TABLE OF CONTENTS:

CHAPTER 1 Introduction Reactive power consumption in industrial loads -(1)Fixed load -(2)Fluctuating load -balanced load -unbalanced load effects of industrial loads on the network harmonic generation role of reactive power in power system need to control reactive power in power system requirements of a power system types of compensation system -(1)fixed compensation -(2)dynamic compensation technique used in this paper CHAPTER 2 Pulse width modulation Principle

Applications of PWM Use of PWM with switched capacitor to improve power factor CHAPTER 3: ABOUT THE TECHNIQUE USED About SG1524B Pin Diagram of SG1524B Internal structure of IC Principle of operation Circuit diagram used CHAPTER 4: Results of the proposed power factor improvement circuit used
Conclusion

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION:
The power supply network today is required to cope with fluctuating loads in industries such as Steel Rolling Mills, Electric Arc Furnace (EM), A.C. Traction in Electro-chemical industry, etc. At the same time the consumers are required to meet the stringent requirements of supply authorities for power factor, voltage drop, voltage fluctuation /flicker and harmonic distortion.

REACTIVE POWER CONSUMPTION IN INDUSTRIAL LOADS:

Depending on the load cycle and demand of reactive power from the supply system, the industrial loads can be classified under the following categories:

FIXED LOAD:
Consumers / Drives with Steady Loads and Reactive Power. These are constant loads like continuously running Fans, Pumps, and Compressors. Field Supplies to I X Motors, Rectiformers in Electro-Chemical Industries etc.

FLUCTUATING LOAD:
Consumers / Loads with large reactive power and highly fluctuating Load Demand. This category of loads include Electric Arc Furnace (EAF), Steel Rolling Mills, Mine Winders, AC Traction etc. TYPES OF FLUCTUATING LOAD:
Fluctuating Loads can be classified as:

- Balanced Load
- Unbalanced Load

BALANCED LOAD:

Steel rolling mills, mine winders etc come under this category of loads. Different types of rolling mills are installed in steel plants to produce basically flat products such as Flats, Hot Sheets,Cold sheets and also Structural sections. The high power Roughing Mill with frequent reversal under the load with large drives create heavy fluctuating loads on the network system. Thyristor convertor drives are used for the Variable speed drives of these rolling mills with high dynamic performances. In the case of thyristor converters, whereas the power demand increases steadily during acceleration, the reactive power also increases very rapidly to a maximum value as the rolls bite on the bi!let and then decelerate and reverse for second pass. Thyristor converters due to phase angle control, draw considerable amount of reactive power from the supply system and also generate spectrum of current harmonics which flow into various parts of the network system affecting other connected loads.

UNBALANCED LOAD: The Electric Arc Furnace (EM) is used in the steel melting shop to melt various combinations of scrap, Direct Reduced Iron Ore (DIU) with fluxes and, additives to produce the desired molten metal. The current drawn in the three phases of an arc furnace are unbalanced and highly distorted and fluctuating in nature When these fluctuating currents flow in the system impedance, they create unbalance in the system voltage, distort the sinusoidal nature of the voltage waveforms, and create voltage fluctuations/flicker. The effects of these are observed in the performance of other equipments connected on the supply network, and the disturbance caused to people working by the lamp flicker and its strain on the human eyes.

EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL LOADS ON NETWORK:

The high power Industrial Loads powered by Thyristor Converter act like fast fluctuating reactive power consumer and also behave as generator of spectrum of current harmonics so fir as the network system is concerned. The harmonics generated will flow to various other equipments connected to the same supply network affecting their operation. The adverse effects of Industrial loads during operation, on the supply network are as follows: - Draw highly varying reactive power - Poor Power factor of system - causes voltage fluctuation due to sudden application of load. - Harrnonic Generation - Distorts the supply voltage - overloading of Shunt Capacitors connected for power factor correction. - Derating of Power Cables, Switchgear - Lowering of Power Factor - Voltage Distortion at network - Over voltage due to Harmonics

HARMONIC GENERATION:
Due to non-linear characteristics of converter control, the AC current will not be sinusoidal. The ill effects of harmonics are: Increase in losses and consequent heating of transformers & rotating machines This will lead to reduced life, increased maintenance and repair of equipment.

