Last function okisfccmation is syntagmatic.

Relationship of some linguistic elements and the context in which where it occurs can be provided by syntagmatic function of intonation. This also refers to actual grammatical function and syntagmatic function of intonation

the jnodal verbs (9 modal verbs)

Verbs 'do, have, be' can be included into both primary auxiliaries and lexical verbs: e.g. do: What did you do yesterday? did - auxiliary function, do - lexical

Morphology: Lexical verbs and their sub classification. Verb forms and the verb phrases. Finite verb phrases. Non finite verb phrases. Simple and complex finite verb phrases. Simple and complex non finite verb phrases. Characteristics of primary auxiliaries and modal auxiliaries. Verb in auxiliary function. Uses of modal verbs. The probability and the modals. Active and passive voice. The active- passive correspondence. The passive and the causative. Mood. The conditional. The subjunctive. Verbs and their sub classification Lexical or dynamic verbs tell of an action (to hit, to call, to sing); stative verbs tell of a state of being (to be - am, is, was, were - to think, hope, seem, appear, feel, etc.). There are 2 groups of verbs: lexical (fullnieaning, main) verbs open class => the point of view of meaning: new branches of study bring new words to lexicology; morphological point of view: lexical verbs have more suffixes and prefixes than primary auxiliaries primary auxiliaries (helping)- - the number of verbs is limited; 2 groups:

function Verb forms, verb phrase Verb phrase - every type of a verb Simple verb phrase consists of only one element (He reads.) Complex verb phrase consists of at least 2 verb elements (He can read. He should have done it.) Finite verb phrase the subject is expressed (He can read.) Infinite (non-finite) verb phrase we can't speak about tense, mood.. infinitive form (to read) ing participle form (reading) ed participle form (called) 5 types of phrases in English (according to a headword - nominal word of a phrase): 1. noun phrase - very good students (the head of expression is noun) 2. adjectival phrase - he is very tall 3. verb phrase 4. prepositional phrase - in the corner (preposition + noun phrase) 5. adverb phrase - very recently

the p r i m a r y verbs (do, have, be)

The structure of the verb p h r a s e F I N I T E VERB PHRASE - characteristics:

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1. tense distinction express time relation He works hard - present He worked hardpast He will work hard future 2. it can occur as the verb phrase of a main clause - there is a person and number agreement between the subject and v e r b phrase I got to work, every morning. He speaks several languages. 3. mood indicates speaker's attitude to predication. 4 types of mood: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, conditional Indicative and present subjunctive consist only of the base form of verb: Help them, please. The committee suggest that he come in tie and jacket. 4. finite verb phrases have finite verb forms he speaks he read 0 SIMPLE FINITE VERB PHRASE - consists only of 1 verb (imperative, present, past). Speak louder, please. He speaks many languages. They spoke to him. C O M P L E X (EXTENDED) FINITE VERB PHRASE - consists of 2 or more verbs in any tenses. He has gone to Britain. He could have been working in the firm. 4 types of complex finite verb phrase: type A - Modal/Periphrastic consists of modal or periphrastic auxiliary + the base of the verb (phrase head): He could read it - modal. He has to do it -periphrastic.

He has done it. He had done it. type C - Progressive auxiliary ' b e ' + the - i n g participle: They are watching TV. He is studying abroad. type D - Passive - auxiliary 'be' + the - e d participle: The work is done. The book has been translated into many languages.

These 4 types of verb phrases can enter into various combinations with each other, e.g.:

ABC - Modal + Perfective + Progressive (He had been working.) CD - Progressive + Passive (They are being invited.) AD - Modal + Passive (He may be invited.) 0 NON-FINITE V E R B P H R A S E has no tense, mood or person distinction can't exist in the main clause itself, it can occur only when the finite verb phrase is in the first element in verb phrase, it occurs as the other element in the main clause

3 types: infinitive - i n g participle - e d participle Compare: He drinks a lot. finite verb phrase To drink like that must be dangerous - non finite verb phrase (functions as subject)

S I M P L E NON-FINITE VERB PHRASE to call present infinitive

type B - Perfective - auxiliary 'have' + the - e d participle of verb:

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C O M P L E X NON-FINITE VERB PHRASE - 6 types: to have called - past/perfect infinitive to be calling - present progressive infinitive to be called - present passive infinitive to have been calling - past progressive infinitive to have been called - past passive infinitive

have your car repaired?) - information about some services auxiliary function - in a perfective aspect of the verb it helps to create 2 tenses: present perfect and past perfect (tense + past participle).

T O DO as a lexical verb: ing form (What were you doing yesterday?) ed form (??? sak "do" nema - e d form, to som asi zle pocula:) it is used in cleft sentences - the appropriate form is used in the first part of a sentence so it doesn't have to be repeated: She didn't like the book as much as she might have (done). auxiliary functions: in indicative sentences negated by not: simple present tense (She doesn't study.) simple past (She didn't like it.) in questions and other constructions where the subject operation is in inversion: simple present (Does he get up?) simple past (Did he get up?) in tag questions (He didn't like it, did he?) in inverted word order after an initial negative element (never, scarcely, merely, rarely...) - after the element the form is inverted: Never did he realised it. imperative construction - it is used to shift the meaning => emphasis: He did mention he would be there in time. reduced forms: He drives better than 1 do.

