we can use its existence to redefine polarization surface/volume charges
which would be the following:

Where the total charge is defined as:

In the same fashion we can describe Gauss law using this new polarization vector and we can also
define a new postulate for the divergence. These are as follows:

-Dielectric strenght:
All insulating materials fail at some level of applied voltage, and dielectric strength is the voltage
a material can withstand before breakdown occurs. Dielectric strength is measured through the
thickness of the material (taking care to avoid surface effects) and is normally expressed as a
voltage gradient (volts per unit length). Note that the voltage gradient at breakdown is much
higher for very thin test pieces (<100m thick) than for thicker sections.
The value of dielectric strength for a specimen is also influenced by its temperature and ambient
humidity, by any voids or foreign materials in the specimen, and by the conditions of test, so that
it is often difficult to compare data from different sources.

-Boundary conditions for electric fields:

) C/m ( lim
2 1
0
v
v n
k
k
v
A
=

A
=
A
p
P
}
'
'
=
V
R
v d
R
V
2
0
4
1 a P
tc
n ps
a P =
P V =
p
0 ) ( arg = + =
} }
V
p
S
ps
dv ds total e Ch
) C/m (
3
= V D
dv dv
V V
} }
= V D Q d
S
=
}
s D
s n
= ) (
2 1 2
D D a
s n n
D D =
2 1
t t
E E
2 1
=
Final Report 1
9.Static Electric fields:
- Capacitors: Capacitors are components designed to take advantage of this phenomenon by
placing two conductive plates (usually metal) in close proximity with each other. There are many
different styles of capacitor construction, each one suited for particular ratings and purposes. For
very small capacitors, two circular plates sandwiching an insulating material will suffice. The
highest capacitance values are obtained by using a microscopic-thickness layer of insulating oxide
separating two conductive surfaces. In any case, though, the general idea is the same: two
conductors, separated by an insulator.
For capacitors we have the following mathematical relations:
Where V is defined as:
As for the connections in parallel and series of capacitors we have:
-Series connections:

- Parallel connections:

- Electrostatic potential energy:
The electrostatic force is a conservative force. This means that the work it does on a particle
depends only on the initial and final position of the particle, and not on the path followed. With
each conservative force, a potential energy can be associated. The introduction of the potential
energy is useful since it allows us to apply conservation of mechanical energy which simplifies the
solution of a large number of problems.
The potential energy We associated with a conservative force F is defined in the following ways:

Also in the case of electric forces, these can be described as:

And the torque as:

CV Q =
}
= l E d V
12
n sr
C
Q
C
Q
C
Q
C
Q
V + + + = =
2 1
n
C C C C + + + =
2 1 //
) J (
2
1
1
=
=
N
k
k k e
V Q W
) J (
2
1
}
'
=
V
e
Vdv W
Q e Q
W
,
V = F
V e V
W
,
V = F
) m N (
,
c
c
=
|
V e
V
W
T
Final Report 1
10. Solution of Electrostatic Problems
In electrostatics we always find ourselves in the problem of finding the electric field and the
electric potential in some sort of complicated conditions were symmetry is not present,etc. In that
kind of case we try to solve the following equations:
Poissons equation

Laplaces equation

Also we pay attention to the followings:

(for they can help us solve problems easily)
In the case of the Laplacian it can be solved by finding the solutions to the following equations
(depending on the system of coordinates)
Cartesian coordinates:

Cylindrical coordinates:

Spherical coordinates:

-Uniqueness of electrostatic solutions
A solution of Poissons equation (or Laplaces equation) that satisfiesthe given boundary
conditions is a unique solution.

11.Solutions of eletrostatic problems
-Method of images: This is described as a mathematical tool for solving differential equations in
which the domain of the sought function is extended by the addition of its mirror image with
respect to a symmetry hyperplane, with the purpose of facilitating the solution of the original
problem. It is used in electrostatics to simply calculate or visualize the distribution of the electric
field of a charge in the vicinity of the conducting surface. It is based on the fact that the
tangential component of the electrical field to the surface of a conductor is zero, and that some
field E in some region is uniquely defined by its normal component over the surface which
confines this region (the uniqueness theorem).
(This method is basically just based on this technique but it can also be adapted all the different
independent cases).
c
= V V
2
0
2
= V V
V V = E c = V V ) ( V
) V/m (
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
c
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
z
V
y
V
x
V
2
2
2
2
2
2
1 1
z
V V
r r
V
r
r r
V
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
|
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
| u u
u
u u c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
V
R
V
R R
V
R
R R
V
Final Report 1

12. Solutions of electrostatic problems:
-Boundary problems
They can be of three diferent types:
- Dirichlet problems: Potential specified on the boundaries
- Neumann problems: Normal derivative of the potential specified
- Mixed boundary-value problems
Cartesian coordinates:
This method can be used by simply proceeding into the solution of the Laplacians :