Increases error in the energy meters Studies have indicated that there will be an error of 7% in the energy recording due to presence of harmonics. Malfunctioning of protective relays due to changes in voltage & current caused by harmonics. Overloading of power factor correction shunt capacitors, leading to excessive blowing of fuses.

ROLE OF REACTIVE POWER IN POWER SYSTEM:

Reactive power is an important factor in stable operation of a power system and hence must be taken care of. Voltage drop in a network depends on reactive power flowing and high reactive power demand by the load, will result in considerable voltage drop in the network. As a result, the steady state voltage available will be less. This will affect the available power and efficiency of motors. It also causes more heating for the same power to the motors, which are usually connected to the network in industrial system. When the load is fluctuating, the reactive power demand varies rapdily, and this causes voltage fluctuation which will cause problem to voltage sensitive loads .

NEED TO CONTROL THE FLOW OF REACTIVE POWER IN SYSTEM:

Due to high reactive power demand of the load, the power factor of the system will be poor. Industrial power consumers are usually charged by the supply authorities on two part tarrif- one part on the maximum power demand(KVA) and the other part on the total energy consumption(KWH) .If the power factor is low due to large reactive power demand, the kVA demand increases i.e maximum demand increases and also KVARh -consequently power tarrif increases on both counts. Hence it becomes essential for industries to control the reactive power flow in network to avoid penalty from authorities. Reactive power compensation is also an essential part in a power system to minimize power transmission loss,to maximize power

transmission capability and to maintain the system voltage within desired level. It is due to all these we require a compensation system.

REQUIREMENT OF A COMPENSATION SYSTEM:

The ideal compensation system which is connected near the load shall posses the following characteristics Fast acting and dynamic nature to meet the fluctuating reactive power demand of load. Improve power factor near unity Near instantaneous response time Consumes less power Reduce Voltage Fluctuation Improve Voltage Regulation Load balancing Flicker suppression

TYPES OF COMPENSATION SYSTEM:

The Compensation System can be classified under the following types: Fixed compensation (FC) Dynamic Compensation (Direct and Indirect)

FIXED COMPENSATION:
When the reactive power demand is not much varying under various load conditions then fixed capacitor connected to network will be sufficient to improve the power factor and voltage regulation By connecting series reactors which are tuned with capacitor banks, the harmonic current are filtered from the network. The series reactors also act as inrush current limiting reactor during during switching in period Harmonic filter serve for dual purposes a) To improve

the power factor at fundamental frequency. b) To act as filter for removing the undesired harmonic frequency currents from the network.

STATIC VAR COMPENSATION SYSTEM:

When the load is a dynamic one i.e. varying reactive power demand with respect to load cycle, Fixed Compensation , if used will lead to over and under compensation. Hence dynamic compensation shall be employed. Static Var Compensation System is an active (Dynamic) shunt compensator. The word static means. unlike Synchronous condenser it has no moving parts. The development of thyristor devices capable of handling large currents and the technique of using them to switch capacitor banks and to control current through reactor have given rise to effective method of reactive power generation / absorption in tune with load. This method of controlling reactive power using thyristor control is called Static Var Compensation (SVC). The most two popular Dynamic compensation methods of generating capacitive reactive power generation are: TCR (Thyristor Controlled Reactor) +FC (Fixed Compensation) Indirect method TSC (Thyristor switched capacitor) -Direct method

TECHNIQUE USED IN THIS PAPER:

The method used in this paper improves the power factor of varying lagging loads to unity ,using one single large shunt capacitor instead of using a large bank of capacitors. Basically this control scheme is a static power factor correction method by continous current or voltage control of a capacitor.Voltage across capacitor is being changed by a bi-directional switch to control the magnitude of compensating capacitor current and thereby attaining unity power factor.The system incorporates high speed IGBT technology. The gate signal of switching devices is generated by using a compact and commercially available IC chip SG1524B.The scheme is simple in sense that it uses only one static bi-directional switch controlled by an electronic control circuit that uses only analog ICs and some discrete digital components.