Characteristics of primary auxiliaries T O BE as a lexical (main) verb has a copular function (She is a good student.) as an auxiliary verb it has 2 functions: aspect auxiliary function (He is working. He could have been working.) passive auxiliary function - as a part of passive structure of any tenses (The book hasn't been translated yet.) TO HAVE as a lexical verb (used with a direct object) is used to express: stative tenses it can have a meaning:
(

of posession - 3 structure alternatives: We haven't any time. British formal English We haven't got any time. British informal English We don't have any time. American English (in recent years there's a

tendency to use this structure in BrE as well) of relationship (I have one brother.) - all 3 structures are possible information about the health (I haven't a headache.) - all 3 structures possible dynamic tenses (to have lunch) causative tenses causative structure: "to have something done" (Didyou

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Characteristics of modal auxiliaries They are followed by the bare infinitive: You will ask the question.

past: The road can/could have been dangerous. informal permission - only with present & future: You "tan use it. impossibility - only in negative form: That can't be your friend. That can't have been your friend. COULD

They can not occur in non finite functions, ie as infinitives or participles: may- *to may, *maymg, *mayed. In consequence they can occur only as the first verb in the verb phrases. They have no -s form for the 3 person singular of the present tense.

past ability Future permission polite request - in formal Engl. suggestion - for the future: He could talk to his teacher.

Their past forms can be used to refer to present and future time. (I think that he may/ might be outside.)

Modal verbs - 1 0 modal verbs: - are followed by bare infinitive (without 'to') - the system of creation of questions and negatives - inverted word order - 4 marginal verbs: dare, need can be used either as lexical verbs (I need to go there. I don't

for past: He could have talked to his teacher. less than 50% certainty - present & future: She could be at school. past: She could have been at school. possibility pres&fut: That could be true past: That could have been true. MAY

need to go there.) or as modal verbs (I need go there. I needn 't go there.) polite request more formal, only in pres&fut: May I borrow your car? ought to, used to can be used only in past reference formal permission - pres&fut: You may leave the room. - Marginal modal auxiliaries used to always take the to-infinitive and occur less than 50% certainty pres&fut: She may be at the library. only in the past tenses. (She used to attend regularly.) Used to- is used to express an action that took place in the past, perhaps customarily, but now that action no longer customarily takes place past: She may have been at the library. MIGHT permission less than 50% certainty pres&fut: He might be in London, past: He might Meaning of modal verbs have been in London. CAN ability - present and future has the same form: He can swim. past has 'could' form: He could swim. possibility/deduction - present & future: This road can be dangerous. SHALL Prediction - more informal than 'may'

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polite question to make a suggestion only pres&fut: Shall I open the window? future reference only with pronouns T, ' w e ' SHOULD duty advisability - pres&fut: He should visit them. past: He should have visited them. 90% certainty He should do well on the test. - future only He should have done well on the test. WILL prediction 100% certainty only future: He will be there. willingness I'll get it. polite request - Will you please pass salt? WOULD -hypothetical meaning -probability I hear a whistle. That would be the five clock train. polite request more polite than 'will': Would you please pass salt? preference pres&fut: / woidd rather stay at home than go out. past: / woidd rather have stayed at home than go out. repeated action - only past: When I was young I would visit them every week. MUST strong necessity/obligation - pres&fut: He must go to school. past: He had to go to school, (periphrastic form)

deduction/95% certainty - pres&fut: He must be at school. past: He must have been sick. OUGHTTO - is used to advise or make recommendations. "Ought to" also expresses assumption or expectation as well as strong probability, often with the idea that something is deserved. "Ought not" (without "to") is used to advise against doing something, although Americans prefer the less formal forms "should not" or "had better not." Y o u ought to stop smoking, RECOMMENDATION
J i m ought to get the promotion. IT is EXPECTED BECAUSE HE DESERVES IT.

This stock ought to increase in value, PROBABILITY

M a r k ought not drink so much, ADVICE AGAINST SOMETHING (NOTICE
THERE IS NO "TO

Verb in auxiliary function Uses of modal verbs Verbs like can and may are modal auxiliaries. We often refer to them as modal verbs or just modals. There are ten modals: can, coidd, may, might, will, would, shall, should, must, ought to and three semi-modals: need, dare, and used to. fn their fist use, modal verbs have basic meaning which are given in dictionaries. The first use of modals: Modal verbs are not complete verbs. For example, we use verbs like must and can to refer only to the present or the future. I must go to the bank no. past-1 had to go to the bank yesterday.

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Other important points about modal verbs: We can not use them as to infinitive: I want to be able to type fast. We do not use the to infinitive after modals: You must/must not phone. There is no ~{e)s in the 3 * person singular: The boss can see you now. The second use of modals: - to express degrees of ability or uncertainty. We use 9 of the modals for this purpose (not shall), but we do not use them in a fixed order. 100% certainty can be expressed by: lexical verbs (I visited my friends.) primary auxiliary verbs - have, be, do will (I will be there tomorrow.)
rc

modal idioms (had better, would rather, would sooner, be to, have got to) semi-auxiliary verbs (have to, be about to, be able to, be bound to, be going to, be supposed to, be willing to) Modal idioms in each of them, the first element of a verb phrase is an auxiliary verb followed by a bare infinitive or 'to' infinitive: I'd rather not go there. I'd rather not have gone there, bare infinitive

They have got to leave. The conference is to take place in Austria. ,to' infinitive none of these verbs can occur in non-finite forms. They can't have the

Probability and the modals function of operators = the first element of verb phrase: primary auxiliary 4 degrees of probability: or modal verb: Did you visit them yesterday? I visited them yesterday. - no operator He can pres&fut 1. high probability - ,must' It must have been raining yesterday. 2. low probability - ,may' It may have been raining yesterday. 3. very low p. , might
4

past // must be raining today.

go there. HAD BETTER, W O U L D RATHER It may be raining today. Two types of negatives => two different meanings: 1. negative particle ,not' follows the whole expression: It might be raining. Would you rather not stay there? Would It can't be raining there. you rather not have stayed there? > My