Or by using the separation variable method as follows:

Where some of the possible solutions are:

Cylindrical coordinates:
In the same fashion, we can solve the Laplaces equation or we can proceed with the
method of separation of variables as well as by replacing the solutions by known forms,
as shown below:

Where one of the possible solutions is:

Spherical coordinates;
In this case too the solution to the Laplaces equation is:

In the same case, the method of separation of variables show us that:
0
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
c
c
= V
z
V
y
V
x
V
V
) ( ) ( ) ( ) , , ( z Z y Y x X z y x V =
0
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
2
2
2
2
2
2
= + +
dz
z Z d
z Y x X
dy
y Y d
z Z x X
dx
x X d
z Z y Y
D. K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, 2nd
ed., Addison-Wesley, 1989.
0
1 1
2
2
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
z
V V
r r
V
r
r r
V
|
) ( ) ( ) , ( | | u = r R r V
2
2
2
2
) (
) (
1
,
) (
) (
k
d
d
k
dr
r dR
r
dr
d
r R
r
=
u
u
=
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
|
| | |
| |
n B n A cos sin ) ( + = u
0
sin
1
sin
sin
1 1
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
2
=
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
+
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
c
c
= V
| u u
u
u u
V
R
V
R r
V
R
R R
V
Final Report 1

Where the possible solutions are of the shape:

13. Steady Electric currents;
There are different types of currents:
Conduction currents
Electrolytic currents
Convection currents

But we only focus on conductions currents which have the following characteristics:
Electrons in the outermost shells: Loosely bounded to the nuclei

Dissipation of the kinetic energy into heat
Current density: The current, I, is a coarse, average quantity that tells what is happening in an
entire wire. If we want to describe in more detail how the charges move through a conductor, we
use the concept of the current density :

Ohms law: One of the most important laws in Electricity is defined as:

From where we can derive the following:

Electromotive force:
The electromotive force (EMF) is the maximum potential difference between two electrodes of a
galvanic or voltaic cell. This quantity is related to the tendency for an element, a compound or an
ion to acquire (i.e. gain) or release (loss) electrons.

Equation of continuity:

A very useful equation whenever talking about the movement of charges in conductors.

) ( ) ( ) , ( u u O I = R R V
2 2 2
) (
sin
sin ) (
1
,
) (
) (
1
k
d
d
d
d
k
dR
R d
R
dR
d
R
=
|
.
|
\
| O
O
=
|
.
|
\
| I
I
u
u
u
u u u
| | ) (cos ) , (
) 1 (
u u
n
n
n
n
n n
P R B R A R V
+
+ =
) (A/m
2
=
i
i i i
q N u J
E J o =
E J
e e
=
) (A/m
2
E o =
E J o =
) (O =
S
l
R
o
) (O =
S
l
R
o
) A/m (
3
t c
c
= V

J
Final Report 1
14. Steady electric currents:
Power dissipation: This can be found by solving the following key equations that describe the
dissipation of power in conductors:

Boundary conditions for current density:
In the case of current density, the boundary conditions are the following:

Resistance calculations:
This calculations are done foloowing the following method:

In detail these would be:

15.Static magnetic fields:
- Magnetic force:
This can be described by the following equations:

- Fundamental postulates of magnetostatics:
These are the following:

- Vector magnetic potential: (A)
In the same fashion we define the electric potential we can define the vector magnetic potential
using the following relationships which define this interesting concept:

) W (
}
=
V
dv P J E
} }
=
S L
Jds dl P E VI =
) W (
2
R I =
n n
J J
2 1
=
2
2
1
1
o o
t t
J J
=
2
1
2
1
o
o
=
t
t
J
J
D. K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, 2nd
ed., Addison-Wesley, 1989.

o
c
= =
G
C
RC
}
}

= =
L
S
d
d
V
Q
C
l E
s D
}
}

=
L
S
d
d
l E
s E c
}
}

= =
S
L
d
d
I
V
R
s J
l E
}
}

=
S
L
d
d
s E
l E
o
) N ( B u F = q
m
0 = V B
J B
0
= V
0 =
}
S
ds B
I d
C
0
=
}
l B
) T ( A B V =
J A
0
2
= V
) Wb/m (
4
0
}
'
' =
V
v d
R
J
A
t
Final Report 1

- Magnetic flux:
Magnetic flux (most often denoted as m), is a measure of the amount of magnetic B field (also
called "magnetic flux density") passing through a given surface (such as a conducting coil). The SI
unit of magnetic flux is the weber (Wb) (in derived units: volt-seconds).

16. Static magnetic fields:
- Biot- Savart law and applications
The BiotSavart law is an equation in electromagnetism that describes the magnetic field B
generated by an electric current. The vector field B depends on the magnitude, direction, length,
and proximity of the electric current, and also on a fundamental constant called the magnetic
constant. The law is valid in the magnetostatic approximation, and results in a B field consistent
with both Ampre's circuital law and Gauss's law for magnetism.

