Cidtt The Guide

Cambridge International
Diploma
for
Teachers and Trainers
GUIDE
1 University of Cambridge International Examinations 2007
Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers CONTENTS
CONTENTS This is a bookmarked document. Use the bookmarked links below (and/or the bookmarks tab in Acrobat) to navigate easily around the Guide.
Page INTRODUCTION Welcome The spirit of the Diploma Thinking about yourself as a teacher What makes a good teacher? Personality and professionalism Introducing you to the Diploma syllabus Approaching assignments Your personal development diary Resources Performance observation Being an observer yourself Scanning guidelines Images in Word documents Examiners advice to candidates MODULE 1 : DESIGN 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 1.2.6 Identifying learners needs Specifying the learning objectives Planning content, methods and resources Completing the programme plan Specifying the requirements for each learning session Completing session plans Preparing learning materials Preparing equipment and learning facilities Planning for evaluation Preparing the learning environment 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 15 16 17 24 28 29 32 40 41 47 51 59 63 75 82 88 92 95 99 100 105 111 116 121 2 University of Cambridge International Examinations 2007
MODULE 2 : PRACTICE 2.1.1 2.1.2 2.1.3 2.1.4 2.1.5 Presenting information Giving instruction and demonstration Using visual aids Supervising learning activities Managing the flow of activities
Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers CONTENTS
2.1.6 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4
Managing the learning environment Motivating learners Encouraging learners Guiding learners Supporting learners
126 136 144 150 154 160 161 169 177 183 190 195 206 214 220 223 226 227 234 238 243 249 261 265
MODULE 3 : ASSESSMENT 3.1.1 3.1.2 3.1.3 3.1.4 3.1.5 3.2.1 3.2.2 3.2.3 3.2.4 3.2.5 Preparing formative assessments Using formative assessments Analysing formative assessment data Providing feedback about progress Maintaining records of learners progress Preparing summative assessments Using summative assessments Analysing summative assessment data Providing feedback about achievement Maintaining records of learners achievement
MODULE 4 : EVALUATION 4.1.1 4.1.2 4.1.3 4.2.1 4.2.2 4.2.3 4.2.4 Evaluating learning Using evaluation to plan improvements Making improvements and planning further evaluation Evaluating own practice Identifying goals for improvement Completing a professional development plan Specifying actions and evaluating outcomes
Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION WELCOME
On behalf of the University of Cambridge International Examinations (CIE), we would like to welcome you to the Diploma for Teachers and Trainers and to this Guide. We hope you enjoy reading and using these materials. They are intended for everyone preparing for the Diploma candidates and their trainers. The Guide contains guidance and suggestions for practice which can be used by individuals or used in group activities. It is organized into four sections, each corresponding to a module in the Diploma, following the sequence of the performance criteria, so you can easily find guidance and advice on particular aspects e.g. identifying learners needs. This is not a text book. It is a source of ideas, information and possibilities, all relating to the Diploma framework. You may like to use the materials in a different order from the way in which they are presented here. Thats fine. You may also like to modify and develop the ideas and exercises and we would be happy if the materials are a springboard for such individual and group creativity. We have also provided a resource list of suggested readings and websites for the Diploma. We do encourage you to explore these, and yourself to look for and investigate others. For ease of writing and reading, we have used the terms teacher and learner as generic terms throughout. This is an opportunity to refresh your thinking and practice. We hope your Diploma experience is as fruitful and enjoyable an experience as possible. We wish you every success. Kind regards
Paul Beedle, CIE Manager Professional Development Certification
Bob Burkill, Principal Examiner Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers
University of Cambridge International Examinations 2007
THE SPIRIT OF THE DIPLOMA

In its intent, purpose and content, the Diploma is geared to the concept of active learning. Active learning is very different from the traditional teacher down model of learning which is still found in some parts of the world. This old model saw the teacher standing at the front of the class presenting information which the learners dutifully wrote down, learned (often by rote) and were duly tested upon. It was inflexible and authoritarian. Here is what such a classroom used to look like
But in a classroom where active learning is at the heart of experience, teacher and learner interact much more effectively, as in this image from a classroom of today.
Active learning involves the learners in activities developed and guided by the teacher. Such activities may involve a range of teaching and learning approaches including group work, role play, learner presentations, fieldwork, experimentation, and using simulations. Although active learning is more diverse (and certainly more engaging) it needs careful planning and preparation to meet the needs of the learners, clear identification of learning objectives, accurate tailoring of assessment and a real awareness of flexibility. This can be challenging but the Diploma is all about trying something new in the process of teaching and learning and the contents of this Guide are designed to meet the needs of enterprising teachers.
THINKING ABOUT YOURSELF AS A TEACHER

Human personalities are extremely diverse. This means that teachers will bring to teaching and learning all the features and characteristics which make us who we are. The Diploma recognises the enormous contribution which teachers' personalities make to the teaching-learning process. We have all benefited from the care, warmth, humour and inspiration which many teachers have shared with us. They have made our learning fun. They have made our education enjoyable as well as worthwhile. All kinds of different personalities may help to make excellent teachers. Some may lead and amuse, some may be 'quiet persuaders' and others can create order from seeming chaos. There is no single especially successful set of human attributes for success as a teacher - we all have something to offer. What is certain is that the best teachers are those who can use their talents creatively in a professional context. In order for effective teaching and learning to take place in any learning environment it's useful for teachers to spend some time thinking about themselves as learners and teachers before starting to explore the needs of those who sit (or stand!) before them. So much of what happens in the learning environment is influenced by the personalities of the people within it. Therefore one of the keys to maximising the potential of the learning environment in which you work is to know yourself. What you do with this knowledge can contribute greatly towards raising achievement and meeting the goals that you and your learners set. So what kind of teacher are you? Not in terms of subject, level or faculty, but in terms of the way in which you perform your role. Do you typically use one style of teaching, for example, lecture, board work or worksheets, rather than another? Are you the 'all singing all dancing' type or do you prefer to work to a calmer pace or rhythm in your classroom? It doesn't matter how long you have been teaching, it's still useful and relevant to carry out an internal audit on how as well as who you are in the classroom. Remember that we are all multifaceted so you may well find that you feel more comfortable fitting yourself into a combination of styles of teaching or definitions, rather than one! The Indiana State University website carries an overview of teaching styles based on the work of Anthony Grasha, Professor of Psychology at the University of Cincinnati, including an inventory/audit. This is well worth a visit: http://web.indstate.edu/oit/cirt/pd/styles/tstyle.html and here is another useful audit you can try http://members.shaw.ca/mdde615/tchstylsquiz7.htm
WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER?

Theres no quick and easy answer! The following ideas may help you to formulate your answer:

think about the ideals you held when you started out as a teacher think about a session that went particularly well what characterised that session? think about the full scope of a teacher's job in the context in which you work if appropriate, ask your learners what they think makes a good teacher.
How do you rate yourself against the conclusions that you have reached? You may find it useful to discuss this with a trusted colleague. One initial response might be that teacher effectiveness has at its heart

subject knowledge an understanding of how learning can take place and an understanding of how to manage the transformative process of teaching and learning.
However the concept of teacher effectiveness carries different meanings and emphases across the world. In the Hay McBer study of teacher effectiveness http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/docbank/index.cfm?id=1487 which was undertaken for the UK Department for Education and Skills in 1999 and published in 2000, Year 8 pupils (i.e. age 12 and 13) gave the following descriptions of the characteristics of a good teacher: 'A good teacher ... is kind is generous listens to you encourages you has faith in you keeps confidences likes teaching children likes teaching their subject takes time to explain things helps you when you're stuck tells you how you are doing allows you to have your say doesn't give up on you cares for your opinion makes you feel clever treats people equally stands up for you makes allowances tells the truth is forgiving.' How would your learners describe what makes a good teacher?
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PERSONALITY AND PROFESSIONALISM

You do come across sayings such as teachers are born not made and mumbled remarks such as no amount of instruction can turn a bad teacher into a good one. Such views seem to set personality against professionalism. Experience surely indicates that no one personality type is ideally suited to the profession of teaching. All kinds of personality can flourish in teaching. Some learners may find certain types of personality more attractive than others, but they rapidly complain when an entertaining teacher in practice does not show them an organized and effective way forward in their learning. The Diploma approach to this is very clear. Modern education programmes and techniques are diversifying rapidly. Education is taking place in an ever increasing variety of contexts and the idea of lifelong education has been with us for almost a lifetime. Communication media such as television bring other forms of communication in information into peoples daily lives, quite beyond the reach of education. Thus the expectations of learners are much higher in terms of learning programme design, activities and teaching skills. Teachers must respond to these challenges. In developing their own teaching skills and experience, teachers can become much more confident and effective. The vehicle for such development is their own imagination, persistence, determination, care and enterprise. Teaching, therefore, is very much a personal business. It could be argued that confidence in your own professional practice will have a most beneficial effect on how you see your job, your future and your life. So it is ying and yang. There is a natural, positive and dynamic inter-relationship between personality and professionalism.
INTRODUCING YOU TO THE DIPLOMA SYLLABUS

Lets briefly go through the Diploma syllabus together. Our syllabus aims to be as complete as possible. It explains everything to do with the Diploma and everything which needs to be done. We are going to highlight the most important parts. Page 4 needs careful consideration because it sets out the 'Diploma Structure', that is, the framework for the whole qualification. The four modules are explained and the division into units is clearly shown. Section 2 on Page 6 then talks about how you will be assessed, the structure and templates for assignments, and specific requirements of particular assignments. There are some key phrases here which might prompt discussion and explanation with your colleagues on your programme - e.g. 'assignment', 'template', and 'evidence.' Sections 2.0 to 2.2 give a very good idea of the flavour of assessment activities. You can get a 'feel' for what is involved. Note the need for performance observation in Module 2. Section 2.0 also introduces the dimension of evaluation and the personal development diary. Evaluation is a most important process. In practice it tends to get squeezed or even squeezed out altogether in the often hectic 'business' of teaching. The Diploma helps you explore the evaluation process. It encourages reflection and deeper thought about what has been experienced so that you can make improvements and explore new avenues of possibilities. Records, too, are sometimes seen as a chore. In this Diploma they become a vital tool because they deal with results or outcomes. Sections 2.3 and 2.4 on Page 8 complete the picture by considering presentation, external assessment and results and certification. We can now look at the main body of the syllabus (Pages 10-45) as a whole. Pages 10 and 11 provide a double spread presentation of all the performance criteria in the Diploma, indicating the flow and sequence of teaching, and the balance between the modules. Section 4 sets out in detail the content of each of the Units in the four Modules and the assignment guidelines for each module. Each module's content is presented in the same way. Individual unit titles are given, the scope of each unit is explained and their performance criteria are set out. You can look at Page 9 Unit 1.1 and see these facets for themselves Performance criterion summary statement (in bold) Characteristics of performance (in italics) Skills, knowledge and understanding
You can then 'thumb through' the rest of the syllabus - all the Units and Modules are set out in the same way. Pick out one or two which have particular relevance for you, and look at these in detail - this will help you connect with the way the syllabus works. Assessment Guidelines are included for each Module. You can see from the syllabus that Assignment 1, for example, covers the skills needed in Units 1.1 and 1.2 and everything you will need to do for the assignment is set out 'step by step' (see pages 18 to 21). Page 45 shows everyone how the Grading is organised around themes and how criteria are used to identify Pass and Distinction grades. Now you have had a look through the syllabus youll be looking forward to what lies ahead!
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APPROACHING ASSIGNMENTS
We want you to feel clear and confident about preparing your own assignments. You need to complete your assignments in the light of your own professional practice. Your reference points and the content of your assignments lie within your own working experience. By all means you should be finding out (more) about theories and models of teaching and learning, but what matters is how you put what you learn into practice in the classroom, your reflections on this experience and how you can turn this experience and your reflections into future improvement. Thus you can refer to published or Internet articles where you feel they have a particular bearing on your work. But credit is given to how you have applied this knowledge and understanding in your practice, rather than simply citing names and references. The Diploma examiners are interested to know about your real experience as presented in the evidence in your assignment. The assignment template provides a standard framework for all candidates to use, corresponding to the guidelines in the syllabus. Although all candidates everywhere are using the same, common format for reporting, the content of each assignment is fresh and unique. Template The template is already formatted this makes life easier for you (and also for the examiners!). Youll see that the information supplied by CIE (e.g. the prompts) is in Arial font, and the space provided for you to make your entries is in Verdana font. We've chosen these fonts because they are universally available. You should leave the page format as it is theres no reason to change it (you dont get extra credit for spending time beautifying the document!). The template is a Word document. So you can easily check aspects such as word count and spelling by highlighting selected text and using the appropriate Word tools as normal. You can also quickly navigate around your assignment by activating the document map (select Document Map on View pull down menu, or click the Document Map button on the toolbar), then simply click on the section headings you wish to skip to. If you have difficulties using the template, please discuss with your centre, who will, if necessary, consult CIE for further advice. Cover page - your details are crucial Youll see that on each assignment cover sheet you need to complete your candidate details. By completing this you are also confirming the statement in bold at the top of the cover sheet, namely:
By completing this form and submitting the assignment for assessment by CIE I confirm that the assignment is all my own work. I have appropriately referenced and acknowledged any work taken from another source.
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So as a first step, it's vital to complete the cover sheet properly and accurately. Before you submit your completed assignment to your centre to send to CIE, make sure you have entered the following in the boxes given: the date of submission in dd/mm/yy format. your candidate number (your centre will have given this to you) your name (as you wish it to appear on your certificate).
Very simple! But also very important. Remember that Diploma examiners have many assignments to look at each month. An assignment without proper information on the cover sheet is a real problem, so we'd certainly appreciate you being responsible about this. Many thanks! Context The next sheet in the assignment template allows you to tell the examiners briefly about your self and your context. You need briefly to describe: Your personal experience Your role and responsibilities Your institution Your learners
Please be brief. This is not intended to be a curriculum vitae, for example. Imagine you had just met your examiner and had two or three minutes to explain to him/her the aspects of your context which really need to be taken into account. These are what you need to communicate in writing. Many different teachers and trainers enter for the Diploma, teaching all ages and ability levels in all sorts of contexts. You may be a classroom teacher, a workplace trainer, an online tutor or be working in another of the many ways in which teaching and training is practised in todays world. The Diploma is equally accessible to all teachers and trainers i.e. it provides a level playing field for assessment of teaching practice and performance. Evidence meeting the requirements Please also make sure that you meet the assignment requirements for evidence. For example you are required to submit two session plans, so please submit two. If you submit only one, you are clearly not meeting the requirements, so will be asked to resubmit. This applies both to Part A and Part B of the assignments. In Part B if you present several hundred words less than the word limit, you really will not be giving yourself sufficient room in which to express your ideas and reflections. So it is likely that you will asked to resubmit. There is no need to go way over the word limits at any point in the assignment, as you will not receive any extra credit for this. Do remember to respond to the three key themes in your Reflective Report in Part B of each assignment.
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There is also a sheet at the end of the template which you can use if necessary to provide brief additional evidence if you like. But you dont have to use this. Remember that such additional evidence needs to be relevant and brief. Brief is the right word! CIE is looking at the quality of your experience and ideas as a teacher not weighing the quantity of pages that you can present. The guidelines and template are designed to provide a comprehensive framework for gathering evidence. However there may be a particular piece of additional evidence which enables you to highlight a critical feature of your experience in design, practice, assessment or evaluation. On the other hand some candidates have felt they needed to submit a large volume of supplementary evidence e.g. the assessed scripts for the whole learner group or their detailed CV or a series of testimonials! This is unnecessary. Please rest assured that we have been very careful to decide on the manageable amount of evidence which we need to see, and there is no reason or benefit in sending more than we have asked for. Word limits Please do try to keep within the word limits. These word limits are based on sound experience of how many words on average a candidate needs to demonstrate each point. But they are approximate - i.e. you don't have worry about being exact! Youll find it very difficult to present enough evidence if you only give very short statements say only one or two sentences. On the other hand if you find yourself going significantly over the word limits then you really need to be thinking about editing and being concise. So try to be more or less in the region of the number of words requested. Too little and theres a risk that youre missing important things out, too much and theres a risk that not everything is going to be taken into account. Evidence is only evidence when it is looked at! Being careful, like this, about the impact and economy of your communication often about complicated ideas or issues is an important aspect of quality professional work. Inserts In Assignment 2 you have to insert Observation Records and Learner Feedbacks. You need to use the standard CIE forms for these. Its up to you, your observer and your learners whether they complete these by hand or by wordprocessing. If by hand, you can scan the handwritten version and insert the scanned image. If you do this, be sure to convert the image from a TIFF to a JPEG format, using a low resolution otherwise your assignment may become very large in terms of memory (see the notes at the end of this Introduction section for further advice). Alternatively, you can word process the information on the handwritten forms and include this (but remember that we might ask you for the original forms, so please keep these). In Assignment 3, you have to include an example of an assessment, mark scheme, and high/mid/low work by learners in the assessment. Of course, there is a very wide range of assessment etc you might choose. Be economical. So, for example, if your example is a written assessment, instead of giving us a complete question paper, mark scheme, and scripts, select a particular question, its mark scheme and the answers of the learners.
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It may be that you want to tell us about a very different kind of assessment, e.g. practical or online. This is fine. Just think carefully about how best to provide sufficient, appropriate and economical evidence e.g. digital images or screen shots. Your experience - your words - your voice Choose the style with which you feel most comfortable, as long as youre able to talk about your real practice. Our examiners are really interested in hearing what you have to say, rather than being concerned about how fluently you say it. They are themselves expert teachers and teacher trainers, with a wealth of international experience. They are not going to penalise you for spelling, grammar, style, etc. So the more you use your normal voice and language the better as this will help your assignment to be a genuine reflection of you as a teacher. Many candidates for the Diploma are using English or another language which is not their first language. We do not assess use of language in this Diploma. So, for example, if you make spelling or grammar 'mistakes', these do not matter. Of course it is always good practice to be careful about presentation! So we encourage you to take pride in your assignment. But we want to reassure you and every candidate that as long as the examiners can understand the sense of what you are saying to us, then this is the essence for our assessment. We want you to write about your professional practice. Therefore it is perfectly appropriate and acceptable to write in the first person. Although you will use continuous prose, you can and should think of using point form (bullet points) especially in Part A. Do not be afraid to use your imagination and say how you think your ideas and work practices have changed and developed during and because of the Diploma experience this is very much in the spirit of the qualification, which is intended to help teachers to grow professionally. Look at the grading criteria on page 45 of the syllabus. You can see that the examiners are looking to see if and how candidates have gone beyond the competent performance to consider implications of use of ICT for the institution, their own professional development and that of their learners.
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YOUR PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT DIARY