It might have been raining yesterday. 4. high improbab. - ,can't' It can't have been raining there. Verbs of intermediate function 4 types of modals: central modals (9 modals mentioned above) marginal modals (dare, need, ought to, used to)

suggestion: not to stay there. 2. negative particle ,not' follows the first word of expression: Wouldn 'tyou rather stay there? Wouldn 't you rather have stayed there? suggestion: to stay there. WOULD RATHER - has no passive structure => My

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The active- passive correspondence. The active-passive correspondence: Changing from active to passive involves rearrangement of two clause elements: The active subject becomes the passive agent, and the active object becomes the passive subject. And the preposition BY can be introduced before the agent. John (active subj.) admired (active verb) Mary. Mary (passive subject) was admired (passive verb) by John (by phrase agent). The passive and the causative My hair was cut. (passive) I had my hair cut. (causative) Form and use of the causative Note the difference between these two sentences: I had built a house. = I did it myself I had a house built, (the causative = I arranged for it to be done) We form the causative with have+ noun or pronoun objeet+ past participle We use the causative in different tenses and with modals: I am having a house built. I had a house built. I have had a house built. I will have a house built. I must have a house bidlt. I can not have a house built. We use the action to describe jobs we do ourselves or when we who is doing a job. / am servicing the car. We use the passive to say that a job is being done for us, but we do not know or do not want to say who is doing it: The car is being serviced We use the causative to stress the fact that we are causing someone to the job for us:

/ am having the car serviced. I have had my car serviced. I am going to have my hair cut. We often use the causative with verbs that have to do with services: e.g. build, clean, decorate, press, print, repair, service, etc. "Get" in the causative: get something done We sometimes use to get in place of have in the causative to say something is urgent: Have that car repaired (causative) Get that car repaired (more urgent causative) Causative Remember: 1. The causative has the meaning of'someone causes someone to do something'. 2. The three verbs usually used for the causative are get, have, and make. Make 'Make' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person requires another person to do something. Construction Chart Subject + Make + Person + Base Form of Verb Examples: Peter made her do her homework. The teacher made the students stay after class. Have 'Have' as a causative verb expresses the idea that the person wants something to be done for them. This causative verb is often used when speaking about various services. There are two forms of the causative verb 'have'. Construction Chart: Use 1

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Subject + Have + Person + Base Form of Verb Examples: They had John arrive early. She had her children cook dinner for her. Construction C h a r t : Use 2 Subject + Have + Object + Past Participle Examples: I had my hair cut last Saturday. She had the car washed at the weekend. Note: This form is similar in meaning to the passive. 3. Get gives the idea of persuasion, have is asking, and make is forcing or strong convincing. There is not much difference between have and get. 4. These causative verbs can be in any verb tense: a. I am making my students write the exam again next week because they did so poorly. b. I have been having my kids shovel the sidewalks after every snowfall. c. I have to get my wife to pick me up after work because my car is in for repairs. Active and passive voice The distinguish between active and the passive voice applies only to sentences where the verb is transitive. It involves both the verb and the clause as a whole. In the verb phrase, the passive adds a form of the auxiliary be followed by the - e d participle of the main verb. Eg. Kisses Has kissed kissed has been kissed

the active subject, if retained, becomes the passive agent the active object becomes the passive subject the preposition by is inserted before the agent Uses of passive: In sentences where there is a choice between active and passive, active is the norm. Speakers or writers use the passive for the following reasons. In considering the examples, bear in mind that more than one reason may apply. Reasons 14 illustrate the use of the passive without the agent by- phrase, which is commonly omitted: 1. They do not know identity of the agent of the action (Many boats

were launched from the Titanic only partly fdled.) 2. They want to avoid identifying the agent because they do not want to

assign or accept responsibility. (My letter has not been answered.) 3. They feel that there is no reason for mention of the agent because the

identification is unimportant or obvious from the context (Nowadays sleeping sickness can usually be cure if it is detected early enough) 4. In scientific and technical writing, writers often use the passive to

avoid the constant repetition of the subject I or WE and to put emphasize on process. (The subject was blindfolded and a pencil was placed in the left) 5. 6. 7. to put emphasize on the agent of the action to avoid what would otherwise by a long active subject to retain the same subject through the long sentences.

May be kissing may be being kissed At the clause level, changing from active to passive has the following results:

Passive voice: to be + past participle of the lexical verb Milk is delivered every day. (was delivered, has been delivered, had been

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delivered, can be delivered- present passive infinitive, could be delivered, should be delivered, should have been delivered- past passive infinitive,...) Voice constrains: transitive verbs- verbs where object is required He bought him a nice book. A nice book was bought by him - an agent of the action. He was bought a nice book. if there are 2 objects in the sentence, 2 passives are possible Limitations: verb: a) active voice only copular verbs- linking, intensive verbs intransitive verbs- without object He is a good student. He is jumping very fast.

grammaticaly expressed by phrases or clauses. He bought her some flowers. He did not know why she was crying. - object- finite clause, no passive is possible. He hoped to go with her.- object- non-finite clause/verb phrase, no passive is possible. John enjoys going to the cinema.- no passive is possible. F o r m s of passive and active voice: Tense Active Present Simple area. Past simple report was submitted yesterda Present continues They are writing the book now. The book He submitted the report yesterday. The Passive Somebody steals cars in this area. Cars are stolen in this

middle verbs- TO HAVE, TO LACK- used with object but not in passive! They have a new car. He lacks confidence. stative verbs- simple tenses in passive constructions, TO W A N T

is being written no Past continues being built... Present perfect They have offered me a new job. I have been offered a They were building when I was ... The buildings were

The police wants him. He is wanted by the police. - used only if it express some concrete noun b) passive voice only new job. Past perfect had been booked before. TO BE BORN TO BE D R O W N E D Will will be given the money. Can object can be easily done by someone. Someone can easily do it. It I will give her the money. She She had booked the hotel before. The hotel

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Be going to is going to be cancelled.

They are going to cancel the trip.

