New Simulation and Automation Solutions for the Optimized Calibration of Complex Electronic Systems

Holger Ulmer (ETAS) Thomas Kruse (ETAS) Tobias Lang (Bosch)

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Content

Abstract 1 | Introduction 2 | Data-based Modeling for Calibration 2.1 the DoE Approach 2.2 Classical Data-based Models 2.3 new Statistical Learning Approaches 3 | Multi-criteria Optimization with Evolutionary Algorithms 4 | The ASC Environment for Model-based Calibration 5 | DoE Method for Prognosis and Optimization of Tail Pipe Emissions by Optimization of Catalyst Heating Duration on a Gasoline Engine 5.1 Exhaust System Modeling Environment 5.2 Model Verification

3 4 4 4 5 6

6 8

9 10 10

5.3 DoE Method for Model-based Calibration of Catalyst Heating 10 6 | Summary 7 | Outlook and Transfer to other Calibration Tasks 14 14

Acknowledgement and Bibliography

15

IntrO 3

Abstract

Driven by increasing system complexity, the calibration of engine control parameters has a growing impact concerning engineering targets like emissions, driving dynamics as well as cost and duration of power train development. Simulation methods in which the system behavior of the drive train is represented by models can support the calibration of complex systems considerably. However, an essential prerequisite for the practical application is that the models have high accuracy and can be configured with low measurement and time effort. In a joint project with calibration and research engineers of robert Bosch GmbH and EtAS GmbH the Advanced Simulation for Calibration (ASC) tool suite was developed. A central element of the ASC tool suite is the modeling of global engine behavior with high accuracy. the ASC modeling uses new databased methods which can identify central engine outputs such as consumption, raw emissions and exhaust temperature dependent of operating conditions (speed, load, engine temperature) and calibration parameters (e.g., ignition, fuel injection, camshaft positions, ...) on few measurements in a mostly automated manner. On the basis of such a model, suggestions for optimal calibration parameters are automatically generated. In case of conflicting objectives, for example between emissions and fuel consumption, the user can choose the best compromise between the competing outputs from different proposals interactively. Another essential element of the ASC tool suite is the simulation of the exhaust system based on a highly accurate physicochemical catalyst model. the integration of the engine torque with the exhaust system model facilitates the optimization of cycle-related exhaust emissions. this approach can provide for example optimal strategies for heating up a three-way catalyst.

4 IntrODUCtIOn DAtA-BASED MODELInG fOr CALIBrAtIOn

1 | Introduction

2 | Data-based Modeling for Calibration

the calibration of ECU parameters has become a crucial element for the overall vehicle performance and is today an essential part of the development process of new engines and vehicles. A main challenge for calibration is finding the best compromise between contradictory requirements, such as nOx versus particle or CO2 emissions in a high dimensional space spanned over the engine parameters, e.g., injection timings and quantities, fuel pressure or exhaustgas recirculation (EGr) rate for modern diesel engines (figure 1). Usually, most parameters have strong interactions, so that a separated optimization of one parameter at a time leads to an insufficient result. In addition, calibration has to be done for a high number of different vehicles or model variants which are sold in different markets. to master this task with acceptable expenditure of time and costs, new calibration methods are necessary. Besides automation, modelbased calibration is seen here as one major solution. Model-based calibration means to simulate the relevant engine or vehicle behavior on a PC with a plant model, so that the main calibration task, the parameter optimization, can be done virtually. An additional benefit of this approach is the significantly reduced demand of prototypes and test bench resources, which are then only required to parameterize the model once.