1. Why keep a diary? Many teachers keep a personal development diary. Some call it a 'log book', others a 'journal.' Whatever you call it, this diary has several uses. It acts as a record of what you intended, what actually happened and your own reflections on these. So you would include session and programme plans, and your own notes based on their outcomes. It is thus an invaluable source of evidence, evaluation and reflection - not just for the purposes of a professional qualification like the Diploma, but generally in your career as a teacher. It contains raw evidence for developing your next designs for learning programmes and sessions appraisal contacts with parents formative assessment e.g. conferencing
It can also help your colleagues when you are absent. It can act as a source of enrichment. One of our Cambridge Diploma trainers has a wellworn journal in which she writes down excerpts from articles, quotations and notes and she uses her journal in her training sessions! It is a 'good companion' - a source of personal and professional support and development. 2. What should the diary contain? This is very much up to you as an individual. You could include draft plans calendar self-evaluation of sessions learner and others feedback on sessions on-going ideas for improvement suggestions based on conversations with other teachers brief notes of conferences and visits quotations references (publications and websites) excerpts from the press and other articles.
The actual format of the diary is really up to you also. A4 ring binders are better suited to storing data, plans and so on. You probably need something more distinctive and portable. Many teachers use a book the size of a desk diary. Some are ring-bound and very useful. You might prefer to use a personal organizer, a PDA (personal digital assistant), or a laptop. The most important thing is to find the format and content of diary which suits you so that you keep it regularly up to date, not because someone else has told you to, but because it is genuinely useful to you.
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RESOURCES
There is a Diploma Resource List (downloadable from the CIE website at http://www.cie.org.uk/qualifications/teacher/level2/diptt/index_html) This Guide is intended to complement the texts in the Resource List such as the CIEendorsed Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers Textbook and Workbook, by Ian Barker. We also highly recommend Geoff Pettys book Teaching Today (and his website http://www.geoffpetty.com/) as resources which, like Ian Barkers, you will find regularly of help to you during your Diploma programme. You should take the opportunity to read those materials which are particularly relevant to you in your context and for your interests, but also look further afield. Be resourceful and inquiring. There isn't a fixed encyclopaedia of professional knowledge for you to learn. Instead there is an open world of developments in teaching and learning for you to explore. Your own colleagues are a vital resource for you. Let them know what you're doing and how you're getting on. Ask their advice and make the most of opportunities for share ideas. You may be able to find a more experienced colleague who is happy to act as your mentor. Don't forget your own learners. Their cooperation and feedback will be an important part of your Diploma experience, e.g. as you try new approaches to sessions.
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PERFORMANCE OBSERVATION
Observation of teaching is a requirement in Module 2 of the Diploma. You need to understand the purpose of these observations when you are planning for Module 1, because the sessions which will be observed in Module 2 are the sessions you plan in detail in Module 1. Remember that these sessions should be contrasting. It's best if you interpret this as involving different teaching and learning styles and approaches - not simply different content. Very few teachers actually look forward to having their teaching observed. How do you feel about this? Why do you feel this way? Whatever your initial apprehensions, let's see if we can help you to approach this with confidence and enthusiasm. Observation is an opportunity to develop the quality of your work rather than a trial to be faced! Here are a few design ideas for you to work on. The following table will help you to have some ideas, taking the example of a language programme
Aspects of teaching that can vary Teaching strategies
Examples of contrasting sessions within a series of sessions

1. The teacher uses collaborative writing with the class to create a class newspaper 2. Use of role play to interpret the roles of personnel in a newspaper office
Resources Teaching aids
1. The teacher uses a range of newspaper front pages 2. The teacher uses web sites to research ways in which different newspaper report current events 1. Involves individual research 2. Collaborative project work
Learner learning styles
Learning environment
1. Classroom-based 2. Trip to a newspaper office
Outcomes from the session
A word processed class newspaper Researched notes on topic of interest
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Questions for you to think about 1. Who should I ask to do the observations? The Diploma syllabus (page 6) refers to the observer as a competent person (e.g. an experienced senior teacher/trainer acting as a mentor) who can confirm that performance observed meets the needs of the syllabus Remember the purpose behind the observations themselves: YOU ARE NOT BEING GRADED, INSPECTED OR ASSESSED FOR APPRAISAL The observations are intended to offer you guidance and feedback to support your developing professional practice, and also to help you when you prepare assignments for the Diploma. It's important to select an observer who is: competent s/he should have experience of observation, be familiar with your own teaching area/subject and/or have experience of teaching a similar group of learners comfortable s/he should be someone to whom you relate well and who will put you at your ease so that you can be observed performing well clear about the role of observer s/he needs to recognise that this is a mentoring role, and not an examining one. impartial to be effective, s/he needs to approach observation objectively - to be able to give you useful feedback about your professional practice You need to brief your observer about what to expect, for example by showing him/her the session plans. S/he needs to be familiar with your particular learning environment. S/he needs to use the CIE Observation Record sheet. It's a good idea to choose someone you will feel comfortable with but are not familiar with. Performance in front of close colleagues or friends is often much more difficult than with someone who is more 'detached'.
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2. What practical Issues do I need to think about? Talk to your observer before the session Give your observer a copy of your session plan and any additional notes which will help him/her with his/her observations (e.g. notes about learners with special educational needs in the group) Give your observer copies of texts/ worksheets which you will be using Give him/her the observation record form and highlight which particular aspects of your teaching you would like them to notice Give them a place to sit. Ideally they will sit behind your learners to avoid distraction. This means that you will be able to see them, but that should not be a problem if you are comfortable in his/her presence Prepare your group of learners to expect a visitor Tell your learners what the observer is likely to do, e.g. that the observer might have questions or want to have a quick informal look at their work Introduce the observer to the group Arrange for a time as soon as possible after the session to receive oral feedback even if the written notes have not been completed Make sure that your observer has signed and dated the written feedback Accept feedback and advice professionally. Trust him/her.
3. How can I make the most of the observation sessions? Make sure you set aside time for debriefing at the end of each observed session. Be sure to make notes on feedback from your observer. You can use this as evidence in your assignment work. Some of the teaching strategies, resources and activities you use will be new to you as a result of your new knowledge and understanding. The observer should recognise this and make allowances when things dont always go according to plan. You TOO are a learner and you are allowed to take risks, make mistakes, try out new ideas. 'Mistakes' are positive experiences if you reflect on what you can learn from them. Indeed, reflective learners learn more from their errors and practice runs than from occasions when everything goes well. We all feel a little nervous when we're being observed. But just because you feel a little nervous, dont be tempted to teach a safe, didactic session in which you simply lecture the learners. After all: TEACHING IS NOT TELLING You should be aiming to facilitate as much involvement, interaction and active learning as possible.
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Observation Record and Learner Feedback We provide standard forms for both the observer and your learners to use. These are very simple to complete. You can fill in the details at the top of each form before you give them to your observer and your learners. Ask them to complete the forms as soon as possible after the session, if possible at the end of the session. Do let your observer see the form well in advance of his/her visits. Observation needs preparation, too! Arrange a pre-observation meeting in which you can talk your observer through the pro-forma and suggest points in your plan which he/she might look out for. A sensible approach is to ask a few of your learners to provide group feedback on your teaching. You can seek feedback from members of your group who you know are representative of the group as a whole, will find the role of giving feedback constructive and can give impartial comments. 1. Preparing yourself for observed practice To encourage active learning, you must be comfortable with the subject area the skills, knowledge and understanding being developed by the learners. But however comfortable you may be with your subject, when you are observed teaching you may feel uncomfortable - something of a paradox. So how can you feel as comfortable as possible in such a situation? Here are some steps which you can take to help yourself. It's a good idea to check your programme plan, looking carefully at the areas surrounding your two chosen observed sessions. If they are to be successful the sessions must link with the rest of the programme and contribute to the learning sequence set out in the programme plan. How are you going to achieve these links and make them clear to your learners and to your observed?
Your aims and objectives will be part of your session plans. How are you going to communicate these to your learners and your observer without making such communication seem detached or artificial?
Some of your work in the sessions will require you to take your own skills, knowledge and understanding for granted while you concentrate on meeting the needs of the learners. But we cannot have perfect knowledge even within our own subject area. So supposing someone asks you a particularly detailed or taxing question during the observed (or any other) session, what strategies have you devised to deal comfortably with such situations?
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It is good practice to be familiar with the physical learning environment in which sessions take place. It is also good practice to experiment with and develop your own methods of facilitating learning.
So if you are going to use a new room, room layout or equipment, what preparations have you made to try these out in advance of observation?
2. Preparing your learners It's obviously up to you as teacher to decide how far to involve your learners in understanding your Diploma preparation and therefore the presence of an observer in two of their sessions. There are clearly issues of confidence and maturity here. You may feel that a more detached approach is appropriate to your situation or you might see real benefits in greater professional 'transparency.' Remember also that reactions may well vary from group to group and also between age groups. It may affect your choice of sessions to be observed. Be careful! It may be tempting to choose two sessions involving only able, docile learners and/or straightforward activities. But if you do this you may have less opportunities to devise and use differentiation strategies and to demonstrate your own versatility and skills. It's like in the sport of diving where one can choose the tariff of the dive. Going for the apparently 'safe', 'easy' option is like a low tariff dive.
The sport of diving has a very ingenious and appropriate scoring system. Divers are marked according to two assessment themes. Tariff This is a measure of 'degree of difficulty'. So if the dive is a straightforward trajectory into the pool it is deemed low tariff, but if it includes a combination of tucks, twists and pikes it is seen as high tariff. Each combination carries a tariff score. Skill This is simply how well the dive was executed. A score is given for this. The skills marks score is then multiplied by the tariff mark. It is up to the swimmer to choose whether to do a low tariff dive extremely well or a higher tariff dive perhaps a little less well. Obviously the higher the tariff the more the risk.
We are asking you to go for a 'higher tariff' in your teaching. This may come in the form, for example, of a different teaching/learning method, use of different audio-visual methods, a new style of formative assessment, or a study of fresh topic/theme material. The idea here is to advance your thinking on the way you teach and your learners learn. In a sense this is a microcosm of the big changes in the world of education practice.
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You may feel uneasy about a high tariff dive - especially if it is being observed! There are four ways in which you can gain the professional learning benefits while minimising the risk involved. 1. Design and carry out a trial lesson as recommended in the ideas for Practice in 1.2.2. 2. Go and see someone else using the teaching method in another context 3. A good session plan usually divides its time span into varied activity units for the learners. Your high tariff dive could be just one of these if you wish. You might make the tariff higher still in the second session! 4. Picture a successful outcome as we recommend in ideas for Practice in 1.2.2. So how much of the background about your Diploma preparation are you going to share with your learners? Obtaining feedback from learners about their sessions is a vital part of the assignment. You need to plan for this now. Are you going to opt for oral or written feedback or both? Whichever method(s) you choose, how are they (and you) going to record such feedback initially, so that this can be provided as evidence in the assignment on the CIE Learner Feedback form. This needs thought and preparation. You could use, for example