The trip

If you want to study in the USA, you have to pass an exam in English.

The first conditional: Mood 'Mood' is an aspect of English verbs. It is created in a verb phrase through the use of a -used with simple present and will future We use the first conditional to talk about possible situations in the future. These can well happen. If you go out in the rain, you will get wet. If you lift that heavy weight alone, you will hurt your back. To make the first conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the present tense, the conditional clause uses will and the infinitive: {if} + {present} | {will} + {infinitive} There are two clauses: the if-clause can come first or second. When it comes first, we usually put a comma between the two. If you leave now, you will catch the train. You will make yourself ill if you eat all those chocolates. to find, to empty, to play. DThere are several modal auxiliaries: can, may, might, must, ought, would, will, shall, should. The drunken young man could slip awkwardly into a ditch. The young man might have d r u n k too much. The drunken young man should learn to d r i n k less. The Conditional Zero conditional: If + present simple, present simple - used to describes the rules and situations where one event follows the other (if=when) We often use it for talking about facts or processes: If you heat water to 100 degrees, it will boil. If we stare into the sun, you will hurt your eyes. The second conditional: We use the second conditional to talk about possible but unlikely situations in the future and whether they will happen or not, or we can use it to describe imaginary present situations: If you met the President, what would you say? If you had a million pounds, what would you do with it? To make the second conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the past tense, the conditional clause uses would and the infinitive:

modal auxiliary. This kind of auxiliary verb has the effect of

suggesting that the action told of by the verb is not actual but merely potential, e.g. 'He might win' or 'She could go'. MOOD' - MODAL VERBS An important aspect of verbs relates to whether the action they tell of is actual or potential. The use of a modal auxiliary verb will create the sense of a degree of certainty of action or the obligation or freedom to act. ODnModal

auxiliary verbs

are linked with the

infinitive form of the main verb (i.e. the form you often see with 'to', e.g.

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{if} + {past} | {would} + {infinitive} There are two clauses: the if-clause can come first or second. When it comes first, we usually put a comma between the two. If you wrote-a bestseller, you would make lots of money. You would earn lots of money if you worked harder. We also use it for giving advice. This is very common: If I were you, I would... Note: We use I were instead of / was because we are actually using the subjunctive; many people nowadays, however, say if I was... The third conditional: We use the third conditional to talk about situations in the past which cannot be changed; we talk about how the results might be different: If Beckham had scored, Real Madrid would have won the match. (But Beckham did not score and Real Madrid lost.) To make the third conditional we use two clauses. The if-clause is in the past perfect tense and the conditional clause uses would have and the past participle: {if} + {past perfect} | {would} + {have} + {past participle} There are two clauses: the if-clause can come first or second. When it comes first, we usually put a comma between the two. If Blucher had not arrived, Napoleon would have won at Waterloo. France would have been the most powerful country in Europe if Napoleon had won at Waterloo. - used also in case what would have done in someone else's position: If I had been you/ IfI had been in your position, I would have accepted their offer. Mixed conditionals: We do not always have to stick rigidly to the three types of conditional

sentences. There are occasions when we can use any tenses in if-clasues, depending on the context: If I am as clever as you say I am, I would have been rich by now. 1+3 If you knew me better, you wmdd not have said that. 2+3 If I had had your advantages, kwould be better off now. 3+2 -used to talk about: Imaginary past events that could have some consequences in the present If they had not invited me to the party, I would not be there. 3+2 (But they invited me to the party so I am here now.) Unreal present situations, usually imaginary states, which could have had some consequences in the past. If she did not speak a few languages, she would not have got that job. (but she speaks a few languages, so she got the job) 2+3 The subjunctive ("konjunktiv")

Konjunktv
v

sa pouva:

jednoduchej vete: na vyjadrenie rozkazovacieho spsobu, na vedajej vete

(ak podmet hlavnej vety nie j e zhodn s podmetom

vyjadrenie elania (napr. Viva il Papa! - Nech ije ppe!) a pod. vo

vedajej vety): na vyjadrenie vle, pochybnosti, neistoty, nzoru a podobne, alej v niektorch vzanch vetch, v niektorch podmienkovch vetch a po uritch spojkch Forms of the subjunctive There are two forms of subjunctive. They are traditionally called the present and the past subjunctive, although the distinction relates more to mood than to tense. The present subjunctive is expressed by the base form of the verbs. For the verb be, the subjunctive form be is distinct from the indicative forms am, is,

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and are. For other verbs, the subjunctive is distinctive only in the 3 singular: I insist that we reconsider the Council's decision. (indicative or subjunctive) I insist that the Council reconsider its decision. (subjunctive) I insist that the Council's decision be reconsider. (subjunctive)

person

Long live the King. Come what may...

Be that as it may.... Suffice is to say that...

The past subjunctive is hypothetical in meaning. It is used in conditional ad concessive clauses and in subordinate clauses after wish and suppose: If I were a rich man, I would.... I wish the journey were over. Just suppose everyone were to act like you. Subjunctive were is often replaced in non formal style by indicative was.

The past subjunctive (or were subjunctive) survives only in were as a past form of BE. It is distinguishable from the past indicative of BE only in the 1 and 3 * person singular: If she was leaving, you would heard about it. If she were leaving, you would heard about it. (indicative) (subjunctive)
s t rc

Present Tense
I do We use the simple present tense when: the action is general the action happens all the time, or habitually, in the past, present and future the action is not only happening now the statement is always true

The indicative was is more common in less formal style. Uses of subjunctive We distinguish two main uses of the present subjunctive: the MANDATIVE SUBJUNTIVE is used in that-clause after an expression of such notions as demand, recommendation, proposal intension (eg. We insist, prefer, request, It is necessary, desirable, imperative, the decision, requirement, resolution). This use is more characteristic of AmE than BrE, but seems to be increasing in BrE. In BrE the alternatives are putative should and the indicative. The employees demanded that he -resign -should resign -resigns.