Engine models that will be applied in series calibration have to fulfill different requirements. they have to be sufficiently accurate: for many calibration tasks as accurate as real measurements. Model parameterization must be fast and easy, i.e., the number of measurements required for the parameterization should be as small as possible and the parameterization should not demand deep knowledge of modeling techniques from the calibration engineer. furthermore, the modeling approach has to be universal in terms of application for all relevant diesel and gasoline combustion concepts and future electric engines. these requirements exclude in most cases physical modeling approaches. In this case, data-based models using mathematical approximation methods for the description of the relevant engine or vehicle behavior lead to much better results. Usually, the data-based modeling approach is combined with the Design of Experiment (DoE) method, which can significantly reduce the number of measurements required for parameterization [1]. the paper is organized as follows: first, the method of data-based modeling for calibration is described. then we outline the benefits of statistical modeling and multicriteria optimization approaches, which are included in the ASC modeling environment. In chapter 5 we discuss the application of the methods to the calibration task of optimizing a gasoline engine with regard to tail pipe emissions. finally, we conclude with a short summary and give an outlook on other applications.

2.1 The DoE Approach the basic idea of Design of Experiments (DoE) is to characterize an unknown system, e.g., a combustion engine, by a data-based mathematical model, whereas the measurement effort is minimized by matching the test plan to the used approximation model (figure 2). the determination of the calibration parameters from the model is done subsequently by using methods of mathematical optimization. Compared to the standard full factorial procedure, where all parameter combinations have to be measured with a specific step width, the measurement effort can be reduced by order of magnitudes, especially for high dimensional problems. the combination of DoE with modern test bench automation methods that allow a fast and simultaneous variation of all parameters additionally increases the efficiency [2].

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2.2 Classical Data-based Models the first applications of data-based modeling and DoE in ECU calibration started more than a decade ago [3]. Often polynomials or neural networks are used as mathematical approximation models. Both types have specific advantages but also significant disadvantages. Polynomials are relatively easy to understand and a number of established commercial tools are available. their main disadvantage is their limited flexibility, i.e., only very simple system behavior can be described. nevertheless, their parameterization needs relatively high effort and expertise. furthermore, polynomials are very sensitive to single measurement errors. As a consequence, if not detected as outliers, measurement errors can deteriorate the whole polynomial model. neural networks are in principle able to describe complex system behavior. However, parameterization of neural networks requires high expertise and validation data to avoid overfitting. Even with a high number of training data, the accuracy of neural networks is often insufficient for calibration purposes. As a consequence of the drawbacks of both model types, DoE methods are today applied to a limited number of use cases by a few experts only.
Figure 2: The DoE process: Measurements of the real system based on a DoE test plan. Figure 1: Engine parameters and outputs of a modern diesel engine that must be optimized during calibration

6 DAtA-BASED MODELInG fOr CALIBrAtIOn MULtI-CrItErIA OPtIMIzAtIOn wItH EVOLUtIOnAry ALGOrItHMS

3 | Multi-criteria Optimization with Evolutionary Algorithms

2.3 New Statistical Learning Approaches to overcome the drawbacks of the classical modeling approaches, a generic modeling framework for the broad use in calibration has been developed. the basic principle is a superposition of basis functions with weights to describe the system output f(x), depending on the D dimensional parameter vector x as:

the new machine learning modeling approach has a superior modeling performance and allows the calibration engineer to reach a better model quality with fewer measurements. furthermore, the modelbased approach can be extended to new tasks which demand a very high accuracy. with increasing number of training data this approach reaches the accuracy of the used measurement devices. One significant advantage of this new approach for calibration purposes is its ability to describe the global engine behavior including the complex influence

Besides the model itself, also the available optimization methods were often insufficient for calibration purposes. Adequate methods for multi-criteria optimization in calibration were missing. while in single criterion optimization, the optimal solution is usually clearly defined, this does not hold for multi-criteria optimization. the optimization problem is characterized by the fact that multiple conflicting target values (e.g., exhaust emission, fuel economy and engine torque) have to be considered simultaneously. for this reason, a single global optimum does not exist, but a set of equivalent compromise solutions, called Pareto optimal solutions. figure 3 explains the concept of Pareto optimality for a multi-criteria optimization, where two conflicting targets f1 and f2 have to be minimized. Solution B and C are equivalent, since B is superior concerning target f2 while C is superior concerning target f1. the Pareto optimal solution A is superior or dominates B, C, and D. Pareto optimality means that it is not possible to improve one target without worsen at least one other. the Pareto front shows the entity of all Pareto optimal solutions from which the individual compromise between the conflicting targets can be selected.