- Magnetization and equivalent current densities:
Materials may be classified by their response to externally applied magnetic fields as diamagnetic,
paramagnetic, or ferromagnetic. These magnetic responses differ greatly in strength.
Diamagnetism is a property of all materials and opposes applied magnetic fields, but is very weak.
Paramagnetism, when present, is stronger than diamagnetism and produces magnetization in the
direction of the applied field, and proportional to the applied field. Ferromagnetic effects are very
large, producing magnetizations sometimes orders of magnitude greater than the applied field
and as such are much larger than either diamagnetic or paramagnetic effects.
The magnetization can be described in the following terms:

And using this we can find a logical definition for volume current densities and surface current
densities:

- Equivalent magnetization charge densities:
In the same way, we can find equivalent (not real) magnetization charge densities for our magnets:
This are shown below:

s B d
S
= u
}
}
'
=
C
dB B
|
.
|
\
| '
=
2
0
4 R
d I
d
R
a l
B
t
|
.
|
\
| '
=
3
0
4 R
d I R l
t
) A/m ( lim
1
0
v
v n
k
k
v
A
=

A
=
A
m
M
) A/m (
2
M J V =
m
) A/m (
n ms
a M J =
) A/m (
n ms
a M =
) A/m (
2
M V =
m
Final Report 1
-Magnetic field intensity:
The magnetic fields generated by currents and calculated from Ampere's Law or the Biot-
Savart Law are characterized by the magnetic field B measured in Tesla. But when the
generated fields pass through magnetic materials which themselves contribute internal
magnetic fields, ambiguities can arise about what part of the field comes from the
external currents and what comes from the material itself.
This one can be described mathematically like this:

Where
Also we can arrive at the following conclusion:

Analogous relations between magnetic circuits and eletric circuits:
These are some of the relations between these two types of circuits:

Behaviour of materials
(Described on the previous slide).

) A/m (
0
M
B
H =
) A/m (
2
J H = V
) (A l H I d
C
=
}
D. K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, 2nd ed., Addison-Wesley, 1989.
Final Report 1
18. Static magnetic fields:-
- Boundary conditions for Magnetostatic fields:
In this case the boundary conditions are the following:

- Inductance and inductors:
In the case of inductance and mutual inductance, these ones are defined as:

(self inductance)

(mutual inductance)

Regarding the mutual inductance it can be shown that the inverse is also equal to the original
equation. In few words: L12=L21. Through the proof we can arrive at:

19. Static magnetic fields:-
- Hall effect:
If an electric current flows through a conductor in a magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a
transverse force on the moving charge carriers which tends to push them to one side of the
conductor. This is most evident in a thin flat conductor as illustrated. A buildup of charge at the
sides of the conductors will balance this magnetic influence, producing a measurable voltage
between the two sides of the conductor.

) T (
2 1 n n
B B =
s n
J H H a = ) (
2 1 2
) H (
1
11
11
dI
d
L
total
u
=
) H (
1
12
12
dI
d
L
total
u
=
} }

=
1 2
2 1 0
21
4
C C
R
d d
L
l l
t
12 21
L L =
Final Report 1
- Magnetic forces and torques:
Regarding the magnetic forces and torques, the following equations can be defined:

- Magnetic Induction:
A magnetic field of changing intensity perpendicular to a wire will induce a voltage along the
length of that wire. The amount of voltage induced depends on the rate of change of the
magnetic field flux and the number of turns of wire (if coiled) exposed to the change in flux.
Faraday's equation for induced voltage: e = N(d/dt)
A current-carrying wire will experience an induced voltage along its length if the current changes
(thus changing the magnetic field flux perpendicular to the wire, thus inducing voltage according
to Faraday's formula). A device built specifically to take advantage of this effect is called an
inductor.
This can be overviewed in the following equations:

- Magnetic energy:
In order to describe the energy that can be saved in a magnetic circuit we can use the followin
equations which reduced all the mathematics behind them into simple forms:

- Forces and torques
In the previous slide there were many mentions to the magnetic forces and torques possible to
appear in magnetic circuits. Here I will only include the important equations necessary to describe
this phenomena. This would be:
Magnetic forces:

Magnetic torques:

) N (
}
=
C
m
d I B l F
//
B B B + =

) (

= B
z
a B
) m N ( = B m T
I d
C
0
=
}
l B
dt
d
d
C
u
=
}
l E
= =
=
N
j
N
k
k j jk m
I I L W
1 1
2
1
=
u =
N
k
k k m
I W
1
2
1
) N (
m
W V =
u
F
) N (
m I
W V = F
) (
21 2 1
L I I
I
V = F
) m N ( ) (
c
c
=
u
|
m
z
W
T
) m N ( ) (
c
c
=
|
m
z I
W
T
) m N ( ) (
12
2 1

c
c
=
|
L
I I T
z I
Final Report 1
21. Time-Varying Fields and Maxwells Equations
Whenever the elements of our magnetic circuits are moving, the following conditions appear:

For this reason, from this chapter on we will be working hard on developing this relations.