Present Continuous Tense

I am doing, I am doing tomorrow We use the present continuous tense to talk about: action happening now -1 am eating now action in the future - He is going out with Mary. Present continuous tense for the future-1 am taking my exam next month We can also use the present continuous tense to talk about the futureif we add a future word! ! We must add (or understand from the context) a future

The FORMULAIC (or optative) SUBJUNCTIVE is used in certain set expressions. God save the queen. Hewenforbid that....

word. "Future words" include, for example, tomorrow, next year, in June, at Christmas etc. We only use the present continuous tense to talk about the future when we have planned to do something before we speak. We have

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already made a decision and a plan before speaking

This tense is called the present perfect continuous tense. There is usually a connection with the present or now. There are basically two uses for the present perfect continuous tense. An action that has just stopped or recently stopped We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and stopped recently. There is usually a result now. I'm tired because I've been running An action continuing up to now / have been reading for 2 hours We use the present perfect continuous tense to talk about an action that started in the past and is continuing now. This is often used with for or since For and Since with Present Perfect Continuous Tense We often use for and since with the present perfect tense. We use for to talk about a period of time5 minutes, 2 weeks, 6 years. We use since to talk about a point in past time9 o'clock, 1st January, Monday.

Present Perfect Tense

I have done This tense is-called the present perfect tense. There is always a connection with the past and with the present. There are basically three uses for the present perfect tense: experience change continuing situation We often use the present perfect tense to talk about experience from the past. We are not interested in when you did something. / have seen ET. He has lived in Bangkok. Have you been there? We have never eaten caviar. We also use the present perfect tense to talk about a change or new information. I have bought a car. We often use the present perfect tense to talk about a continuing situation. This is a state that started in the past and continues in the present (and will probably continue into the future). This is a state (not an action). We usually use for or since with this structure / have worked here since June. He has been ill for 2 days. How long have you known Tar a?

Past Tense
I did do, I did We use the simple past tense to talk about an action or a situationan eventin the past. The event can be short or long. Notice that it does not matter how long ago the event is: it can be a few minutes or seconds in the past, or millions of years in the past. Also it does not matter how long the event is. It can be a few milliseconds (car explosion) or millions of years (Jurassic period). We use the simple past tense when: the event is in the past the event is completely finished

Present Perfect Continuous Tense

I have been doing

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we say (or understand) the time and/or place of the event

Ram started waiting at 9am. I arrived at 11am. When I arrived, Ram had been waiting for two hours.

Past Continuous Tense

I was doing The past continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the past. The action started before that moment but has not finished at that moment. For example, yesterday I watched a film on TV. The film started at 7pm and finished at 9pm. At 8pm yesterday, I was watching TV We often use the past continuous tense to "set the scene" in stories. We use it to describe the background situation at the moment when the action begins. Often, the story starts with the past continuous tense and then moves into the simple past tense. Here is an example: " James Bond was driving through town. It was raining. The wind was blowing hard. Nobody was walking in the streets. Suddenly, Bond saw the killer in a telephone box..."

You can sometimes think of the past perfect continuous tense like the present perfect continuous tense, but instead of the time being now the time is past.

Future Tense
I will do We use the simple future tense when there is no plan or decision to do something before we speak. We make the decision spontaneously at the time of speaking. Maybe we'll stay in and watch television tonight In these examples, we had no firm plan before speaking. The decision is made at the time of speaking. Prediction It will rain tomorrow. We often use the simple future tense to make a prediction about the future. Again, there is no firm plan. We are saying w h a t we think will happen

Past Perfect Tense

I had done The past perfect tense expresses action in the past before another action in the past. This is the past in the past. For example: The train left at 9am. We arrived at 9.15am. When we arrived, the train had left.

Future Continuous Tense

I will be doing The future continuous tense expresses action at a particular moment in the future. The action will start before that moment but it will not have finished at that moment. For example, tomorrow I will start work at 2pm and stop work at 6pm: At 4pm tomorrow, I will be working

Past Perfect Continuous Tense

I had been doing The past perfect continuous tense is like the past perfect tense, but it expresses longer actions in the past before another action in the past. For example:

Future Perfect Tense

I will have done The future perfect tense expresses action in the future before another action in the future. This is the past in the future. For example:

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The train will leave the station at 9am. You will arrive at the station at 9.15am. When you arrive, the train will have left.

3. Count and uncount nouns. Countable nouns: If you can add a number to the front of a noun and put an s at the end of it, you have a count noun. - Jeremy, an impolite pig, grabbed all seventeen cookies off of the plate. Countable nouns an have the word a/an before them or be used in plural - We've got three children, two cats, and a dog." Uncountable nouns may be: a) material nouns, like air, milk, cotton, bread, pork, etc. b) abstract nouns, like biology, peace, music, etc. c) names of sports, like football, skating, swimming, etc. d) names of edible plants, when reference is made to the species itself, like maize, onion, tomato, potato, etc. e) names of towns, countries, months, etc., like London, England, F e b r u a r y , etc. There are some words which are uncountable nouns in English, but which refer to things that are considered countable in other languages, like

Future Perfect Continuous Tense

I will have been doing We use the future perfect continuous tense to talk about a long action before some point in the future. Look at these examples: / will have been working here for ten years next week. He will be tired when he arrives. He will have been travelling for 24 hours 2. Nouns.

Nouns name people, places, and things. One class of nouns is abstract.
Your five senses cannot detect this group of nouns. You cannot see them, hear them, smell them, taste them, ovfeel them. I. CLASSIFICATIONS 1. Common nouns and proper nouns 2. Concrete nouns and abstract nouns 3. Countable (count) nouns and uncountable (mass) nouns 2. Common and proper nouns.