notes questionnaires structured questions interview and notes.
3. Preparing your observer We've already suggested that you have a brief meeting with your observer before the observed sessions. It's a very good idea to plan what you are going to say and do at this meeting, so it would be a good idea for you now to make sure you have copies of your session plans and programme plan to give to your observer at the meeting take him/her along to the room(s) you will be using note down in advance some important teaching and learning points/issues which you think your observer might look out for during the observation say clearly when the two of you can meet for a feedback session (as soon as possible after the session).
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There is a practical, social side to this, also. If your observer is from outside your institution, show him/her where to park, the location of toilets and rest areas, and introduce him/her to the reception staff. Where necessary, provide a layout plan of your institution. 4. Preparing your colleagues Many of our Diploma candidates have found that integrating their Diploma preparation into their own professional working context has brought them into closer and more fruitful working relationships with many of their colleagues. You can involve your colleagues in what you are doing. Even if your observer is from within your own institution, make sure that others know what is happening and why. These include other members of your department department heads and managers principals and senior managers These arrangements need to be properly handled. Remember - courtesy, organization, security and professional friendship.
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BEING AN OBSERVER YOURSELF People often say that the best interviewees are those who have had experience of being an interviewer. So maybe the observed teacher should have him/herself experience being an observer. Step one who might you observe? Opportunities for observation are not easy to come by. Teachers are understandably nervous of such visits. So who might you approach? It could be a teacher Note Do consider the first option. Although it may be a little more complicated to arrange it could easily prove more refreshing and stimulating as a learning experience for you The second option is far easier to arrange but you need to be careful to get out of your own comfort zone. Friends and immediate colleagues in the department might not be the best or most challenging opportunities for you. Try senior colleagues or department heads. Step two how to make a successful approach The teacher you approach may not be sure if you simply ask do you think I could sit in on one of your sessions? He or she is much more likely to welcome you if you can be more focused, e.g. Note You do not have to attend an entire session. Check your own timetable availability first. Step three how do you use such observations? When you do observe: Design an observation record sheet for yourself. You can use the pro forma in Assignment 2 but it should be a basis only your record will need to be more focused on teaching techniques. Remember, you are looking at the use of a technique rather than observing the teachers performance. which technique would you like to observe? who might already be using this technique? (Think across the curriculum) how could you arrange an informal chat/approach to set up such an observation? in another institution where you work
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REFLECTING ON OBSERVED SESSIONS Reflecting on your observed sessions is a critical process in approaching the assignment. You'll need to consider four sources of evidence here. 1. 2. 3. 4. Self-appraisal Feedback from observer Use of observer feedback Feedback from learners.
1. Self-appraisal All teachers engage in self-appraisal. Often it is 'knee-jerk' immediate comment based on class experience. For example 'That was really awful!' 'They just do not understand what is needed here.' 'That went well. I'm going to try that again.' Colleagues, partners, husbands and wives across the world are well used to such reactions from teachers. We all feel the need from time to time for a bit of emotional 'letting off steam' - but it is only that! Useful, systematic self-appraisal is a fundamental professional development practice of great value. It involves recording and persistence. You need self-discipline and focus in order to achieve self-appraisal of genuine value. We have looked already at the benefits of keeping a personal development diary, and this really helps in self-appraisal. Try not to use 'knee-jerk' appraisals. Be structured. We can help you here. Look at page 10 of the Diploma syllabus and use the performance criteria in the syllabus module 2 : Practice as your self-appraisal headings of prompts. Convert them into questions. For example 'Present information' (2.1.1) could be converted into the question 'How successful was my presentation of information?' The whole series of questions you have created can act as a template for self-appraisal for your journal. Use it for the key sessions which you wish to highlight as evidence in your assignment.
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2. Feedback from your observer You will have this in two ways 1. 2. the completed written observation reports to be included in the assignment oral feedback from your observer after the sessions.
The written evidence is durable and ready for inclusion in your assignment. But the informal oral feedback from your observer after the session may be completely lost and forgotten, unless you take the opportunity now to manage the discussion with your observer to gain maximum benefit from it. You and your observer might reflect upon any

critical moments or events in the session adjustments made to the timing or nature of parts of the session plan broader professional issues emanating from the session.
Make sure you note these points down. Don't be afraid to say to your observer that you need to jot down a few ideas for your own reference. 3. Use of observer feedback As long as you have got the written observation records to include in your assignment and your notes from the discussion with the observer, you can go on reflecting in depth on the feedback, putting it to really good use. What are your thoughts on the following Did any of your observer's comments come as a surprise to you? Which one(s) and why? Which points made by your observer have reassured you as a professional practitioner and why? Which comments have prompted you to further thought? How might you modify the design of future sessions in the light of what your observer has suggested? 4. Feedback from your learners This may well come as one of the pleasant surprises this programme has to offer you. Even if you felt that your session did not go as well as you would have liked, your learners may think differently! Sometimes learners truly appreciate what seemed to you a slow, methodical and unambitious session. But if you were never to ask for their feedback, how would you ever know? As with observer feedback, written learner feedback is durable and useful, as long as your learners have been given time to answer your written questions, circle the response numbers, tick answer boxes or give feedback to you in whatever format you have given them. Oral feedback is less easy to manage, but may well be more immediate, richer, and relevant. It needs structure and you will need to write down the outcomes.
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Learner feedback may be affected by all kinds of subjective influences, from loyalty (misplaced or otherwise) to personal feelings and simple misreading of questions. Unless you give your learners some practice in giving feedback (which is a good idea), this may be the first time any teacher has asked them to comment on his/her professional practice. For some it can be daunting. Be careful with yourself and see the responses they give in a broader perspective. In analysing feedback from your learners, look for the following general trends in comments and responses any anomalous (unusual) responses which might be interesting and illuminating any indication of practical issues such as the ability to see and hear presentations and demonstrations responses to new (to your learners) teaching and learning techniques.
Careful analysis of your learners feedback puts you in the position of the learners reviewing what you had set up for them. It is for the benefit of the learner that education is provided. It has taken teachers a long time to incorporate such feedback into their normal practice. Some teachers may never do this and thus will never benefit from it.
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SCANNING GUIDELINES
In general: The resolution should be set to 200 dpi, or a maximum 300 dpi. The higher the resolution the slower the scanning will be and the resulting file size will be larger. Using lower-resolution scans can save time as scanning speed is faster. If you double the resolution of a scan, then the file size increases by a factor of four. Tripling the resolution of a scan makes the resultant file size nine times as large.
Image type should be set to black and white drawing (not grey-scale or colour) whenever possible. Scanned image output or save as format should be set to JPG: JPG format JPG format images are generally smaller than those in other formats but they use lossy compression, which means that the image stored on disc is not necessarily exactly the same as the image you first scanned. The JPG quality setting is used to balance between file size and detail 100% will result in minimum loss of quality but will result in larger images than, say 50%, which is much smaller but with a larger loss of detail. 75% is a good typical balance.
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IMAGES IN WORD DOCUMENTS

Ways to reduce the size of a Word document Although Microsoft Word can produce very professional looking documents, it can also produce very large documents depending on the way images are incorporated in to the document. Larger files are undesirable as they cannot be emailed easily, take a long time to open and in some cases cannot be opened at all, and are time-consuming to edit. The following guidelines should ensure that the size of the Word document is kept to a minimum Insert images rather than pasting them Bitmap images are the least efficient of the image file formats to insert into a Word document. Bitmap images are very large in file size and are low in detail. If an image is copied from a location on the PC and pasted into a Word document, then its pasted as a Bitmap even though the original image that was copied was in a different file format. The result of this is that the size of the Word document may be larger than should be. The following image file formats are recommended for insertion into Word documents:

GIF (.gif) PNG (.png) JPEG (.jpg)
Images should be saved to a location on the PC in one of the three formats above, and then inserted into the Word document rather than being pasted. This will keep the original format of the image file the same and will help to reduce the overall size of the document
How to insert an image into a Word document 1. Click on Insert Picture From File 2. Find the image (.jpg, .gif or .png format) and double-click on it. 3. This will insert the image into your document.
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Compressing images If an image has been cropped after being inserted into Word, then the cropped portion still remains in the image although its not visible. In some cases this may increase the file size unnecessarily. Also, the resolution of the image might be higher than necessary i.e. the Screen resolution uses less file space than Print resolution does. If the document if primarily going to be viewed and not printed, then all images can be compressed to Screen resolution. Word has a feature that allows images to be compressed in order to reduce unwanted image data as mentioned above.
How to compress images in Word 1. Right-click on the image and select Format Picture 2. Click on the Compress button at the bottom of the Format Picture dialogue box
3. Make the necessary selections in the dialogue box and click OK. The Web/Screen resolution will give the smallest image file size. This resolution is suitable for on-screen viewing of a document. The Print resolution is suitable for printing a document. (Please note that selecting the Delete cropped areas of pictures will result in the cropped areas being deleted.)
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Saving a word document containing images When you save a Word document containing an EMF, PNG, GIF, or JPEG graphic as a different file format (for example, Word 6.0/95 (*.doc) or Rich Text Format (*.rtf)), the file size of the document may dramatically increase. For example, a Word document containing a JPEG graphic saved as a Word document (*.doc) may have a file size of 113KB. However, when you save this file as Rich Text Format (*.rtf), the file size will grow to 1.69MB. Therefore, its best to save the file as a Word Document (.doc) document if possible.
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EXAMINERS ADVICE TO CANDIDATES Our examiners provide feedback on assignments to centres, and the following points drawn from this feedback are worth noting, before, during and when finalising your assignments! General
Make sure that you have completed the information on your assignment cover sheet fully and correctly. For example, your Unique Candidate Identifier is essential in order that CIE can accept your entry, and keep track of your progress in the Diploma. Including your candidate name and submission date is not only important it is courteous. Present your own views, ideas, observations and reflections your assignment is based on your practice and development. The examiners do not wish to read a general or theoretical essay. If you think some additional evidence is particularly relevant and will help the examiner to understand more accurately your context and experience, then you need to make clear to the examiner WHY you have added this evidence. Unless you refer to them in the body of your assignment, the examiner will not read them. They need to be clearly labelled and annotated. Please note that additional evidence should be sparingly used. It is not a requirement. Nor is it an invitation to list all the resources which you may or may not have used on the Diploma course. In fact, good practice is that such a bibliography needs to link to actual references within the assignment itself. That is, if the candidate is going to mention an author on a particular point of teaching and learning, this should be backed up by a reference in the additional evidence AND the point made should have practical application in the candidates experience, with some degree of critical engagement/reflection on whether it proved useful/meaningful. You must be careful about making best use of words within the word limits. If you significantly fall short of the word limit, you are likely to have problems communicating enough range, depth and quality of evidence. If you significantly exceed the word limit, you are probably not going to be adding to the value of the evidence you have already provided, and the examiner is not necessarily going to read the extra information. If you are not sure about the meaning of specific terms in the syllabus e.g. milestones, evaluation and improvement, make sure you clarify these with your programme leader, trainers, tutor or mentor. Some words may appear to be similar in everyday life but in the educational context are very specific in their meaning. Examiners do NOT mark the quality of your written language. You need to be fluent enough to express your ideas in ways which can be understood. If necessary, you can ask a colleague or your trainer/mentor to check a particular sentence or phrase to make sure that the meaning is clear enough. Make sure you proof read the assignment before submission e.g. checking for any formatting problems.
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For Distinction, CIE is looking for: 1. clear and concise evidence that the candidate is constantly in reflective mode and is discussing his/her own practice and its implications 2. candidates to respond to the three prompts for each Module as set 3. innovation; new approaches, new thinking, changes to the ways in which things have been done previously 4. evidence of a keenness to continue the reflective cycle beyond this Course - to feed enthusiasm into the next programme plan/design or teaching scheme, and to continue developing professionally so that the learners will clearly benefit 5. consistent probing of ones own teaching and the way in which ones learners were learning, applying a wide variety of methods and ideas to enrich the experience of the learners in ones care.
Simply use the templates there is no need to reformat them. In fact, sometimes reformatting can cause serious communication problems. For example centre justification of text may mean that at least 30% of your evidence is lost and not seen. Do check that all is well with formatting before you submit your assignment. The same can be said for spelling. Of course we accept variations in use of language, and local idioms. But remember that in doing a professional job, a professional approach is reflected in communications with few, if any, spelling problems. Perhaps teachers, above all, need to be careful? Adopt a wide interpretation of special needs, i.e. wider than physical disabilities. Think about how to differentiate within learning sessions, rather than using additional work after the sessions for slower learners. Sharing ideas with and learning from colleagues should be a feature in all four modules. You should try to refer to things you have learned about, read and applied from your Diploma programme. Make sure you reflect on the difference that the Diploma has made to the quality of your teaching and understanding. Demonstrate how you have engaged with your course materials and adapted or developed your own professional practice as a result. Wherever possible give specific examples from your own practice and observations to illustrate your responses and support the issues you raise. When you discuss teaching strategies, apply these to your particular context and teaching with your learners rather than recycling text book suggestions. Remember that many candidates are working within constraints of large class size or limited resources or both. CIE is interested in how you work within your context. For example how have you managed to adapt, modify and be positive about the resources that you do have and can get? The context page is important it helps the examiner to evaluate your professional development and practice The sample assignments provided by CIE, these are meant as guidance on content, quality and length NOT as a model which you should copy.
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To make the most of the professional development opportunity provided by the Diploma, it is best for you to have a reasonably-sized group of learners. Working with a very small group restricts the range of approaches you can use and can affect the quality of analysis and observations. Sometimes we receive assignments which are missing an important piece of evidence. For example no performance observation report, or no learner feedback, or no session plan for lesson 2. Incomplete assignments are failed, and the candidate has to resubmit. Do save yourself from such a difficulty by checking that your assignment is complete, and conforms to the CIE requirements. Make sure you arrange for a suitable performance observer to observe your learning sessions you cant just appraise yourself. Try to use only part of the learners names do not make it possible for anyone to identify who the individual learners are. Dont be afraid of recognising and reflecting on points of improvement, responding to the reactions and needs of your learners. Speak out about your own feelings and pressures and (instructively) how you have come to terms with them in tackling the assignments. Keep a diary (journal) as required and use the information to support your comments and reflections. For example quote from your diary and from other background reading to demonstrate the change in your thinking and understanding. This will help the examiner to get a real sense of your progress in practice, and the impact of this on the quality of your learners learning and the impact on your institution. When you are quoting from a book, you should list the book at the end of your assignment. You should record details of author, title, publisher and date. Each step in each assignment has clear word lengths and also guideline questions which are required to be answered within this word length. There IS scope for originality in content and even in presentation - as long as the examiner is able to access the information required in each answer. It is better to submit assignments one by one, so that Cambridge can provide feedback, and you have time to take this into account when planning and carrying out your next assignment. This also helps you, if for any reason, there may be a point of improvement. For example if the 2 lessons planned in Module 1 were not sufficiently contrasting, then this would be noted before the lessons would be delivered and observed in detail. You need to plan with your centres how to approach the timing of assignment preparation and submission in relation to your working context. Many candidates need support to help them understand the concept and purpose of differentiation. Many have a limited view of how to differentiate within their lessons. So do make sure that you have worked on this, discussed with your colleagues and trainer(s), studied relevant readings etc. Think carefully about what is meant by differentiation and what you mean when you use the term.
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Part A
In Part A, please ensure that you provide an answer which responds to the particular prompt/question. Your responses should be focused on actual teaching and learning events, on what you plan to happen (Module 1), or (Modules 2, 3 and 4) on what has taken place. Given the point just made, it is better for you to write your responses in the past tense, not the present. Using the present tense for events which have already taken place is confusing for the Examiner. Your Part A evidence should so how you have engaged with learners learning as well as your teaching e.g. their learning needs and the learning environment. For example have you thought about how you are motivating your learners, placing them at the centre of the learning experience. While several parts of Modules 1 and 2 ask repeated questions, we do not expect that your answers should be the same. After all, you are describing two contrasting sessions. Using bullet points in your responses in Part A helps to make your preparation of evidence more straightforward and concise and it makes it easier for the examiner to understand. It is fine for you to answer the prompts/questions directly there is no need to introduce and/or qualify each response in great depth. On the other hand the word limits are guidelines for the amount of evidence (of thinking and doing) which we require. So if you provide only a few words in response to a step which asks for a few hundred words, you are clearly going to be falling short of what is required.
Part B
Your Reflective Report should not be a demonstration of how you have understood your Diploma programme notes. It should demonstrate your ability to reflect upon ways in which you have applied your new knowledge in your own teaching context. Unlike in Part A, we would prefer you do not use bullet point form too much. Some bullets are fine, of course, for emphasis. But you need to write most of your Part B in continuous prose, using paragraphs. This is the format which we find best conveys observations, ideas, and reflective practice. In Part B a general (if complex) foray into educational theory is unnecessary and not required. It is reflection on practice (the key points, the turning points, etc.) which is required. However, putting a small amount of theory into practice and reflecting on how this went is of course acceptable. Also, Part B should not be a general foray into the world of the teaching profession (e.g. extended definitions of good teachers/teaching). You need to avoid being anecdotal or summarising good and/or bad practice. Instead keep the specific focus required by the themes in Part B (these differ for each Module) and to respond and reflect on your own experiences, highlighting very specific examples. Analyse what has happened, will happen, and/or could happen in your teaching and learning context. Dont just describe events.
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By focusing on the three themes given and keeping a sustained focus, well-balanced across the three themes, you will be able to: 1. reflect on what has actually happened in the learning environment 2. present ideas about how you might modify future teaching and learning 3. consider your learners and their learning more closely.
Part B is not about going through the motions. In the Report you can recognise the value of reflection for your own professional development. Nor is Part B a chance to air their views and frustrations about education in general, because you will lose your focus on the three given themes for discussion and reflection. Structure your reflections around the themes - there is no need to include other headings/topic areas. Dont repeat the information you have already given in Part A. Ideally the whole of Part B should be reflective (not descriptive). It is an opportunity for you to convey your thoughts, ideas and observations, promoting your ideas and views, and about how your (and your learners) experiences and how teaching and learning might be improved in the future, hopefully through some innovation. In the Reflective Report it is often useful to begin with a point, explain it (unpack it) and then use illustrations from relevant personal professional practice to reinforce the idea. We are interested mainly in reflection on practice in Part B, and this can be considered from the outset there is no need for a formal introduction. Responding directly to the three prompts is the most effective way to write the Reports. We encourage you to use the first person (I) as this will help you in Part B to express your own reflections about the practice you have already described in Part A, and to consider how your teaching your learners learning might change as a result of your reflections and plans for the future. It is a good idea to remember the Grading Themes for the Diploma remember these are about Understanding Learning as well as Understanding Teaching.
Module 1 : Design
Your programme plan should be around 15 to 20 hours of teaching learning, achieved through an appropriate number of sessions. These sessions should take place over a sufficient period of time, for learners to be able to practice what they are learning, and for you to be able to reflect on practice and this reflection to make a difference to your practice. The number of aims and objectives for a session needs to be sensible and manageable and the learning requirements should relate to the session plan produced. It is preferable to limit the role(s) of the teacher/trainer. He or she can only do so much in a single session; many learners will actually be de-motivated by a session which sets out to cover too much. There are some contexts e.g. intensive short course training in which the programme is contained within a short period, even a single day. We expect candidates then to ensure that within the programme featured in detail Modules 1 and 2, the two contrasting sessions are planned in detail. 36
In Part B of this assignment you are not simply recording classroom activity you should be evaluating the design and planning process in terms of the three areas identified in the Syllabus. Too often candidates describe learning difficulties of individual learners without relating these to the aspect of the planning that had been designed to overcome the problem. This approach leaves parts of the Reflective Report divorced from the planning. In planning the two sessions you need to explore a different teaching (and particularly learning) approach in the each. It is might be better to avoid two consecutive sessions. The danger is that the two sessions can be rather similar and the difference only being in the content. The two sessions need to contrast in more than just content. You need to experiment in these sessions, perhaps by trying new approaches, perhaps by placing your learners in a different/unusual environment, but essentially by including a lesson in which active learning is at the forefront. So, for example, the first session might be instructional, the second will be practical; the first might be theoretical, the second application, the first teacher-led, the second learner-centred. If the first lesson is led by the teacher, the second ought to be learner-centred, for example. If you can be sure of such contrasts, then consecutive sessions work fine. For example you can use your second session by setting up a learner-led activity to explore the objectives of your first session. Be realistic! In planning one can be tempted to be extremely meticulous so that in every lesson every minute is earmarked. It is better to be sufficiently flexible, able to reorganise/adapt planned moments and activities as the need arises. So it is not necessary for each session to be all-encompassing. In fact there are occasions where less content is better you should not try to squeeze too much into your two sessions otherwise, time-management usually becomes the main issue. Be careful not to confuse evaluation with assessment. Specifically in Step I, where the focus is on how the Plan and the two sessions will go as a whole, and how you will use a range of evaluative methods. This is not a Step in which the assessment of learners learning should be considered. However, it is an area in which you might comment upon the evaluation of learners whole experience in the learning environment. You should be careful not to focus in Module 1 on the outcomes of the sessions and Programme Plan. Module 1 is concerned with the design - the planning and preparation. Assignment 1 should therefore focus on reflection on the design and not the teaching of the Plan. Remember that a programme plan/scheme of work is not just a list of linked sessions. It is an opportunity to plan creatively, to experiment (a little) and to incorporate several forms of evaluation. Realising this, adds more value to your Plan, and probably increases the effectiveness of the teaching and learning.
Module 2 : Practice
Try not to cram too much content into your sessions. This will often result in learner discomfort. It is better to focus on fewer objectives and include fewer learning activities. Candidates often note that they have had insufficient time to teach the lessons that they had planned. As a result, compromise was often needed. So reduce the content of each of the two focus lessons focus on fewer aims and/or objectives. Your points in Part A should reflect the quality of teaching and learning not just improved organization and management skills. 37
Pay attention to the concept of learning and how you know whether or not learning had taken place during your learning sessions. Show you have taken note of your observers comments and made appropriate improvements.
Module 3 : Assessment
The Part A Steps in Modules 3 and 4 are fewer and with more words available so that you can look at your practice in more depth and breadth and debate some of the issues raised, not simply narrate events. Grasp the nature of formative assessment, which is often informal. It is an area in which you can innovate going beyond normal testing mechanisms. In their methods, including recording and reporting, formative assessments do not have to replicate summative assessments. So you might like to consider the suggestion that formative assessment is ongoing i.e. it need not be approached in terms of frequency but rather as a response to learners needs. We would probably advise against setting a regular schedule for formative assessment. Please note also that we would prefer to receive assignments (including evidence) as a single file. Module 3 does not require extensive examples of assessment; certainly not to the extent that additional files are required. Restricting submitted work to a single file will help you to focus on presenting a precise and concise record of work undertaken for the Module. There should be THREE samples of actual assessed work from your learners. Look at assessment as an integral part of the teaching and learning cycle rather than as a task undertaken in isolation. In Part B then concentrate on assessment for and of learning rather than the administration of assessment.
Module 4 : Evaluation
The Part A Steps in Modules 3 and 4 are fewer and with more words available so that you can look at your practice in more depth and breadth and debate some of the issues raised, not simply narrate events. Try not to set yourself difficult or impractical targets such as learning another language or making major changes to the length of the programme - areas which it would be impossible to control. Remember to include an example of your evaluation data, for example a typical response to a questionnaire, in the Additional Evidence section. If your professional development plan is to be successful, the success criteria must clearly identify what is to be to be achieved and not just reflect the undertaking of an activity. You need to also to have clear and achievable time targets.
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Remember that the goals you set yourself should relate not only to your own teaching skills look more closely at the needs of your learners. So make your targets for improvement realistic and manageable - and focussed on the learner. Ideas for learning new languages, developing public speaking skills and IT courses are all admirable, but for the purpose of this assignment, practical development based in the learning environment will provide improvement and positive feedback from the learners in a short time frame. Reflecting on how one can improve oneself is a positive behaviour self-criticism is not inherently negative. If your colleagues have suggested way(s) in which you can improve your practice, this is not a defect. The question is how can you make best use of their advice and feedback?
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Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 1 : DESIGN
Module 1
DESIGN
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1.1.1 IDENTIFYING LEARNERS' NEEDS