A statistical learning algorithm based on a Bayesian approach determines automatically that set n of basis functions and weights which represents the training data with the maximum likelihood, as described in [4]. As the main advantage of this approach, the user gets the best fit on defined statistical criteria without being compelled to find any model parameter. this feature, together with its insensitivity against single outliers, makes this method very robust and easy to handle for use in calibration. the high performance of the advanced modeling approach compared to classical neural network approaches has been demonstrated [5].

of engine speed and load. this means that one single model can describe the engine behavior in the whole operation range. As an additional benefit, the new statistical approach provides automatically the local variance of the model, giving the confidence interval of the model prediction at each setting of input quantities.

MULtI-CrItErIA OPtIMIzAtIOn wItH EVOLUtIOnAry ALGOrItHMS 7

Classical methods as gradient based or simplex algorithms aggregate all criteria into a single weighted objective function. thus, they can only consider one solution per optimization run and are not able to handle problems with concave Pareto fronts. Multi-criteria optimization problems can therefore not be solved efficiently by classical optimization methods. Evolutionary algorithms are stochastic optimization methods, which are inspired by the gradual adaptation process of the natural biological evolution. they try to mimic the natural evolution by applying selection and mutation operators on the given set of solutions represented by a population of individuals (figure 4). Possible solutions for a given problem are represented by individuals who accumulate to a population P. from a parent population Pp a child population Pc is generated by applying different evolutionary operators. the quality of these new solutions is determined by evaluating the objective functions which have to be optimized. the population of the next parent population is a selection of the best individuals out of the child population.

the population-based principle of evolutionary optimization allows a parallel search in the decision space. Evolutionary algorithms are able to capture multiple Pareto optimal solutions in a single optimization run and can be used for multi-criteria optimization, if a multi-criteria selection method is used and the diversity of the population is maintained to improve the distribution on the Pareto front. there exist many different implementations for multi-criteria evolutionary optimization. the presented optimization module uses an archive of solutions to maintain the best solutions in order to improve convergence. It is based on the nSGA-II algorithm [6].
Figure 3: Illustration of Pareto optimality. Goal is to minimize the targets f1 and f2.

Figure 4: Operation principle of evolutionary algorithms.

8 tHE ASC EnVIrOnMEnt fOr MODEL-BASED CALIBrAtIOn

4 | the ASC Environment for Model-based Calibration

the new modeling and optimization algorithms were implemented in the ASC modeling environment. the environment provides an interactive experimental design module for DoE plan generation and an interactive visualization to study and optimize the modeled system. the graphs in figure 5 show the dependence of four relevant engine outputs from seven calibration parameters. the calibration engineer can choose any operating point of the engine in the example 2000 rpm speed and 40 nm torque and analyze the influence of the calibration parameter on the relevant engine outputs. In the example, the seven calibration parameters are injection and ignition timing, fuel pressure, EGr rate, timing of exhaust and inlet camshaft, and a swirl control valve (SCV) to influence in-cylinder air motion. Besides fuel consumption, the most relevant outputs here are engine smoothness (CoV), soot, and nOx emissions. the values of the calibration parameters, indicated by the vertical dashed lines, can be changed interactively. the dashed lines around the prediction lines indicate the confidence interval of the result and give a measure for the quality of the model. In addition, the calibration engineer can perform an automatic optimization over the whole engine operation range, for example minimizing the fuel consumption while keeping specific limits for other outputs. As a result, he gets a proposal for the complete calibration of all the seven maps which are essential for cycle optimization in a very efficient way.
Figure 5: Visualization of the global engine behavior depending on seven calibration parameters visible at the bottom of the screenshot.