Proper nouns, those that name specific things,

P r o p e r noun has two distinctive features:

do require capitalization.

Romanian, for instance advice, luggage/ baggage, homework, money, knowledge, information, news, furniture, progress. ,,It was good to get out into the countryside".

1) it will name a specific [usually a one-of-a-kind] item, and 2) it will begin with a capital letter no matter where it occurs in a sentence. (Starbucks, Simon, Levi's, Big Mac, Roll-O-Rocker, Amway Arena, Australia, Captain Richard Orsini) - She fantasized about a Big Mac dripping with special sauce. Common noun names general items. (coffee shop, waiter, jeans, sandwich, chair, arena, country, fire fighter) - Harriet threw the stale cucumber sandwich in the trash can 4. Concrete and abstract nouns. Many nouns are concrete, not abstract.

Concrete nouns register on your five senses.

- Joseph cuddled the wet puppy under his warm jacket (the President, teacher, cat, airplane, bubble bath) Abstract Nouns: deceit, dedication, curiosity, trust, relaxation 5. Uncount nouns and their count equivalents.

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Some nouns have different meanings when they are used countably and uncountably. - Bolivia is one of the world's largest producers of tin (= the metal) - The cupboard was full of tins. (= metal food containers) (accommodation, glass, grammar, iron, jam, lace, paper, room, speech) Some nouns that are usually uncountable can be used countably, but only in singular (education, importance, knowledge, resistance, traffic: - She has an extensive knowledge of property prices in this area. 6. Number in nouns . Number and meaning The following situations are possible: 1. Nouns with two plural forms, each having its meaning(s): brother brothers/brethren, genius - geniuses/genii, staff - staffs/staves 2. Nouns with one meaning in the singular and a different meaning in the plural: air - airs, nylon - nylons, advice - advices, content - contents 3. Nouns whose plural form has two or more meanings: effect effectsl/effects2, custom - customsl/ customs2/ customs3 4. Nouns that, besides the regular plural, have a plural form which is identical with the singular form and which has a collective meaning: cannon - cannons/cannon, horse - horses/horse 5. Nouns that are countable in one meaning and uncountable in another meaning: hair, business, character, game, sport 7. Number classes. T H E C A T E G O R Y O F NUMBER A. Classification of nouns: variable and invariable VARIABLE NOUNS: one singular form and one plural form >.

INVARIABLE NOUNS: words that have one form for both singular and plural.("one sheep, two sheep").

English is typical of most world

adding the

languages, in distinguishing only between

singular and plural number. The plural form of a word is usually created by

suffix ~(e)s.

Common exceptions include the pronouns, which

have irregular plurals, as in / versus we, because they are ancient and frequently used words. 8. Singular invariable nouns. 1) Singular invariable nouns (+ singular verb) 1. Concrete uncountable nouns: chocolate, sugar, gold, furniture, luggage Some of them can be reclassified as countable their meaning changes: e.g. I'd like a coffee. Romania's wines are famous. 2. Abstract uncountable nouns: music, progress, nonsense, information, knowledge, advice, homework, difficulty, work, research, dirt Some of them can also be countable when they refer to instances of a given abstract phenomenon e.g. After many failures/difficulties, he succeeded. 3. Proper nouns: John, Romania, October 4. Nouns ending in -s - news - diseases: measles, mumps - sciences: optics, linguistics, statistics If the meaning is different, they take a plural verb. e.g. Statistics is a branch of mathematics. The statistics show that imports are low. - games: cards, dominoes, draughts, darts, billiards In compounds, they are used in the singular: e.g. dartboard, billiard-room

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5. Abstract substantivized adjectives: the good, the evil, the useful 9. Plural invariable nouns. Plural invariable nouns (+ plural verb) 1. Nouns denoting parts of the body: bowels, tonsils, entrails (e.g. His bowels are very sensitive.) 2. Nouns denoting a state of mind: hysterics, blues, spirits (e.g. High spirits are always appreciated.) 3. Nouns denoting articles of dress: trousers, shorts, flares, tights, braces, pyjamas, tails (e.g. Your pyjamas are on the bed.) Obsl: Number contrast is achieved by means of a pair of (e.g. He has only two pairs of trousers.) Obs2: When used attributively, these nouns are singular (e.g. a trouser leg). 4.Nouns denoting tools and instruments consisting of two parts: scales, scissors, glasses/spectacles, tongs, pincers, (nail/hairdresser's) clippers, bellows (e.g. Where are the pincers'?) Obsl: He wore a pair of earphones, which were plugged into a taperecorder. Obs2: a spectacle case 5. Proper nouns: the Highlands, the Alps, the Netherlands 6. Verbal nouns in -ing: savings, earnings, belongings, proceedings, surroundings 7. Other "pluralia tantum": clothes, customs, wages, premises, stairs, eaves, congratulations Obs: His whereabouts is/are unknown. 8. Substantivized adjectives: chemicals, riches, valuables, goods, the rich,

Obsl: people = "nation" - countable noun e.g. This is an organization of English-speaking peoples. Obs2: poultry = "meat" * singular noun e.g. Poultry is cheaper than veal. 10. Nouns with regular plural. *