LEARNER AND TEACHER Let's start with this photograph.
It shows a learner in discussion with a teacher during a practical science session. (From now on were going to use the term 'teacher' as shorthand for 'teacher', 'trainer', 'lecturer', tutor etc). The interaction between learner and teacher is at the heart of the Diploma. In the past, education and training typically involved delivering standard programmes to groups of learners. Learners learnt what teachers taught. It was like a one-way street. Enormous changes in technology and society are leading to a very different educational landscape. The whole purpose of education, the techniques of teaching and learning and the needs and expectations of the learners themselves have changed. The one-way street has become two-way traffic! Learners may be of any age, and learning can take place in all sorts of places and all sorts of ways, e.g. face-to-face, at a distance, and on-line. Learning is lifelong and unique to each individual. In all sorts of ways, teachers facilitate successful learning for every learner. They have to have a wide range of professional, technical, personal and inter-personal skills, and to apply these resourcefully, thoughtfully and effectively. The teaching role is very complex and challenging - but also very exciting and rewarding. So the teacher as in the photograph above is now much more a guide on the side rather than the sage on the stage. In this new educational landscape we begin by looking at the needs of the learners.
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KEY QUESTIONS We can think of learners' needs in terms of key questions: 1. How would they like to learn? 2. Which methods in their previous learning experience have they liked best? 3. Are learners' levels of physical, social and/or emotional development likely to affect their learning? 4. What learning progress have they already made? 5. What have they already achieved? 6. Which skills are they confident in? 7. What is their current level of knowledge and understanding? 8. Which skills and/or knowledge might need to be revisited and/or upgraded? 9. Do they have specialist needs in terms of health, disability, diet, language? 10. (For older learners) what are their aims for education, long term career aspirations and life goals? The teacher in the photograph could be asking the learner one of our ten questions. We could easily add to this list of questions. If you read it through again, you can see that if we ask all these questions and more, we are asking learners to provide a lot of information. You need to decide what questions to ask your learners, and how and when to ask them.
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TAKE THREE TEACHERS Here are: Phil Maria Anna This is Phil. He works as a trainer for an international finance corporation. His team of trainers deliver specialist courses for new recruits into the company. Each course involves 12 adult trainees in 5 days of study per week for 3 weeks. The recruits are all pleased to be starting a new job. What might be the best way for Phil to learn about their needs in detail?
This is Maria. She works as a teacher in the Mathematics department of a college. The department runs four different types of mathematics course for different types of skill level and content. Each summer 200 or more students will enrol at the college hoping to study mathematics. How can Maria ensure that the students select the course which best suits their needs before the first semester begins? This is Anna. She has a class of 7 year old pupils. Many of the children have English as a second language. The medium of instruction is English. Some of the children are academically very able, but others are only just beginning to read. How can Anna plan a programme which will meet all these individual needs? What are some of the issues she needs to think about?
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WAYS TO FIND OUT Teachers can find out about learners needs in various ways. You can select one or more of these techniques. observation of learners in first week of programme diagnostic testing talk to parents interview with learner review of previous school reports teacher/learner discussion review of previous achievements postal or email questionnaire 'live' questionnaire informal chat to learners at induction event role play exercise examination of CV and reference material scrutiny of previous work discussion with learner's previous teachers
ASKING YOUR LEARNERS Asking your learners about their needs is a vital step in ensuring the success of your learning programme and your learning sessions. AND this is probably going to be your first interaction with these particular learners! So how do you get to the situation in our photograph at the start of this section? What methods can you use to identify the needs of your learners? To make an accurate decision about learning needs, you need active participation from the learner concerned. The more an individual in involved in identifying his or her learning needs, the easier it is for the teacher to make a judgement about the best learning solution to meet that need. Effective interviewing and questioning techniques are therefore vital, as is the need to create a comfortable environment in which individuals will want to participate fully. The interview is a negotiation between two parties: the teacher, with a variety of learning opportunities to offer, and the individual with a range of existing skills and needs. You should therefore take a few minutes to create empathy with the individual through the following effective interviewing techniques: preparing the interview location and any paperwork needed. Some paperwork applications for example - can be completed before the interview checking that the layout does not create any physical barriers (e.g. avoid having a desk between teacher and learner) and that there will be no interruptions (e.g. from people or telephones) being open and friendly and taking time to put individuals at ease addressing individuals by name and giving them full attention explaining to individuals the purpose of the interview and what will be covered
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arousing their interest and making sure they play an active part in the interview by creating an environment in which they feel comfortable to ask any questions, or check they have understood something correctly making sure the interview is a sharing of information where individuals supply information and the teacher gives and receives all the information needed to make an accurate decision about what is best to suit the circumstances listening closely and avoiding excessive note-taking while individuals are speaking using open questions to elicit as much information as possible giving feedback to individuals on judgements made about the best learning programme to follow in the circumstances and allowing time for questions
Where teachers are only actively involved after initial recruitment, for example where learners have already enrolled for a programme, it is important to realise that within the needs of any group, individuals will have their own needs, aspirations and abilities. So the above techniques can also be used to make sure individuals have been correctly advised and will be motivated to take responsibility for their own learning within the group. Generally, the more information the teacher has about individual group members, the better s/he will be able to help each individual to progress and achieve.
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Practice
1. Imagine you are Phil. His course is very intensive and will quickly become quite technical. Think about (and jot down) a series of actions which will enable Phil to gain a detailed profile of his trainees' needs and current learning preferences. 2. Maria's situation is quite different to Phil's. She is faced with a mass of newlyenrolled students. A questionnaire of some kind might be a good idea. Draft a set of questions for her 16 year olds. Remember Maria has to review and process each one of these questionnaire responses! Once you have done that, take a little time for reflection. 3. Supposing you were Maria, how might you tackle the practicalities of distributing, administering, and collecting these 200 questionnaires? There are many possible ways but, given the circumstances and the purpose, what might be the best way? 4. In Anna's case, many of her young pupils will be unable to answer her questions. Make a list of ways in which Anna can gather information to help her plan an appropriate programme. 5. Now that you are actively involved in the Cambridge Diploma you have the perfect reason for a bit of fieldwork. How do teachers and trainers in your area go about identifying the needs of learners? If you are a teacher, now is the time for calling your teacher friend to see what happens in his or her school. If you are a college tutor, ask company trainers about their approach, and if you are a company trainer ask to view the enrolment and induction process at a large college. You can learn a lot from observing others and sharing practice. Of course, you can also learn a lot by stepping outside your own context. So, for example, if you are a school teacher, take the opportunity to find out how a college tutor or company trainer approach getting to know the needs of their learners.
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1.1.2 SPECIFYING THE LEARNING OBJECTIVES
AIMS We can think of these as broad statements about the educational purposes of a learning programme. Aims: give a 'flavour' of the course or programme are often long-term are usually general (and non-specific about methods).
Let's look at some aims as they are set out in a typical educational syllabus. These aims come from the syllabus for the University of Cambridge International Examinations International Diploma in Management at Professional Level.
Extract from syllabus: The aim of the qualification is to acquire knowledge and develop management skills to a level which reflects a candidates current or future role in management. The Diploma enables candidates to: Acquire an understanding of a range of management concepts Apply learning through work-based and case study activity Implement a personal study and development plan Demonstrate learning acquisition through written assignments.
If you are following a set curriculum, an examination syllabus or certification programme then your aims should at least use their published aims as a basis or framework. If you're starting from scratch or feel you need to select or branch out from published aims then the following examples might give you an idea of content and style.
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To develop road sense, driving skills and a mature and safe attitude to driving To impart the basic understanding of accounting for book-keepers in the public and private sector A beginner's guide to using the web. To gain an understanding of 2D and 3D shapes
OBJECTIVES Objectives bring educational purposes into much sharper focus They should be SMART i.e.: SPECIFIC MEASURABLE ACHIEVABLE REALISTIC TIME-SCALED Objectives are often geared to assessment. Here are some assessment objectives from the same Management syllabus
Extract from Management syllabus: Managing Finance Core Module Assessment Objectives 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 Construct a balance sheet for a project or department Interpret and construct a profit and loss statement for a project or department Differentiate between fixed and variable costs Construct a budget for a project or department Describe the role of finance in the general management of a project or department.
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SUMMARY For AIMS think of long-term broad statements - think of these as your 'strategy'. But remember - if you can't define the aim clearly and precisely, you can't effectively plan to reach that aim. For OBJECTIVES think in more specific terms - think of these as 'tactics' or 'outcomes'. When you phrase objectives try to use active words - such as 'show', 'demonstrate' and 'recall' - which state exactly what needs to happen and what you can see happening. Then you'll be able to assess (measure) what has been achieved. VISION A final thought: Successful programme design should begin with the end product! That is - try to envision what the outcomes of a successful learning programme might look like. For example: what learning activities will the learners have enjoyed? what assessment have they succeeded in? which new skills will they developed? what records of all this have they taken away?
Imagine the sequence of learning sessions which might lead up to this. Your ideas will be partly based on your previous teaching of the subject or age group. The legendary film director Alfred Hitchcock used just this technique for movies like 'Psycho' and 'Vertigo'. He knew exactly what kind of outcomes he wanted for his audience (shock, intrigue, even terror) and how he would achieve this scene by scene. He'd already imagined the movie and its impact. Actually directing the actors around on set was a secondary task!
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Practice
Think about your own learning programme. It may be part of a national or international curriculum. It could be a series of programmes related to a syllabus published and developed by an awarding body such as CIE. Maybe you've been asked to design and develop a learning programme from the beginning. For your programme think about the following questions. A few notes will help you. Are you clear about the purpose(s) of the learning programme? Can you identify the skills involved? What kind of knowledge and understanding needs to be developed? How can the activities you have in mind meet the needs of the learners who will undertake it? Will you need to gather specific resources to support learners in their learning?
In programme planning we need to concentrate on aims rather than objectives. We will concentrate on objectives in designing learning sessions. So now you need to focus more sharply on the aims of the programme you are about to develop. Write out in simple form the aims of your learning programme.
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1.1.3 PLANNING CONTENT, METHODS AND RESOURCES

WHAT DO YOU PUT IN YOUR PROGRAMME PLAN? To plan learning programmes successfully, you need to consider and include various inputs as set out in this diagram:
1. Teaching methods 10.
2. Modes of learning
9. Organisational considerations
3. Available resources
LEARNING PROGRAMME
PLAN
8. Needs of the learners
4. Methods of assessment
7. Additional learner support
5. Evaluation opportunities
6. Equal opportunities and access
Lets consider each of these inputs in turn: 1. TEACHING-LEARNING METHODS There's a wide range of possibilities including: lectures presentations instruction demonstrations simulation use of ICT projects and assignments role play one-to-one coaching self-directed study team/group work case studies experiments.
You need to be familiar with what each of these involves and consider the advantages and disadvantages of each method.
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2. MODES OF LEARNING Learning programmes may be one, or a blend of, modes including: full-time face-to-face part-time face-to-face distance online 'sandwich' in-house.
3. AVAILABLE RESOURCES There is a very wide range of resources which might be available in theory - but what resources are available to YOU in practice? You need to consider space, furniture, audio-visual aids such as overhead projectors and flipcharts, and information and communications technology (ICT) facilities. If you think carefully about their availability, appropriateness and effectiveness at this stage, it will really pay dividends later. Video material, for example, can be most effective if you use short, well-directed excerpts rather than a whole 60 minute tape. However limited resources may seem to be, it's your approach to using the resources which will make the difference. 4. METHODS OF ASSESSMENT Again a wide range of methods is available, including: written and oral tests diagnostic tests observation of performance projects and assignments practical skills tests formal written examinations.
Each method has its particular demands in terms of time, materials and resources, and should match the teaching and learning method being used. So whichever method(s) you decide to use, you'll need to allocate appropriate time, materials and resources in your programme. In planning for assessment of progress and achievement it will help you to ask the following questions at this stage: How will I know if learners have gained the knowledge, understanding and skills required to go on to the next stage? (this needs initial consideration of formative and summative assessment methods)
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How will I provide for those who, for whatever reason, need more support than the rest of the group? (consideration must be given to what learner support will be necessary for a variety of special needs, e.g. dyslexia, physical disabilities, those who are excelling and need support to continue to achieve)
Does the structure of the programme (and the centre) allow me to involve external agencies for support? (e.g.: employers, careers advisors, counsellors)
What recording mechanisms can I use to monitor individual progress?
5. EVALUATION OPPORTUNITIES The Diploma encourages teachers to be reflective practitioners. Reflection about your own performance and practice involves evaluation and time, and you need to build opportunities for such evaluation into your plan. Evaluation is going to be ongoing aspect of your programme from Day 1, so it is much better for you to plan evaluation at this stage, so that your evaluation is continuous and systematic - it should not be something you only do finally as a bolt-on extra activity or an afterthought! You are not only looking ahead to the thorough programme evaluation at the end of the programme, but also will find that regular on-going evaluation during the course will help you in making adjustments and improvements to teaching and learning as you go along. NOTE Assignment 4 in the Diploma is based on evaluation as a continuous activity during design, practice and assessment. The assignment can't be an exercise based on hindsight alone. 6. EQUAL OPPORTUNITIES AND ACCESS Activities and assessment should be equally available to all your learners. You need to plan to get proper and thorough information on potential difficulties at this early stage. For example if a learner has dyslexia you can prepare separate worksheets, or additional resources to support him or her. 7. ADDITIONAL LEARNER SUPPORT Individual learners have different learning needs, work at varying pace and can experience various difficulties of understanding or motivation. You can include time and space for additional support, learning opportunities, coaching, mentoring or just simple reassurance. But to what extent can additional support be budgeted for within your learning programme itself? If you can't give it very much time, when will it be carried out?
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8. NEEDS OF THE LEARNERS Induction events, conferencing, previous records of achievement and other sources of information may indicate strengths and weaknesses in learning. Some skills and understanding may require reinforcement and further practice. You'll need to give some attention to progression. This is the rate at which learners make progress through the activities. It can affect the order in which activities are presented, or the ways in which the sessions are planned. 9. ORGANISATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS Most learning programmes take place within institutions of some kind e.g. companies, colleges, schools, kindergartens. Each institution has its own life - culture, calendar of events and timetables. You need to make sure that your plan is appropriate e.g. allow for and when appropriate make educational use of such events. With younger learners you might also need to consider the length of sessions, the number of sessions for a given topic, access to resources. 10. 'BLANK BOX' When you look(ed) at the diagram, you'll have noticed that we've included a box (number 10) with nothing in it. There's an important reason behind this. Life doesn't always go according to plan. For example some learners may complete an activity quickly, topics may take longer to cover than you anticipated, a session may not take place, the learners may not be available, a flood may have swept the room away! How far have you designed your programme to be flexible enough to cope with the unexpected? For example learners who complete the activity quickly could follow up a previous activity with some additional independent research.
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HOW DO YOU PLAN YOUR PROGRAMME? Now we've touched upon the inputs involved in designing the learning programme we can move on to the design process itself. The table below gives you a format for the design of a learning programme. There are questions you should ask and information you should gather. Follow the stages to draft a learning programme design for your particular learning programme.
Stage 1: Overview Draw a line on a piece of paper, indicating estimated start and completion points of the programme. The line must include the whole programme. On this line, plot in the titles of the modules (main sets of topics) to be covered in logical order until the whole programme has been outlined in the most sensible order. Stage 2: Time frame How much time have you allocated to the programme? For example, is it a series of 2-hour sessions lasting 10 weeks (i.e. 20 hours in total)? Or is it a two week topic for 10 year olds, in which case it might be 12 hours a week for 2 weeks (24 hours in total)? What is the mode of delivery (eg full-time, part-time, short programme)? For each section of the programme begin to allocate timeframes and numbers of sessions. Remember to allocate time for skills practice, assessment and feedback. Stage 3: Objectives and content For each session, define the content. Keep the definition broad - it doesn't have to be detailed in a programme plan like this. Make sure that each session follows logically from the previous ones. Stage 4: Teaching strategies, modes of learning and assessment How will each session best be delivered and assessed? Stage 5: Materials and resources (including use of other people) Working with the detail in stage 4; what resources and materials will be needed? Again you don't need lots of words and detail is not needed here - you'll include detail in your session plans.
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A good way to start designing a programme plan is to use a timeline. Timelines are used in a variety of contexts, e.g. science, history, project planning. Look at these examples, of a history timeline and a programme timeline.
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The programme timeline can begin at the start of a term or course, when the learners arrive for the first session, and end with the final session. To start, you need to plot on the timeline