-Faraday Law:
Any change in the magnetic environment of a coil of wire will cause a voltage (emf) to be
"induced" in the coil. No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated. The
change could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving a magnet toward or
away from the coil, moving the coil into or out of the magnetic field, rotating the coil relative to
the magnet, etc.

Also described by:

_Transformers:
Theyre basically defined by the following equations and the following diagram:

And from this we can find the following equations used to describe them:
For ideal transformers:
0 = V
= V
c
c
+ = V
c
c
= V
B
D
D
J H
B
E
t
t
M H H B
P E E D
0 0
0

c c
+ = =
+ = =
} }
=
u
= =
S C
d
dt
d
dt
d
d s B l E V
D. K. Cheng, Field and Wave Electromagnetics, 2nd ed.,
Addison-Wesley, 1989.
} }
=
u
= =
S C
d
dt
d
dt
d
d s B l E V
} }
=
u
= =
S C
d
dt
d
dt
d
d s B l E V
t c
c
= V
B
E
Final Report 1

-Amperes Law: Ampere's law allows us to write down a single equation that describes all of the
ways that electric current can make magnetic field. But, just as with Gauss's law, this single
equation is very difficult to solve.

-Maxwells equations:
After including the moving charge modifications, they become:

-Wave equation:
The electromagnetic wave equation is a second-order partial differential equation that describes
the propagation of electromagnetic waves through a medium or in a vacuum.
It can be desribed in the following ways:
For vector potentials

For scalar potential:

0
2 2 1 1
= i N i N
1
2
2
1
N
N
i
i
=
dt
d
v
total
1
1
u
=
dt
d
N
u
=
1
dt
d
v
total
2
2
u
=
dt
d
N
u
=
2
2
1
2
1
N
N
v
v
=
t c
c
+ = V
D
J H
0 = V
= V
c
c
+ = V
c
c
= V
B
D
D
J H
B
E
t
t
M H H B
P E E D
0 0
0

c c
+ = =
+ = =
0 =
c
c
+ V
t
V
c A
J
A
A c =
c
c
V
2
2
2
t
c
= V V
2
c
c =
c
c
V
2
2
2
t
V
V
c
= V
c
c
+ V ) (
2
A
t
V
Final Report 1

- Electromagnetic boundary conditions:
In this case, the boundary conditions are:

- Interface between two lossless media

- Interface between a dielectric and a PEC

- Solutions of wave equations for Potentials:
First we begin by showing the wave equation for time-varying distributed charges which is:

If spherical symmetry is present in the problem we can find a solution in the form:

Or through the use of Greens function:

- Retarded vector potential:
As we know it takes time for electromagnetic waves to travel so that the effects of time-varying
charges or currents are to be felt at distant points, as a result of that the resultant vector
) C/m ( ) (
2
2 1 2 s n
= D D a
) V/m (
2 1 t t
E E =
2
1
2
1
2 1
c
c
= =
t
t
t t
D
D
E E
2
1
2
1
2 1
= =
t
t
t t
B
B
H H
n n n n
E E D D
2 2 1 1 2 1
c c = =
n n n n
H H B B
2 2 1 1 2 1
= =
0
1
=
t
E 0
2
=
t
E
s n
J H a =
1 2
0
2
=
t
H
s n
=
1 2
D a
0
2
=
n
D
0
1
=
n
B
0
2
=
n
B
c
c =
c
c
V
2
2
2
t
V
V
) / (
1
) , ( u R T f
R
T R V
h
=
t d d
t
t t G V ' '
' '
' ' =
}}
r
r
r r
3
]
) , (
[ ) , , , (
c
Final Report 1
potential can be found using the following mathematical relation:

- Source-free wave equations:
In the case of simple medium without sources we can re-write the wave equations in the
following fashion:

- Principle of duality:
In normal Maxwell theory we know that if we have a solution with electric field E and magnetic
field B, we will get another solution if we make the transformation:
E=>B and B-> -E
Also, the following relationships are true:

r
r r
r r r J
A '
'
' '
=
}
3
) / , (
4
) , ( d
u t
t r
t
H E q = '
E H
q
1
= '
c q / =
0
0
= V
= V
c
c
= V
c
c
= V
H
E
E
H
H
E
t
t
c
0
1
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
t u
E
E
0
1
2
2
2
2
=
c
c
V
t u
H
H
Final Report 1
Electromagnetic spectrum:

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