Regular plurals: singular + the inflection -s a) Spelling - nouns ending in a sibilant consonant =*plural in - e s (e.g. box-boxes) - nouns ending in - y : consonant + y =*plural in -ies (e.g. fly- flies) vowel + y = plural in - y s (e.g. day-days) - nouns ending in -o =>plural in - e s (e.g. hero-heroes) Obsl: radio-radios, photo-photos, crescendo-crescendos, Romeo-Romeos Obs2: hesitation between - a s and -oes (e.g. volcanos/volcanoes, mottos/mottoes) - with letters, abbreviations and numerals, an apostrophe may precede -s (e.g. cross your t's, in the 1960's/ 1960s, half of the MP's/ half of the MPs b) Pronunciation of the inflection -s c) The plural of compound nouns - the inflection -s is generally added to the final element (e.g. washingmachines, handfuls, forget-me-nots) - the inflection -s is added to the first element when: this is a noun ending in - e r or in - i n g (e.g. passers-by, goings-out)

the poor, the dead

B

e.g. Their riches were donated to charities. The poor are suffering. 9. Unmarked plurals: cattle, clergy, people, police, military, vermin, poultry 3.g. These cattle belong to my grandparents.

the compound is formed of two nouns linked with a preposition (e.g.

editors-in-chief, sons-in-law) the compound is formed of noun + adjective (e.g. courts-martial, attorneys general)

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- compounds with and make both elements plural (e.g. ins-and-outs, prosand-cons) - compounds with man and woman make both elements plural (e.g. women drivers, men singers) Obs: woman-haters, man-eaters 11. Nouns with irregular plural. Irregular plurals a) Voicing + -s plural - long sound + -th [6] =*plural in [5z] (e.g. baths, paths) - -f(e) [f] plural in -ves [vz] (e.g. thieves, leaves)

12. Foreign plurals. Foreign plurals Some nouns have been adapted to the English system, others have both the foreign plural and the plural in - s , while others have only the foreign plural. When you have a choice, the foreign plural is preferred in the scientific language and the -s plural in the everyday language. 1) Latin plurals -us -i [ai] / -ora [ara] / -era [ara] (e.g. stimulus-stimuli, bacillus-bacilli, genus-genera, corpus-corpora) Both forms: cactus-i/uses, nucleus-i/uses, radius-i/uses -a > -ae [i:J (e.g. larva-larvae, alga-algae) Both forms: vertebra-ae/as, formula-ae/as -um -a [s] (e.g. bacterium-bacteria, erratum-errata) Both forms: sanatorium -a/ums, memorandum-a/ums, stratum-a/ums, ultimatum-a/ums -ex/-ix > -ices [isi:z] (e.g. codex-codices)

Obsl: Regular form: roofs, chiefs, beliefs Obs2: Double form: scarfs/scarves, hoofs/hooves, staffs/staves, wharfs/wharves - house [s] - houses [ziz] b) Mutation Seven nouns (and their compounds) change their root vowel in the plural: man-men, woman-women, foot-feet, tooth-teeth, louse-lice, mouse-mice, goose-geese. c) -en plurals Three nouns: child-children, ox-oxen, brother-brethren d) Zero plurals: the same form in the singular and in the plural 1) animal names: fish, trout, deer, sheep, duck Obs: the fishes of the Black Sea 2) nationality names or other proper nouns ending in -ese: Chinese, Viennese, Japanese + the noun Swiss ,.--.

Both forms: matrix-matrices/matrixes, index-indices/indexes, appendixappendices/appendixes 2) Greek plurals -is [is] -es [i:z] (e.g. analysis-analyses, basis-bases, crisis-crises) -on > -a [a] (e.g. criterion-criteria, phenomenon-a) Both forms: automaton-a/ons 3) French plurals -e(a)u * -x [z] (bureau-bureauxAs, adieu-adieux/-s) 4) Italian plurals -ofe -i [i:] (e.g. virtuoso-virtuosiAos, tempo-tempi/-os, Iibretto-libretti/-

3) nouns denoting measure, quantity, number, when they are preceded by an indication of number: dozen, hundred, thousand, million, score 4) nouns ending i n - s : means, works, crossroads, series, species, barracks, headquarters

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os) Only regular plural: solo, soprano 5) Hebrew plurals e.g. cherub-eherubim seraph-seraphim 13. Gender in nouns. T H E C A T E G O R Y OF G E N D E R - not richly developed in English; the gender usually coincides with the sex of the beings or objects denoted A. Categories of gender 1. Masculine: represented by nouns denoting male beings (e.g. man, brother, son, uncle, king). They can be replaced by he and referred to by him or himself. 2. Feminine: represented by nouns denoting female beings, that can be replaced by she and referred to by her or herself. 3. Neuter: represented by nouns denoting inanimate objects, substances, abstractions, which are replaced by it. Obs: Collective nouns (e.g. class, family, government) are considered to be neuter and may be replaced by either it or they. e.g. His class is small. It is made up of only 15 children. The class were busy. They were reading some poems. 4. Common/ Dual: represented by nouns denoting beings, which have only one form for both masculine and feminine (e.g. cousin, friend, teacher, neighbour). The gender proper of such nouns becomes obvious in the context: e.g. My neighbour Mary works in a hospital. When I met my neighbour, he told me about the accident. Obsl: M a n is mortal. The horse is a noble animal. Obs2: s/he, wo/man, firefighter, spokesperson, Member of Congress, hotnemaker, mail carrier 14. Personal male and female nouns, (vid. otazka c. 13) 15. Personal dual gender, (vid otazka c. 13) 16. Gender in animal nouns. Nouns denoting animals are generally considered to be neuter; however, in personifications:
9

big and strong animals (e.g. horse, lion, elephant, dog, eagle) are said to be

masculine e.g. The lion was very proud of his mane. small animals (e.g. cat, mouse, hare) are looked upon as feminine e.g. The h a r e was afraid of her own shadow. Obs: In fairy-tales, the gender of animals or plants often depends on the author 17. The use of articles. Articles in English are words like 'a', 'an', 'the'. The correct use of articles is very difficult for ESL learners. This is partly because there are many rules governing the use of articles, and because there are many instances where the use of articles does not seem to follow any clear rules. The following sections set out SOME of the most common rules for the use of articles in English. The use of these articles depends mainly on whether you are referring to any member of a group, or to a specific member of a group: 18. Specific and generic reference. 19. Uses of the definite article, indefinite article and zero article. When you should use an mdefinite article (a/an): - called an 'mdefinite article' because it is used with nouns that are not yet specific (i.e. not definite) to the reader/listener. 'A/an' has a similar meaning to 'one'. Therefore we can use it only with a singular noun that is countable.