sessions available topics/skills to be covered institutional events and public holidays any other significant events which might affect attendance at sessions e.g. visits, fieldwork and departmental meetings.
This gives you a framework within which you can start planning. How can your sessions best be organized to cover the topics/skills?
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Practice
Now you've completed the draft design, the chances are that it could be just a series of notes and symbols. We need to use these notes to produce a completed learning programme plan. (Teachers often refer to such a plan as a 'scheme of work' and professional trainers use the term 'course map'.) Here are the headings which you could use for constructing the plan. You'll need to expand the plan horizontally to include text (especially for the 'Planned content' section) and vertically to include study opportunities outside formal class tuition, such as selfstudy, tutorial/mentoring time, homework etc
Learning session Learning objectives Planned content Teaching method Assessm't method Resources needed Method of evaluation
POINTS TO WATCH 1. Notice that in the framework above we have included a final column for 'Method of Evaluation'. Not only is on-going evaluation good professional practice but consideration and review of accumulated evaluation experiences is an essential process in Module 4 of the Diploma. Don't worry if this plan extends to several sides of paper - plans can be quite extensive documents. You can keep it in note or point form but make sure that someone other than you is able to understand and follow your intentions. Try to see the plan as an unfolding set of teaching-learning experiences. Try also to see these experiences from your learners' point of view. They are taking part in the programme. Remember plans are often amended in the light of experience. Learners might have already covered some of the work and could move more quickly through the programme. Alternatively they may not have acquired skills necessary to do the work you have planned Should your learners get a copy of the plan? Probably not - this is a professional working document for you the teacher. BUT an outline 'map' through the sequence of sessions, showing dates, times and headline content would be very useful for your learners, colleagues etc.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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1.1.4 Completing the programme plan
REVIEWING YOUR PLAN Nows the time to take the programme plan you've just constructed and review it. Ask yourself a few key questions such as: supposing for some reason you were unable to teach the learning programme yourself, do you think someone else would be able to take up the plan, understand it and put it into action without any consultation with you? if your department or team were to be inspected or checked would the people reviewing your work be able to see the logical sequence in the planned programme? does your plan include a realistic and manageable - scheme of assessment? - method of evaluation?
If you can say yes to these questions then you've probably come up with a robust and useful document. It can act as a working framework for putting your learning programme into practice. Reviewing your plan like this will give you confidence. It's all part of thoughtful and valuable professional practice. PLANNING FOR EVALUATION Experience has shown that teachers who systematically and continuously evaluate the learning they provide, and then review strengths and areas for development, are the ones who consistently provide excellent learning opportunities for their learners.
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As Pollard and Tann say "teaching is a complex and hugely skilled activity which, above all, requires classroom teachers to exercise judgement in deciding how to act. We see reflective teaching as a process through which the capacity to make such professional judgements can be developed and maintained" We are going to cover the process of evaluation in detail in Module 4. However the effective teacher will already be making plans for continuous evaluation at the programme design stage. PROCESS OF EVALUATION Evaluation is a process which involves teachers and learners. Teachers carry out evaluation to: make sure learners and other stakeholders are satisfied with all aspects of their programme identify problems so that they can be resolved promptly evaluate their own professional practice on a continuous basis identify potential or actual improvements that need to be made.
You can use a variety of methods for continuous evaluation, including questionnaires completed by learners after selected sessions more in-depth questionnaires designed to collect a variety of information about the learning programme oral feedback from learners during or after sessions or in regular tutorial sessions, either group or individual feedback from employers, parents or others involved in the programme.
Evaluation can be time-consuming. You should avoid letting assessment and evaluation dictate or dominate the programme. Use the right method of evaluation at the right time in the right context. Evaluation is a valuable tool if you use it appropriately. It will help you in planning future programmes. KEY QUESTIONS Think about: why do I need to evaluate the programme? how and when should I carry out the evaluation?
Its tempting to rush into selecting a method or methods of obtaining feedback for evaluation purposes. But you should try to resist this temptation because you may address some issues better through different feedback procedures. Youll find it helpful to think in terms of issues.
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Ask yourself what are the relevant issues to do with your learning programme (and also the learning sessions). There is a big pool of these to think about as in the following diagram:
methods of assessment modes of learning pace and timing of activities effectiveness of teaching materials
development of learners' skills
individual learner
t
learning environment use of resources opportunities for learner participation
learner motivation
effectiveness of teaching methods
KEEPING YOUR OWN RECORD
You'll really find it helpful to keep your own personal development diary. (This can be called a 'journal' 'log' 'logbook' 'daybook' etc). You can record in your diary the critical events, your own ideas and reflections, the good ideas and advice of your colleaguesi.e. whatever is important to you in your professional life. Try to jot down notes etc in this whenever you can but as soon as possible - while the event, idea or whatever is still fresh in your mind. Then you can refer back to this at a later stage. Develop a diary that works for you - that you find manageable and useful - keep the diary in whatever style and format suits you - but keep it going and up to date.
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Practice
Fishing in the pool of issues you can catch a particular issue and use questions to examine the specific points of interest within it. For example, most programmes involve the development of learners' skills. Key questions here could be: Are the skills being fully introduced and explained? Which skills seem to be easy to pick up and which seem difficult? Is enough time in class being allocated to practise skills? Are learners gaining confidence from skill tuition or is further reinforcement needed?
You can now select a few more issues from the pool. Fish them out one-by-one and frame questions about them as we've just tried to do for 'skills'. Once you've opened up two or three issues you can consider which might be the most effective way of gaining feedback on each issue. Remember: there are a number of methods available who is proving feedback - learners or others?
If you're opting for a questionnaire method or an interview or a combination of these, the questions you've developed for each issue can be refined into actual questions in the feedback/evaluation exercise. Some teachers approach such feedback exercises with trepidation. There's no need to see it like that! It's a good idea to let learners know a little about the technical side of teaching and learning. This is a form of involvement which many learners respect and enjoy. It can often build confidence and relax the teaching-learning 'atmosphere'. How much time and effort you devote to this is up to you. What do you think is the difference between evaluation, assessment and reflection? Produce your own definitions - and then compare these with the definitions in the Glossary.
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1.2.1 Specifying the requirements for each learning session
POSSIBILITIES FOR SESSION PLAN DESIGN - BRAINSTORMING Here we are looking at possibilities for trying something new in teaching and learning techniques within our existing programme plan. It is sound practice to identify as wide a range of possibilities as you can for new approaches. To do this we can use a spider diagram to open up our thinking. Here is an idea of how to use the diagram. We have developed one of the legs of the diagram. You can add more and more such legs as you thinking of more possibilities.
Group chooses project title Pair work Group work
Seminar
Group brainstorming
Use a different teaching/learning method
Produce project as a group
Possibilities for new approaches
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This is one possible way to think of innovations. There are various other tools you can use to help you generate ideas e.g. outlining and mind mapping. There are software tools that can help you do this. When you have looked at possible ways to innovate, you can go on to select one possibility for further development as an activity or session. Choose the one which most appeals to you. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Each learning session needs only the statement of a simple learning aim. For example to enable learners to understand the use of percentages and their relationship with fractions and decimals It should be relatively straightforward to develop a learning aim for each learning session within your learning programme. Learning objectives are much more our focus of attention in session planning. Often one session will cover more than one learning objective, and in this case, you might need to identify a key learning objective. Once again, we should produce learning objectives which are: SPECIFIC MEASURABLE ACHIEVABLE REALISTIC TIME-SCALED Think of these in terms of responses to the question: By the end of this session, learners should be able to
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Here is an example from a Numeracy module AIM: To enable learners to understand the uses of percentages and their relationship with fractions and decimals
OBJECTIVES: 1. To identify the various places where percentages are used 2. To be able to write percentages in decimal or fraction format 3. To calculate percentages of given amounts in realistic situations 4. To express one item as a percentage of another 5. To use percentages to solve realistic and practical situations Sometimes when you develop the session plan you might realise that it could be difficult to achieve all the objectives. If you write them in sequence, you should have no problem in achieving some and continuing with others in the next session. You'll find it helpful to prioritise your objectives very carefully and think whether some of the secondary objectives could be achieved in self-study, homework etc. Each session plan must been seen as a step in a sequential programme, so each must take into account what has gone before. There is a danger of considering each session (even each learning activity) as an entity in itself rather than part of a bigger picture. The programme should have coherence and a flow, to which and the individual sessions contribute. DRAFTING A SESSION PLAN You're now ready to develop the content of the session. REMINDER! A session plan needs to contain: session details - date, time, place, group and teacher aim(s) and objectives content learner and teacher activities timings resources and learning materials, including additional support available from other people methods of assessment.
It should give an 'at a glance' guide to the learning session.
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Here are some key questions for you to think about: 1. Which will be the most appropriate and effective learning activities for you to employ in this session? Activities you could consider include: - Lectures and presentations - Discussions and debates - Video and audio - Simulation - Using ICT - Experiments and practicals - Group and team work - Demonstrations - Seminars - Role play - Case Studies - Projects and assignments - Coaching. 2. 3. 4. How much time will you allocate to each activity? What will you do as teacher? Write down your role will be. What will the learners do? Write down what their role(s) will be. And remember the Chinese proverb I hear and I forget I see and I remember I do and I understand 5. 6. NB Learners will learn if: the teaching is varied - in that way a teacher can ensure that all learners in a group are taught with their preferred learning style for part of a session they are involved in the learning - putting learning into practice links skill, knowledge and memory together to enable learning to take place. Assessment - how will you measure the learners' progress and achievements? Resources and materials - what will you use and how? What will the learners use and how?
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The following table describes advantages and disadvantages of each teaching and learning activity..
Activity 1. Formal lecture Advantages Often used with large groups unlimited number of learners can attend Useful for group sessions to deliver required knowledge, theory and concepts Formal input by teacher can be prepared in advance and used on numerous occasions Can be enhanced through effective use of visual aids Knowledge retention can be enhanced through provision of handouts covering input Disadvantages No interaction with learners therefore no method of assessing understanding Knowledge often not retained especially if lecture is prolonged Relies on ability of learner to take notes Can be boring unless enlivened by visual aids; use of humour, etc Difficult for teacher to keep control if learners do not pay attention - learners can easily become distracted
2. Presentation
Not as formal as a lecture - may be formal or informal Usually used in groups to impart knowledge Innovative approaches and use of humour can be used well to promote learners' interest If combined with activity, can be used effectively to deliver knowledge needed to complete activity Time for questions or clarification can be built in
See above
3. Instruction
Can be used with groups or individuals Can be combined very effectively with demonstration then skills practice
Needs very careful planning to ensure instructions are clear, full and in the correct sequence If prolonged, learners will 'switch off'
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4. Demonstration
Learners observe skill performed to required standard Very effective if based on analysis of component parts of skill then delivered in a logical structured sequence which promotes good practice Health and safely information and practice can be incorporated If combined with opportunity to practice skills under supervision, can be most effective method of learning a skill Can be used effectively with groups or individuals Especially useful if realistic workplace conditions can be simulated Useful in gaining skills in protected environment before attempting skills in real work environment (e.g. flight simulator)
Needs careful preparation of location to ensure all learners can see and hear demonstration If skill is complex, may need several structured demonstrations so needs careful preparation Teacher is role model in demonstrating skill and learners will reflect both good and bad practice unless carefully prepared
5. Simulation
However carefully planned, is unlikely to fully cover pressures and constraints of real workplace May be expensive to provide facilities and equipment
6. Assignment
Can be used effectively with groups or individuals Effective method of assessing understanding after knowledge provision, where learners can adapt what has been taught into different contexts Learners can work in groups to foster teamwork and problem solving skills
Requires careful preparation and criteria for successful completion Marking of assignments takes time If learners have worked in groups, need to draw out work completed by individual learners
7. Work based project
Can be used effectively with groups or individuals Effective method of assessing understanding after knowledge provision where learners can adapt taught input into a work context Can be used to provide a structure for learners to learn new tasks or enhance existing ones
Requires careful preparation and criteria for successful completion Marking of projects takes time
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8. Case study
Can be used effectively with groups or individuals If case studies are prepared based on taught knowledge, learners can work with different scenarios to adapt knowledge into these, so excellent for building problem solving skills Can be used with small groups with plenary session on completion to discuss findings and compare and contrast findings of different groups
Needs careful preparation by teacher to ensure usefulness
9. Role play
Most effective if used with groups Teacher is able to observe learners practising skills in role play situations and provide prompt feedback Excellent for building learners confidence in communication and interpersonal skills in supportive atmosphere
Some learners will not perform well in role play situations due to fear of mockery from peer group, so needs careful monitoring by teacher. Learners should not be forced to 'perform' if unwilling
10. Business game
Learners are given a business scenario and asked to explore options for resolving issues Most effective if used with small groups Can be used successfully when a larger group is broken down into smaller groups, each of whom complete the activity, followed by a plenary sharing of findings to compare and contrast If business games are prepared based on taught knowledge, learners can work with different scenarios to adapt knowledge into these, so excellent for building problem solving skills
Needs careful preparation by the teacher to ensure usefulness
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11. One-to-one coaching
Most useful with individuals on one-to-one basis, but can be used to provide additional support to group members Should only be used after training in skills as aim is to help to improve rather than gain new skills and its use is very effective at this point Teacher can observe learner and provide prompt feedback Useful for gaining of planned amount of knowledge, can be used very effectively with groups or individuals as part of a programme to avoid too much information-giving in sessions Useful before tests or examinations
Time consuming for teacher If carried out by others, need to check that they have coaching skills and vocational skills as bad habits can be learned Less effective where input is not carefully planned for sequence and content, as learners can become confused if too great or too little
12. Self-directed study
Learners need time management skills and can easily become distracted if not supervised Teacher needs means of assessing understanding of knowledge gained
13. Team work
Used mainly with individuals, working as a member of an experienced team can be of great benefit as the learner gradually becomes more and more involved as skills grow More experienced team members can act as mentors and/or carry out coaching Helps learners to develop team work skills in addition to subject or vocational skills
Takes time for integration into the team Learners can feel left out unless team members are patient and allow time for skills development
14. Small learning or project groups
Sometimes called small group work or syndicate exercises, this is most useful for groups Promotes interpersonal and communication skills Promotes understanding as learners interact with peers and can learn from them or help slower members Plenary discussion after teamwork can compare and contrast findings Teacher can observe progress and successful completion of tasks, intervene to give additional support and give prompt feedback
Teachers may find it difficult to share time between groups, especially if additional support needed by one or more groups Groups need careful instruction to complete tasks to required standards Danger of quieter learners being left behind by more assertive group members unless closely supervised
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15. Learner pairs
Useful for groups or individuals, learners pair up with a partner who may be at same level or above share tasks Again promotes understanding through team work plus interpersonal and communication skills
Can become competitive Pairs need careful selection to avoid discord or unsuitability to work as pair If joint project or task completed, can be difficult to define who did what
TWO CONTRASTING SESSIONS In Module 1, the Diploma asks you to draw up plans for two contrasting sessions. Note that there is a follow up to this in Assignment 2. On page 27 it says that the two sessions reported on should be the same as those featured in Assignment 1 It's worth thinking about the timing and content of these two sessions in terms of the observer's visits. How will the observer notice a contrast between the two sessions? It could be in terms of

the nature of the material being used by the learners. The first session might be focused around 'theory' while the second might look at 'application' the teaching and learning techniques being offered. The first session might use individual learner contributions and the second might make great use of group work learner involvement. The first session might be largely teacher-directed, involving teacher presentations and demonstrations. The second session might be centred around learner feedback and presentations.
There are many ways in which such contrasts could be achieved. Have a look now at your course plan and draw up a list of possible choices for these contrasting sessions and then go for the two which appeal to you most.
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Practice
UP FOR REVIEW
Think back to a learning session you've very recently carried out. Refresh your memory by reading back through any plans, and notes or other material about the session you may have - for example, in your personal development diary? Do a short but searching review of that session by thinking about its success and/or its shortcomings. Think in terms of three very different teaching and learning issues: 1. Participation 2. Differentiation 3. Use of resources 1. Participation
How far had you allowed time in your plan for learner participation? Did you accommodate: a) formal participation - actually allowing time for learners to have an active role in the session, say as reporter, presenter, critic or respondent? b) informal participation - e.g. spontaneous questions, searches for clarification, inspired ideas which spark off discussion, further instruction or reinforcement. 2. Differentiation
How far had you planned to provide learners with different needs and abilities a chance to be involved and successful? Through differentiation one can enable learners to build on their success and protect them from a sense of failure. 3. Use of resources
Very few teachers have all the staff, equipment and teaching aids they'd like. But given what was available to you, could you have used your resources more effectively?
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TEST DRIVE
If by now you're feeling keen to improve, try a 'test drive' with a new model! Include in your existing programme and session plan(s) something just a little different! Undertaking the Diploma invites YOU to do some learning for YOURSELF. All you need to do is to plan and implement one section of a learning session taking into account what we've covered so far. It could be a 20 minute topic, different use of a teaching method, a different approach to a problem - but do something you have not done before. Try out something different. Have a test drive in a new model! If possible, tell your learners youre trying something new. Ask them to think about the effectiveness of the method and their reactions to it. For example, instead of giving individual learners a set of comprehension questions to answer, encourage them to present the information in a different format such as a character sketch, a poster or a time line.
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PICTURING A SUCCESSFUL OUTCOME
This activity may well be a new experience for you. To make the most of it, you will need to repeat it several times. Many successful people in different careers and walks of life achieve much of their success because they can picture a successful outcome. It's certainly true for teachers. Our imagination (or 'picturing ability') is a great gift. We all have it to a greater or lesser degree. It becomes more effective with practice. Try to run through your next sessions in your mind's eye. Picture the way you will begin - the learners settling down to their learning activities, how these activities will unfold and a calm, positive, even joyful ending for the session. Make this a warm, pleasant experience. Repeat this picturing several times. There's no need to spend a great deal of time on each picturing session, but make sure you are in a quiet, undisturbed environment when you do it. There are two good opportunities for this during each day just before you go to sleep immediately you awake Very often you may be able to think of little changes to improve your session as you run it through in your mind's eye. This process helps reinforce your session plan and will be a source of great reassurance to you ahead of any session. Some teachers are able to picture whole programmes and then picture individual sessions within them. These skills are widely adopted by orchestral conductors, chief executive officers and performers of all kinds. Olympic athletes preparing themselves frequently describe 'picturing getting the gold medal at the award ceremony.' All you need to do it to picture a successful outcome and keep on doing it! Ask your learners themselves to picture 'a really good session' - this will give you an insight into their preferences.
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1.2.2 Completing session plans
POINTS TO CONSIDER This diagram shows you the points to consider for successful session planning. ASPECT AIMS AND OBJECTIVES Question What are we trying to do? Action Write out aims and objectives
ENVISAGING
What will I do? What will they do?
Specify teacher activities Specify learner activities
METHODS
What will be the most effective learning methods?
Select most effective learning methods
RESOURCES AND
MATERIALS
What equipment and visual aids will I need?
List materials you will produce and equipment needed
ASSESSMENT
How will I know what they have learnt?
Select appropriate assessment techniques
EVALUATION
How will I know how effective the session has been?