DOE MEtHOD fOr PrOGnOSIS AnD OPtIMIzAtIOn Of tAIL PIPE EMISSIOnS 9

5 | DoE Method for Prognosis and Optimization of tail Pipe Emissions by Optimization of Catalyst Heating Duration on a Gasoline Engine

the flexibility of modern gasoline fuel injection systems facilitates the minimization of catalyst heating duration by, e.g., multiple injections. to ensure minimum catalyst heating duration, which is the key factor for optimized tail pipe emissions of a gasoline engine, an optimized set of the relevant ECU parameters must be found. the conventional calibration method is based on measurements of tail pipe emissions on a roller test bench. for each variation of ECU parameters, the accumulated tail pipe emissions during one test driving cycle (e.g., ECE cycle) must be identified. with model-based calibration, the amount of roller test bench measurements can be considerably reduced and at the same time more ECU parameter combination can be tested. Modeling engine raw emissions in the complete engine operation range and a three way catalyst model with high precision are the key components of model-based calibration of the exhaust system with the ASC tool suite at robert BOSCH GmbH. 5.1 Exhaust System Modeling Environment figure 6 gives an overview of the exhaust system modeling environment. MAtLAB / Simulink is used as simulation environment.

5.2 Model Verification the successful usage of model-based calibration for series projects is based on excellent modeling quality of engine raw emissions and tail pipe emissions. to ensure the required modeling quality, model verification is required before using the models for calibration. Engine raw emissions, tail pipe emissions and traces of the relevant ECU signals are measured during a test driving cycle (e.g., ECE cycle) on the roller test bench. the traces of the relevant ECU signals are used as stimulation signals for the exhaust cycle simulation. then the simulated exhaust values can be verified with the measured exhaust values from the roller test bench measurement. figure 8 shows the procedure for verification of the engine raw emission model and the catalyst model. the verification results (based on a ECE cycle) of the engine raw emission model from a 2.0l GDI turbo charged engine are shown in figure 9. figure 10 shows the accumulated emission values of the verification. the verification results (based on a ECE cycle) of the tail pipe emission values after the first catalyst of the exhaust gas system are shown in figure 11. figure 12 shows the accumulated emission values of the verification. the ECU catalyst heating function was deactivated and an aged catalyst was used.

the engine raw emission and the three way catalyst ASC models fulfill the modeling accuracy requirements for series project calibration. In the following we describe by an example, how model-based calibration is used at the robert BOSCH GmbH in series projects. 5.3 DoE Method for Model-based Calibration of Catalyst Heating the ASC modeling environment is used to generate a data-based behavior model of the complete exhaust system control path. the model contains the dependency of the system from all ECU parameters of the catalyst heating function relevant for the tail pipe emissions. Every data point of the model is generated by an exhaust cycle simulation (ECE cycle) with different ECU parameters for catalyst heating. By using the ASC modeling environment, a space filling design of the parameter variations for the different exhaust cycle simulations ensure best modeling quality. figure 13 gives an overview of the DoE method used for model-based calibration of catalyst heating. By using modern machine learning algorithms, the training of the ASC model is automated without any manual parameter settings by the calibration engineer [5][7] [8][9]. figure 14 shows a behavior model of the complete exhaust system control path as a function of ECU catalyst heating parameters.

figure 7 shows the simulation of the exhaust system of a 2.0l GDI turbo charged engine with two catalysts (precatalyst plus main catalyst) including lambda probes and exhaust pipes.

10 DOE MEtHOD fOr PrOGnOSIS AnD OPtIMIzAtIOn Of tAIL PIPE EMISSIOnS

In the next step, this model is the used for multi-criteria optimization (see chapter 3) of the tail pipe emissions HC, CO and nOx. the results of the multi-criteria optimization are shown in figure 15. the parameter combinations colored in blue, green and red give the best results. the red marked parameter combinations represent the optimal calibration. the visualization of the parameter combination is shown in figure 16. finally, the parameter combination is used for the verification with a vehicle ECE driving cycle test on a roller test bench.
Figure 6: Overview of the exhaust system modeling environment (ASCMEX).

Figure 7: Example: 2.0l GDI TC engine with two catalyst systems.

DOE MEtHOD fOr PrOGnOSIS AnD OPtIMIzAtIOn Of tAIL PIPE EMISSIOnS 11

Figure 8: Model verification procedure.