CHAPTER 2 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION(PWM):

Pulse width modulation (PWM) of a signal or power source involves the modulation of its duty cycle to either convey information over a communication or control the amount of power sent to a load.

REFERENCE 1: An example of PWM: the supply voltage modulated as a series of pulses results in a sine-like flux density waveform in a magnetic circuit of electromagnetic actuator. The smoothness of the resultant waveform can be controlled by the width and number of modulated impulses (per given cycle)

PRINCIPLE:
Pulse-width modulation uses a square wave whose pulse width is modulated . If we consider a square waveform with a low value of y(min) and high value y(max) and a duty cycle D the average value of the waveform is given by:

REFERENCE 2

REFERENCE 3: a square wave, showing the definitions of ymin, ymax and D

for the values for a square wave the above expression becomes:

REFERENCE 2

This latter expression can be fairly simplified in many cases where ymin = 0 as From which it is clear that average value of function is directly proportional to duty cycle D.

The simplest way to generate a PWM signal is the intersective method, which requires only a

sawtooth or a triangle waveform (easily generated using a simple oscillator) and a comparator. When the value of the reference signal (the green sine wave in figure 2) is more than the modulation waveform (blue), the PWM signal (magenta) is in the high state, otherwise it is in the low state

REFERENCE 4:Fig. 2: A simple method to generate the PWM pulse train corresponding to a given signal is the intersective PWM: the signal (here the green sinewave) is compared with a sawtooth waveform (blue). When the latter is less than the former, the PWM signal (magenta) is in high state (1). Otherwise it is in the low state (0).

APPLICATIONS OF PWM:
1. In telecommunications, the widths of the pulses correspond to specific data values encoded at one end and decoded at the other. 2. Voltage Regulation-It is the most important application of PWM. This one has been used in this paper. By switching voltage to the load with the appropriate duty cycle, the output will approximately be a voltage at the desired level. The switching noise is usually filtered with an inductor and a capacitor.

USE OF PWM WITH SWITCHED CAPACITOR TO IMPROVE POWER FACTOR:

In this paper instead of using bank of capacitors a single large capacitor is used .The compensating capacitive current depends on voltage across the capacitor. So by controlling voltage across the capacitor we can control the compensating current .The voltage across the capacitor is controlled by a bi-directional switch, which is continuously on/off by a pulse width modulated (PWM) signal of moderately high frequency. By controlling duty cycle of the PWM signal the magnitude of compensating current can be controlled and thereby attaining the required power factor correction.

CHAPTER 3 ABOUT SG1524B:

The SG1524B is a pulse width modulator for switching power supplies. A DC-coupled flip-flop eliminates triggering and glitch problems, and a PWM data latch prevents edge oscillations. An undervoltage lockout circuit prevents spurious outputs when the supply voltage is too low for stable operation. Full double-pulse suppression logic insures alternating output pulses when the Shutdown pin is used for pulse-by-pulse current limiting. The SG1524B is specified for operation over the full military ambient temperature range of -55C to 125C.

PIN DIAGRAM:

REFERENCE 5

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF IC:

REFERENCE 5

PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION:
For power factor correction the control scheme is involved in detecting the power factor of the load and the magnitude of the load current. The control circuit then provide an error voltage, which is the product of load current and power factor. This error voltage is the negative input of the error amplifier of the IC chip SG1524B. The SG1524B is a voltage regulating IC whose output frequency can be controlled by controlling the value of RT and CT and duty cycle can be controlled by controlling the input voltage of positive and negative error amplifier. In this paper the operating frequency of pulse width modulated signal is 4 KHz. The positive input of the error amplifier is taken from the reference voltage of the IC chip after voltage dividing, which is constant. When the error voltage increase or decrease then the duty cycle of the gate signal of IGBT decrease or increase as a result the voltage across the capacitor decrease or increase. So when the load current or load power factor increase or decrease then the proposed control circuit automatically control the voltage across the capacitor to control the compensating capacitive current accordingly to attain unity power factor. The high operating frequency results in the smaller size of the filter capacitors and inductors since generally the size of inductors and filter capacitors is inversely proportional to the frequency. Optocoupler is used to isolate the control or gate signal of IGBT with respect to ground. In the proposed circuit an input filter is used to smooth the input current waveforms. Fig. 1 shows the proposed circuit to attain unity power factor for varying loads by pulse width modulated single capacitor.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM USED IN GIVEN TECHNIQUE:

REFERENCE 6

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS OF PROPOSED POWER FACTOR IMPROVEMENT CIRCUIT:

Results of the proposed circuit for improve power factor are shown in fig. 2. When load is varied from single 50+j31.4 to four 50+j31.4 the input power factor is unity as shown figs. 2(a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively. When load is 50+j47 , 50+j63 and 50+j79 , it is seen that input power factor is also unity as shown figs. 2(e), (f) and (g) respectively. The voltage across the capacitor corresponding to the load of figs.2 (a), (b), (c) and (d) are shown in figs. 3(a), (b), (c), and (d) respectively. It is seen from fig.3 with increase in load current i.e. the reactive component of load current the voltage across the capacitor also increase in order to increase the compensating capacitive current. Table below summarizes the result of the proposed circuit to attain unity power factor both for the variation of load power factor and current.

Load 50+j32 ohm 50+j32 ohm 50+j32 ohm 50+j32 ohm 50+j47

No. of loads One two three four one

Load current 5.1 10.2 15.3 20.3 4.4

Load p.f .85 .85 .85 .85 .73

Input p.f 1 1 1 1 1

ohm 50+j63 ohm 50+j79 ohm

REFERENCE 6

one one

3.7 3.2

.62 .54

1 1

(f)

REFERENCE 6: Fig. 2. Input voltage, input current and load current waveforms for loads (a) 50+j31.5 one load (b) 50+j31.5 two load (c) 50+j31.5 three load (d) 50+j31.5

 four load (e) 50+j47 (f) 50+j63 and (g) 50+j78.5 , where V(V1:+) is input voltage, -I(V1) is input current and I(R2) is load current

(a)

(b)

(c)
REFERENCE6 : Fig. 3. Voltage across shunt capacitor (a), (b), (c) and (d) corresponding to the load of fig. 2 (a), (b), (c) and (d) respectively.

CONCLUSION:
Reactive power plays a very important role in maintaining stability of line as it affects voltage regulation of line and power factor. Hence it is very important to control it i.e. supply it when in deficiency and absorb when it is in excess. Various techniques have been used in the past to compensate reactive power. All the techniques used were used on the basis of the type of load used. All of them had some merits as well as.More and more methods are being proposed to tackle the problem of compensating the reactive power flowing in a line. In this paper, a solid state reactive power compensator has been presented. The simulation results shown in fig. 2 shows that the proposed circuit improves the power factor to unity for the variation of load power factor and load current. The input current of the proposed circuit is sinusoidal. The proposed circuit is an attempt to suggest a simple controlled compensating circuit for a medium voltage line. A reactive current component cancellation principle is proposed, which is found to be very effective to improve power factor.

REFERENCES:
1.example of PWM, diagram at page 7 from Wikipedia.org. 2.equation for PWM at page 8 from Wikipedia.org. 3.square wave diagram at page 8 from wikipedia.org. 4.method to generate PWM wave at page 9 from Wikipedia.org. 5.Microsemi, IC SG1524B datasheet. 6.Md. Raju Ahmed and M.J. Alam power factor improvement by pulse width modulated switched single capacitor, Proceedings of India International Conference on Power Electronics 2006,pgs 212 215 7.V.Ambarani,Static var compensation system for industries,BHEL group,pages 177-184