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E.g. I have read a book on this topic. In this example, the reader/listener does not know yet which book is referred to. When you should use the definite article (the): The definite article the' implies that the speaker/listener (or writer/ reader) knows which noun is referred to. This may be because: (i) The noun has been mentioned before, e.g. in the previous sentence. Example: A common custom in some societies is to have an initiation ceremony. The initiation ceremony marks entry into the society. (ii) There is a word, phrase or clause that comes before or after the noun that makes it specific: Example: The figures for this quarter are above average. The Heisenberg uncertainty principle also applies in economics. (iii) The noun is preceded by a sequence marker (e.g. 'first') or is unique (e.g. 'perfect'): Example: The perfect essay does not exist. The first step is always the most difficult. (iv) The noun is definite because of shared knowledge. For example, if the writer has written 'the government' - this means the writer assumes that the reader will know that the reference here is to a particular government (e.g. the government of Australia ) Unlike the indefinite article, the definite article can also be used with plural nouns, or with uncountable nouns. When can you omit an article (0= zero article)? We generally do not use articles: with proper names (e.g. Tom, Dr Smith) together with another pronoun or determiner (my, this, every) when using plural or uncountable nouns in making general statements (see section (iii) below) este nieco o articles:

A - describe the features of a particular holiday, season: (That was a winter I'll never forget, (remember, remind)) - morning, afternoon, evening: I've had a terrible morning - describe particular meals: a late breakfast - formal dinner or lunch for a special occasion: We're having a dinner to welcome... - with singular noun when we describe someone or something, or to say what type of it is (Sydney is a beautiful city) - say what a person's job is, was, or will be (She was a company director when she retired) - with most = very, extremely (He was a most peculiar - looking man (= very peculiar-looking man) - if we want to describe a particular instance (There is a cold wind blowing from the north) - use A before words that begin with consonant sound! - some words start with vowel letter but begin with a consonant sound: (a university, a European, a one-parent family) - abbrev. said as words (a NATO, a FIFA) - pattern: a...of (She is a colleague of mine) - before a person's name if you do not know the person yourself: (There's a Dr. Perch on the phone.) - a/an used with name to mean that someone is not so good as other famous person (Jane plays tennis well, but she'll never be a Steffi Graff)

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or famous artist "a Van Gogh". - a/an when we refer to an individual example of a product made by a particular manufacturer: (I've just bought a Mercedes) or work by particular artist (Do you think it could be a Van Gogh?) - when we first something mentioned: (There was a serious fire in a block of flats) - a/an before very, fairly: It's a very old house. - quite before a/an: It's quite an old house - rather before a/an: It's rather an old house - what a + singular noun : What a good photo. AN - before words that begin with a vowel sound (an orange, an Italian, an umbrella) - words with a silent " h " : (an hour, an honest, an honour, an heir) - abbreviation said as individual letters that begin with A,E,F,H,LL,M.N,0,R,S,X (an MP, an FBI, an IOU) THE - when we specify something! : in the spring of 1984, arrived on the Monday after my birthday. - morning, afternoon, evening: in the morning,.... - when we want to say that someone, smt. is unique (there is only one, one kind) (Sydney is the capital city of New South Wales) - give person's job title, or unique position She has been (the) head of the company - after the position of, the post of, the role of use zero article before a job

title: Dr. Simons has taken on the position of Head of Department - before superlative adjectives - the biggest, the most expensive - when there is only one of aparticular thing: the sun the world the North Pole the jet age the international market the travel industry the arms trade the weather t the climate the human race the atmosphere the sea the public the environment the sky the ground the wind the future the past the present the future - geographical areas: the beach, the country, the countryside, the town, the seaside, the forest - when are two people with the same name and we want to specify which

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one we're talking about: (That's not the Stephan Fraser I went to school with) - we want to emphasis that a person is the one that everyone probably knows: (Do you mean the Ronald Reagan, or someone else?) - with adjective to describe a person or their job: the artist Turner, the wonderful actor Ford - with the family as a whole: (The Simpsons are away this weekend.) - in general talk about: the cinema, the theatre, the opera, the radio, the station, the shop, the library, the pub, the city, the village - in general statements: The computer has revolutionized publishing. - when we expect the listener or reader is able to identify the thing or person we are talking about (Helen's just bought the house in Wilson Street) = house we have previously talked about - when it is clear from the situation which person or thing we mean: (What do you think of the table? = the table we are looking at) - in phrase: of (the meaning of the new words, the population of the country, the sound of gunfire) - pattern: the...of (the middle of, the back of, the beginning of, the bottom of, the end of, the middle of, the side of, the top of...) - at/in the market, put a house on the market = offer it for sale - in the town centre - in / to the house - the office, the factory

- sit on the bed, make the bed - on the sea, by the sea, at the seaside - at the weekend - during the day/ the night/ the morning,... - go in the car, on the bus, on the train - the Statue of Liberty ZERO ARTICLES - names of holidays - special time of the year: Easter, Ramadan, New Year's Day - names of months: in September - day of week: on Monday - year seasons: in winter - before names of particular people: (President Clinton, The name of Nelson Mandela) - with institutions: hospital, university, prison, school, college, church, school = normal purpose of a building - by + zero article: by car/taxi/plane/train/air/sea/post/email/phone - related or repeated words are joined by preposition used with a general meaning: person to person back to back end to end face to face side by side start to finish day by day put pen to paper - talk about meals: dinner, breakfast, lunch,

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