Figure 9: Engine raw emission verification results.

Figure 10: Verification of the accumulated engine raw emission signals.

12 DOE MEtHOD fOr PrOGnOSIS AnD OPtIMIzAtIOn Of tAIL PIPE EMISSIOnS

Figure 13: Overview of the DoE method for model-based calibraFigure 11: Verification of the tail pipe emissions after the precatalyst. tion of catalyst heating.

Figure 12: Verification of the accumulated tail pipe emissions after precatalyst.

Figure 14: ASC system behaviour model of ECU catalyst heating.

DOE MEtHOD fOr PrOGnOSIS AnD OPtIMIzAtIOn Of tAIL PIPE EMISSIOnS 13

Figure 15: Results of multi-criteria optimization.

Figure 16: Visualization of the parameter combination as result of the multi-criteria ooptimization.

14 SUMMAry OUtLOOk AnD trAnSfEr tO OtHEr CALIBrAtIOn tASkS

6 | Summary

7 | Outlook and transfer to other Calibration tasks

the described example demonstrates the possibility to use DoE methodology for modeling the behavior of the complete exhaust system control path. It shows the usage of multi-criteria optimization of the relevant ECU parameters. Accurate models for engine raw emissions and three way catalysts as well as the design of parameter variation are the basis of the DoE method used. the ASC modeling environment is enabling the calibration engineers of the robert BOSCH GmbH to use this method in series calibration projects.

the method described could be used for modeling the system behavior of a control path and optimizing the relevant ECU function parameters in general. the quality of the used control path models is the key factor for the success of this method. the efficient parameterization of the three way catalyst model is the prerequisite for the high benefit of this method. the ASC models are also integrated in hardware-in-the-loop systems at Bosch and could be used for calibration and optimization of other ECU function parameters.

ACknOwLEDGEMEnt 15 BIBLIOGrAPHy

Acknowledgement the authors want to thank the colleagues at Bosch who contributed to the presented results, especially Ingo Hein, wolfgang Lengerer, Sven Mey and Heiner Markert.

Bibliography: [1] roepke, k., et al.: 5th Conference on Design of Experiments in Engine Development, Expert Verlag, Berlin, 2009 [2] Schnellbacher, k.: rapid Measurement and Calibration utilizing the fast ECU Access with embedded MC, 3rd International Symposium on Development Methodology, wiesbaden, 2009 [3] kuder, J.; kruse, t: Parameteroptimierung an Ottomotoren mit Direkteinspritzung; Motortechnische zeitung (Mtz), 2000 [4] Bishop, C. M.: Pattern recognition and Machine Learning, Springer [5] kruse, t.; Ulmer, H.; Schulmeister, U.: Einsatz neuer Modellier- und Optimierverfahren zur Applikation von Diesel- und Ottomotoren, 4. tagung DoE in der Motorenentwicklung, Berlin, 2007. [7] kruse, t.; kurz, S.; Lang, t.: Modern Statistical Modelling and Evolutionary Optimisation Methods for the Broad Use in ECU Calibration, IfAC-Symposium Advances in Automotive Control, Mnchen, 2010. [8] Huber, t.; wirbeleit, f.; Hartlief, H.; Dehn, J.: Moderne tools und Methoden in der Entwicklung und Applikation von Verbrennungsmotoren zur Erfllung der zuknftigen Abgasgesetzgebung, 5. Internationale Mtz-fachtagung: Heavy-Duty-, On- und Off-Highway-Motoren, Mannheim, 2010. [9] reger M.; Diener r.; Imhof V.; Lang t.; Powrosnik A.; Schmidt H.; Ulmer H.: Erweiterung der klassischen DoE Methode auf dynamische Vorgnge durch Verwendung charakteristischer kennzahlen, 6. tagung Design of Experiments (DoE) in der Motorenentwicklung, Berlin, 2011. [10] Deb, k.; Agrawal S., Pratab, A; Meyarivan, t.: A fast Elitist non-Dominated Sorting Genetic Algorithm for Multi-Objective Optimisation: nSGA-II, 2000

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