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Select method(s) of evaluation
BENEFITS Session planning is always an imaginative and challenging activity. When handled properly, it has direct and identifiable benefits such as: it's a great source of confidence and reassurance for both teachers and learners - it's good to know where they are going and what they'll be doing in a session it's a method of marshalling ideas, materials and human effort into an effective blend of activities it helps you to foresee difficulties and maximise opportunities properly evaluated, it acts as an invaluable resource for future programme and session planning.
BUT . 'nobody said it would be easy'! So make sure you have a STRUCTURE You'll need to build into your session plan 1. Approximate timings for each activity 2. An introduction, a middle and a summary (or plenary) Introduction Give your learners a brief outline of the session objectives. How do these activities contribute to the learning programme as a whole? Middle Your main input for the session. Summary Highlight the main achievements of the session (these should match your objectives). Give praise and encouragement. For example "Well done for that we've been dealing with some difficult ideas but we've done well." Help your learners to reflect on their own learning. This may also be opportunity for you to evaluate the success of the session. Finally make sure that everyone knows what they need to do for next time. Then, bid farewell appropriately, e.g. "See you next Friday in this room 10 am - and have a nice weekend" Always leave with a smile and conclude the session in an upbeat manner.
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3. Cognition, learning requirements and teaching methods You'll find this table useful and thought-provoking. Bloom's cognitive taxonomy links several considerations in session planning. The 'appropriate verbs' are very useful for planning and assessment. Ideally sessions or parts of sessions should begin with low level cognitive domains and push out towards the higher levels. Note that the suggested examples in the table are intended only to indicate possibilities. COGNITIVE
DOMAIN
I NEED THE LEARNER TO:
EXAMPLES OF SUITABLE METHODS AND MEDIA Lecture Reading Audio-visual
Recall information.
LOW LEVEL
Knowledge
Appropriate verbs: memorise, name, order, recognise, relate, recall, repeat, reproduce, state Interpret information in his or her own words. Appropriate verbs: classify, describe, discuss, explain, express, identify, indicate, locate Use knowledge in a novel situation.
Comprehension
Discussion Observation Case studies
Application
Appropriate verbs: analyse, appraise, calculate, categorise, compare, contrast, criticise Break down knowledge into parts and show inter-relationships.
Role play Observation Case studies
Analysis
Appropriate verbs: analyse, appraise, calculate, categorise, compare, contrast, criticise. Bring together parts of knowledge to form a whole/solve problem.
On-the-job training Practice by doing Simulations of job settings
Synthesis
Appropriate verbs: arrange, assemble, collect, compose, construct, create, design. Make judgements on the basis of criteria.
Real-life situations Games/role playing Simulation of job settings
HIGH LEVEL
Evaluation
Appropriate verbs: argue, assess, attach, choose, compare, defend, estimate, judge, predict, rate. 77
Trial and error Mentoring Coaching
4. The unexpected Anticipate and plan for the unexpected - as far as possible. Make sure you can adjust your session in case of interruption Flexibility in planning means you can capitalise upon successful learning The safety and security of you and your learners is paramount, so make sure you know where fire extinguishers, fire exits, toilets and first aid facilities are located.
EXAMPLE Heres a sample session plan for part of a two day professional development course. (It's actually been used by CIE trainers to introduce the Cambridge Diploma). Aim: To introduce course members to the Cambridge Diploma
Objective: To recognise the value of collaborative learning
Timing/Activity
9.00 Welcome and introduction
Content
Introduce yourself and provide an overview of the programme. Deal with domestic arrangements Invite participants to introduce themselves to each other Form participants into groups of four to devise team icon and report back results Summarise findings of first sequence of activities Outline main features of Cambridge Diploma Comfort break
Method
Trainer input
Resources
OHP and handout
Assessment
n/a
9.10 Activity 9.15 Ice-breaker
Group work
n/a
Group work and feedback
Paper and felt-tip pens
n/a
9.30 Summary 9.40 Presentation 10.30 Break
Summary/plenar y Trainer input
OHP
n/a
Powerpoint
n/a
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This excerpt from a session shows how: The trainer informs and relaxes the learners. Information is distributed by a variety of methods. The icebreakers are light-hearted exercises in which everyone can find a role and have some fun, such as selecting and designing a group icon. There is a variety of learning activities. Notice only 10 minutes had elapsed before the learners were given an active role. The trainer avoided making a long uninterrupted initial presentation. One of the trainers objectives is to show the value of group learning activities. With this in mind, the first group session is introduced at 9.15am right at the top of the schedule. The task is at a low level in Blooms cognitive taxonomy (but an appropriate level for this stage in the programme) and uses humour to smooth the path of learning. By 9.30 the trainer and learners had already achieved a good deal and the trainer summarises these with encouraging feedback to the participants. This sets a positive atmosphere with an involved group of learners for the activities to follow.
Remember to leave space in your planning so that an activity might be prolonged if successful - for example, discussion arising from a particularly useful learner question or contribution. This will allow for expansion and contraction of activities during the session. This acts like an 'expansion joint' in a bridge and it will absorb minor disruptions. In fact this 'expansion joint' notion needs to be carried forward into programme planning. If the room is flooded and a whole session has to be abandoned your programme planning should be flexible enough to make sure that continuity of learning and programme objectives are not prejudiced. 5. Assessment The last column on a Session Plan concerns assessment and you will have to decide which assessment processes are most appropriate for use both during and after the session. Methods of formative assessment can include question and answer, observation, exercises, simulations etc Learners learn best in situations where they are able to participate and be actively involved. The same applies to assessment, but as an active participant in the assessment not just as the person 'being assessed'.
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You need to ask: what are the skills to be learned and the knowledge the learners must gain? how will I assess whether or not learners know and understand the information I will provide? how will I measure progress?
Remember: Learners are individuals Each with his or her own needs, learning styles and motivation There might be the need for additional support
And consider: How will I know if learners are ready to go on? How can I support those who need more help? Who else can I involve? What recording methods are available?
Here is an example from vocational education:

Skills and/or knowledge to be learned Practical skills in using equipment Possible activities to be planned into programme For groups or individual learners: Instruction - demonstration - skills practice Probable assessment method Observation of performance during practice Skills test during which performance to required standard is observed Telephone techniques For a group: Presentation - discussion simulation using real equipment For an individual: Teamwork to provide opportunity to observe skilled personnel Coaching Work experience How businesses operate in a variety of markets Presentation of information Case studies Small learning groups to undertake project Self-study Observation of performance Oral questioning during discussion Simulation
Oral questioning or multiplechoice test Observation of performance as learners work in groups Marking of final project
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Practice
You can now move on to designing your own learning session Begin by heading the plan with initial information such as teacher name venue date/time session title aim(s) objectives name of learner group size of learner group name of course
Go on to draw up a plan of activities, perhaps using headings such as: Aim: Objective:
Timing/Activity
Content
Method
Resources
Assessment
When youve finished your plan: check to see you've got an ordered sequence or flow of activities include into the plan an introduction and a conclusion - write these out consider how you'd evaluate such a session and who'd be doing the evaluation note down what preparation this session plan will require.
Your session plan is now written BUT it is not set in stone. During any session various things can happen which change the pace of the session or cause you to change the content as it progresses anything from a fire-drill to learners not understanding and topics not developing along the route you expected. There is nothing wrong with this it is part and parcel of teaching practice. The difficulty would be if you found it difficult to adapt. To help you: use your notes column on your Programme Plan continually to update the programmes progress be ready to adapt even re-write future Session Plans always have a 'fail-safe' outline backup plan and emergency activities - this will give you reassurance when you are using complicated equipment, relying upon external speakers, or have other activities planned which could 'go wrong', due to reasons which you cannot control.
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1.2.3 Preparing learning materials
POINTS TO CONSIDER Check these points and save yourself time and trouble. 1. What are the functions of learning materials? Possible functions: to provide information - graphic, photographic, text, statistical to arouse interest - e.g. in ideas, places, methods to stimulate the exchange of ideas and opinions to simulate real-life conditions.
2. What kinds of materials are available? Possible materials: audio-visual aids handouts virtual investigations exercises case studies interactive software educational websites games apparatus simulations.
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3. When you are constructing learning materials All materials should be legible and accurate. You should pay attention to aspects such as: language level - is it appropriate to learners at their current level? terminology - should be simple, avoiding jargon and technical terms unless these are explained. The purpose is to communicate not show off format and layout - use space effectively - sentences and paragraphs should be kept short. Use double space to create space between sections bullet points create a good visual impact as do diagrams, pictures and flowcharts ease of understanding - should explain without having to supplement the information ease of use - exercises and case studies should contain clear instructions as a source of reference visual impact - use of space; pictures and illustrations; short sentences and paragraphs for younger learners, diagrams and pictures will aid their understanding.
4. Different groups may require amendments to learning materials Learning materials may have to be adapted to suit the needs of individual learners groups which contain learners with very different needs different learning sessions learning requirements and objectives to be achieved different sizes of groups the learning environment the literacy level of individuals.
NB when you use or adapt learning materials, remember that material obtained from external sources, especially published sources, may be the subject of copyright law. Photocopying or use without permission from the author/publisher may be prohibited and you should check on your centres policy if you are in any doubt. DIFFERENT OPPORTUNITIES Much of the time, teachers facilitate learning. We can look at two examples of such a situation. 1. Site visits and fieldwork These provide excellent learning opportunities and can be used in many different subject/topic areas - not just in geography, geology or biology. You can also capitalise on the value of site visits if you are developing learning sessions in mathematics (a maths trail around the school) music (performance attendance) art (workshops and gallery visits)
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language (interviews with learners/adults/visitors) drama (workshops, masterclasses and performance attendance) literature (festivals, talks, visits to literary locations) sciences (visits to exhibitions, museums) business (company visits, exhibitions).
You can use visits and fieldwork in most learning situations and programmes. They may range from a few hours to weeks including overseas work. NB if you are thinking of making use of such an opportunity, your first step should be to get in touch with your colleagues especially: colleagues who already manage and operate such visits for practical advice your own line manager of Head of Department to discuss feasibility and timing Administrative and Faculty staff for advice on funding, legal responsibilities and issues of health and safety.
2. Guest speakers Guest speakers can be refreshing and stimulating. They can bring new perspectives to the material and skills you are trying to develop. Their visits work well if: youve checked out their ability to communicate successfully with your kind of learners they are given SMART objectives well in advance they are properly introduced and helped during their visit - including things like hospitality, refund of expenses etc your learners are well prepared for the visit. This may well include preparation of questions timings for the visit are agreed in advance and observed in practice you can involve learners in appropriate 'thank you' e.g. younger learners can write letters.
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EXAMPLE: USING A PHOTOGRAPH? Let's look at adapting and designing learning material
Here we are on the Algarve, the southern coast of Portugal. The photograph was taken close to the tourist resort and ancient port of Lagos. In the middle ground you can see an arch formation, embryonic sea stacks and vegetation typical of the area. In the foreground we've got a winding valley cut into the local sedimentary rocks. Its slopes are steep and they show signs of collapse and recent violent erosion. This photograph could be used in a learning session for physical geography. It would have many uses in a number of sessions on coastal features, hydrology and biogeography. It's an attractive and seemingly versatile learning focus. You could scan it and copy it, but what would the learners do with it? Its actually quite difficult to refer to, difficult to label or even annotate. Learners will need some help in using it so we need to adapt this photograph. If you were to ask the learners to produce a sketch based on the photograph you would immediately produce unnecessary problems: You'd be making a serious demand on drawing skills rather than geographical interpretation Learners who find drawing difficult may spend a great deal of time on producing a (poor) product. This will jeopardise session timings Learners may not be confident in drawing and so lose confidence in the learning activity itself.
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EXAMPLE: ADAPTING MATERIAL So in this case we need to adapt the material into a simple but clear drawing which can be easily accessed by learners. It can also be easily replicated, for example as an overhead transparency, and it can be used as material for assessment.
NB Design, design, design In education we're part of the communication and information business - the biggest and fastest growing business on earth. Design makes such information attractive and easy to digest, understand and access. Our learners are aware of the value of design in other contexts - television, magazines, film, websites, consumer goods, packaging and automobiles. Our learning materials will be better received if it is clear that we have taken care about their neatness, standard of finish, labelling, even the way they are arranged on a slide, OHT or page. If you're in doubt about the essentials of design, pick up a magazine or textbook and see how it has been set out and how the information has been presented.
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Practice
Now look at your own existing graphic material and see how you might adapt it for learning purposes. See if you can find ways to make improvement(s). Ask yourself: does this diagram, chart, map, picture or other form of image actually do something useful in the learning session? does it illustrate a series of points? provoke discussion or questioning? bring a different dimension to study, for example by acting as a fresh stimulus or case study? can the image be readily replicated or adapted? how can the learners adapt it, use it, learn from it?
Published worksheets and worksheets from the Internet should be adapted to suit the needs of your learners. Find one that might be appropriate for one of your learning activities and consider: what is the purpose of the worksheet - is it to teach a new skill, to practise a newly learned skill, to assess knowledge? if the presentation of information clear? is the level of work appropriate to the needs of the group? is progression through the sheet correctly paced? do the examples on the sheet really clarify or could they confuse? are the examples on the sheet culturally appropriate? are there open-ended questions that assess learners' application and not just acquisition of knowledge?
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1.2.4 Preparing equipment and learning facilities
TYPES OF AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS We're going to look briefly at the range of equipment available and how to use it. 1. Slides for overhead projectors - slides on conventional projectors remember a picture paints a thousand words be sparing with the amount of text - bullet points on slides work well and can be used as main points for teacher notes and handouts make sure text can be seen by everyone - large size gives greater visual impact you can use humour as a way of reinforcing and helping learners to remember key points.
2. Flipchart/blackboard/whiteboard can be used effectively if pre-prepared to show, for example, diagrams, flowcharts, bullet points appeal to visual learners by highlighting key learning and discussion points should be legible - avoid use of capital letters throughout and write clearly so that everyone can read.
3. Computer-based learning materials make sure all learners are able to operate ICT facilities make sure the materials are suitable for all learners and their current capabilities appeal to both visual and kinaesthetic learners capitalise on using learners to help each other.
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4. Video and audio : films: LCD can be used effectively to reinforce key learning points ensure suitability for learners and their current capabilities make sure the resources will help to illustrate the point you are making only use small sequences/sections as attention can quickly drain away will allow only for visual and oral learning so how will you record this learning experience? if appropriate, tell the learners beforehand what you want them to look for.
NB weve all been to presentations where visual aid machinery malfunctioned or was misused. This kind of event causes embarrassment and frustration for teachers and learners alike. Frustration and amusement quickly turns to exasperation and disappointment. At its worst such a breakdown can spoil the whole outcome of a learning session. A great many such failures can be avoided by simply being prepared and taking precautions. BE PREPARED! Availability Learning technology is often shared between departments and teachers. Ensure that you reserve the relevant machines for your use a) formally b) well in advance. Reliability ICT equipment, television monitors and video cassette recorders are relatively complex machines. Check in advance that they are functioning properly and immediately before use ensure that they are set up ready for action. In the case of overhead projectors, always have a spare bulb available. For flipcharts and whiteboards ensure that pens are fully operational (and available!) Back-up If equipment fails, have you located a potential reserve supply? If the equipment fails and there is no reserve can you move convincingly and effortlessly to alternative activities and an alternative session (plan)? BE SPONTANEOUS! Blackboards, whiteboards, overhead projectors and computing facilities can all be used for spontaneous illustration or notation. Teachers often have drawing or cartoon skills which can be used to great effect in classes.
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You can practise your boardwork - and you should. Good advice here is: practise the layout of your efforts ensure that everyone can read them don't overcrowd your working space take your time to produce an effective piece of work if you have difficulty with spellings, check them out beforehand use lower case lettering as this is more helpful and easier to read than upper case.
SPECIALIST TEACHING ENVIRONMENTS As learning needs become more complex, teachers find themselves working in increasingly specialist teaching environments. These include: laboratories workshops workplaces play areas theatres studios sports halls and gymnasia outdoor sports facilities libraries ICT suites
For each of these you need to research carefully: features, opportunities and potential for use appropriateness levels of equipment technical support health and safety
Whatever the specialist environment, it is always best practice to consult the person in charge of the facility right at the start of planning. They'll be able to offer practical advice which will usually address each one of the five points we've highlighted for research.
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Practice
TIME FOR AN AUDIT! If you think you're limited as far as equipment and facilities are concerned, don't be put off. Now is the time for a bit of research and investigation. Many teachers work exclusively in one department, one section of the company, even one room. There is often equipment elsewhere in the institution which one can access and use for teaching/learning. This goes even beyond mere equipment. For example, different rooms with built-in specialist facilities may be available at the very time of day you are interested in! Make a checklist of the facilities you're likely to use and leave spaces for those which are available and may have a use. If you return from your research unimpressed or empty-handed, why not try other places for loan or hire of equipment? Be creative, think laterally - but remember the points to watch out for e.g. reliability.
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1.2.5 Planning for evaluation
WHY PLAN? In the Diploma we encourage teachers to become more reflective. All teachers almost instinctively reflect upon their teaching - but often these reflections are 'here today, gone tomorrow'. We want to strengthen reflection as an active, recorded and purposeful element of practical teaching. So we begin by building evaluation into our session plan designs. To plan successfully for evaluation, we need to consider some important questions: KEY QUESTIONS 1. Who will be carrying out the evaluation? Evaluation can be done by one or combination of: Self Learners Observer.
The choice is yours, but even (and especially) if you choose Self' you'll need to plan carefully the format, time and timing of your reflections. 2. What are the points to be evaluated? The most immediate concern is usually How did the session go? You need to break that question down into: What did the learners actually learn during the session - learning outcomes? How do I know that this learning took place? Assessment? How successful were the teaching/learning techniques which I used? Were the learning objectives achieved?
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Other issues will need to be covered. Briefly these are: did all the learners benefit? was the pace of presentation/learning appropriate? what changes might I have to make to future sessions in the light of this experience? did my session plan work effectively? Was it too detailed or no detailed enough? were there any problems which arose and need to be solved soon?
RECORDING AND REPORTING Evaluation can help to generate many of the fresh ideas to help improve teaching and learning in the future. You need to take care about recording and storing evaluation information. It must become part of your regular professional practice. You also need to take care of reporting. Evaluation is based on feedback. In self-evaluation, the teacher is reporting to him/herself. Learner and observer feedback can be oral or written or a combination of both. Feedback may be informal and/or formal, e.g. using questionnaires or pro-formas. But there is a second stage to this reporting. Having received the feedback, what does the teacher then do with it? He/she could mull it over. He/she could store it for future reference. He/she could talk it through with someone else, a fresh face, a second opinion. This is where colleagues, especially senior colleagues, can be an extremely valuable learning resource for the teacher. TIME AND TIMING You need to build in time for evaluation into your session plan. It can happen: during the session (by learners and/or observer) after the session (by self, learners, and/or observer).
Think carefully about after the session. How much time is available for all concerned after the session? Where will the feedback session take place? With longer-term evaluation you'll need time to analyse records and material and written observations on the analysis. Module/assignment 4 of the Diploma provides the framework for just such an evaluation. At this stage you can think through the issues and identify how you could gather and record information to help your reflections for Module 4.
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Practice
At this stage, think through the issues and identify how you could gather and record information to help your reflections for Module/Assignment 4. It's often said that the best interviewees are those who have conducted interviews themselves. Likewise the best evaluation often comes from those who have evaluated others. So ask someone else if you can sit in on one of their learning sessions. This person may be a friend, colleague or even someone you do not know very well. You'll need to approach this in simple professional terms. You simply want to observe a session with a view to designing a method of feedback for your learners. What could they observe and comment upon - remember that they are NOT practising professionals. This can be a delicate issue. Even professional friends may turn you down! Don't be put off - you might have done the same. Move on to someone else, perhaps outside your usual professional/social circle. Once you've observed a session you should be able to list the important issues which the learners should be able to comment on. You can then design an appropriate format for the comments e.g. a questionnaire or a simple report form. Remember to ask advice from the teacher whose session you've just observed.
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1.2.6 Preparing the learning environment
A LITTLE FENG SHUI Feng shui is a traditional Chinese philosophy. Feng shui is about understanding the forces of nature in order to design living and working spaces which are in balance with these forces. In Feng Shui chi is sometimes described as the cosmic breath, or as the vital principle. It is the force of change and transformation. chi has three phases. They are called Sheng, Si and Sha. sheng means moving upward or waxing si means dying or waning sha indicates harmful energy
(from Feng Shui Step by Step by T Raphael Simons 1996) We need to develop a learning environment which has sheng chi. A place has sheng chi when it feels fresh and bright, the animals are healthy, the people are prosperous and happy, and when it overlooks a beautiful park, a garden, the woods, mountains, a field, a river, a lake, or the ocean. You have sheng chi when you feel positive aspiration. Notice how the description of sheng chi contains human as well as physical attributes. When we think of the learning environment we must consider physical and social factors.
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PHYSICAL FACTORS Abraham Maslow described human needs in terms of a hierarchy or pyramid. At the base of this pyramid of needs are the purely physical needs which keep us safe and well. So we should aim to provide our learners with an environment which is: comfortable - in terms of ventilation, furnishings, toilet/wash facilities undisturbed - free from interruptions such as telephones (especially mobiles) noise levels - outside and inside the room/learning space. Noise level inside at the teachers discretion maximum visibility - learners can see the teacher and the visual aids sheng chi - well why not? Lets go for feelings of positive aspiration.
SOCIAL FACTORS Our learners have needs which enable them to co-exist happily with other learners in the group. They'll work better together if they know each other and respect what each is trying to achieve. You should strive to develop an atmosphere of shared learning harmony in which individuals can happily ask questions and spark discussion. The key to this is in meeting self-fulfilment needs. Some learners may come to learning sessions with low self-esteem. This is a common (too common) human condition. It takes some time to build self-esteem but you can help it along by: providing encouraging feedback to contributions however slight framing remarks and presentations in a persistently positive fashion setting up learning situations in which everyone can make a contribution discreet use of humour showing enthusiasm for an interest in the work being undertaken.
HUMANISTIC ENVIRONMENT Carl Rogers has written about the advantages of developing what he calls a humanistic learning environment. This has four emphases: 1. the whole person a holistic synthesis of mind, body and feelings 2. personal growth individuals moving towards higher levels of health, creativity and selffulfilment 3. the persons awareness
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their subjective views about themselves and the world 4. personal agency the power of choice and responsibility. A humanistic environment will depend largely on the teachers positive approach to the learners. The environment for learning should encourage learners to feel that they have responsibility for and control over their learning.
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Practice
Consider your own environment(s). 1. Are there any ways in which you as teacher can affect the physical environment to make it more pleasing, effective and a home for positive aspiration? begin to change the social environment of your learning groups, perhaps introducing new methods of delivery, reinforcement and motivation.
2. Are there any ways in which you could foster greater learner involvement in the direction taken by their learning? You could begin by inviting them to bring along and make physical contributions to the room in which the sessions take place. 3. What do the learners bring to the beginning of the learning session? Where have they been before they came to the class? They may have trudged for miles to the building. They may have been whirled along by a subterranean mass rapid transit system. They may have problems on their mind. How can you focus their attention and give everyone equal access to the learning session you have devised? 4. If the learning space is dull and boring, let's brighten it up! You could bring in some flowers or plants, pictures or posters, appropriate artefacts 5. Encourage your learners to take some responsibility for their own learning environment. Through this, younger learners will develop their social skills and also their ability to become aesthetically aware.
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Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 2 : PRACTICE
Module 2
PRACTICE
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2.1.1 Presenting information
A presentation can be defined as: 'A planned and structured input by a teacher, usually using audio-visual aids, designed to impart information' A presentation is usually given to provide information to a group on a specific topic. Presentations are most effective when combined with an activity which checks that learners have understood. An effective teacher will limit the length of a presentation to about 15 minutes, knowing that learners will only be able to concentrate for about this length of time. If further information is needed, a session may be broken up into several presentations, each building on previous ones. How then do you progress from the point of recognising the need to give information on a particular topic to enabling learners to absorb that knowledge? PRESENTATION AND COMMUNICATION A teacher needs to be able to communicate subject content and session structure with clarity, enthusiasm and interest. You should take into account the size of your group, the learning outcomes to be achieved and the level of experience of your learners. So let's look at the world of human communication, and ways of communicating information such aspects as tone, manner and pace of communication and the involvement of learners in the presentation. By presentation here we mean that part of the session in which the teacher gives direct input.
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TYPES OF COMMUNICATION For much of a presentation the teacher will be concerned with conveying information to the learner. Not all of this will be verbal. Non-verbal communication may come in the form of handouts, video clips, slides or photographs. Plan to appeal to as many of the senses as possible. Body language is an important consideration, too. Albert Mehrabian found that the total impact of a message is about 7% verbal (words only), 38% vocal (including tone of voice, inflection and other sounds) and 55% nonverbal Birtwhistell found that the verbal component of even a face-to-face conversation is less than 35% and over 65% is done non-verbally The most important aspect of non-verbal communication is body-language. This is a vital consideration for teachers because guess who your learners are going to be looking at most of the time? Yes, that's right, you!
If you wish to learn more about the fascinating topic of body language we recommend 'Body Language' by Alan Pease. This amusing and thought-provoking book is well worth a read - especially for teachers! PLANNING FOR PRESENTATIONS How will you present the topic? you can use visual, auditory, kinaesthetic styles visual aids can focus information and attention you can use palm (hand held) cards to help you remember key points you can use your own teaching notes (but make sure they are highly visible, at-aglance) make sure you know your subject.
Remember:
Tell them what you are going to tell them
INTRODUCTION
Tell them
INSTRUCTION
Tell them what you have just told them
REINFORCEMENT
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GIVING THE PRESENTATION Your checklist of essentials: Check equipment ... especially video and Powerpoint Check slides, OHP, other audio-visual aids are clearly visible to all Speak slowly, carefully, clearly Avoid technical jargon unless terms are explained Use tone of voice to stress key points Avoid fidgetting - learners find it distracting Eye contact with all learners - use positive and open body language Use pauses to stress points Only you know content and sequence Set parameters for questions before you start Use humour where it is inclusive of learners and appropriate Regularly scan the group to check involvement and motivation Target questions at different learners - keep it varied.
Really convincing presenters To be really convincing you should be: flexible enough to adapt to the response of your learners skilled at organising information into a logical and effective sequence use language appropriate for your learners and context operate in a positive and relaxed learning environment make clear the purpose and structure of the presentation spark interest through use of interesting case studies and/or examples link the presentation clearly to the programme as a whole and to related learning activities (which may have already been completed, may be currently underway or to follow) use examples which relate to the learners experiences.
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RESEARCH AND OBSERVE Take time out to look at a few presentations by other professionals. A good source of information is television. Television presentation has created a particular world of presentation skills. These can include stylised facial expressions ranging from permanent tooth-spangled smiles to a newsreaders bland expression. Body language, too, comes in for the full treatment as shoulders are embraced, hands are shaken, and postures are carefully refined and readjusted. Politicians now receive specialist coaching for their television appearances. Clearly we dont need to go this far. Our presentations have a different purpose and are intended for a different audience. On the other hand we may be subconsciously compared with other professionals. After all our learners are seeing 'presentations' in many different contexts in their daily life.
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Practice
Take a presentation from one of your session plans - one which you know you will have to give in the near future. It need only be a 10-15 minute slot. Ask yourself two questions: How would I usually present this material? How else could I present this material?
For the second question, write a few notes on content and method, find a quiet room and actually speak through your lines (it can feel a little strange at first but actors and media presenters do this all the time!). Have your visual aids on hand and remember to use body language. Use a mirror if this helps you. Then try out your presentation for real - with your learners Presentations work best when the audience feels involved. How did your learners become involved? Did you ask a question, bring in an artefact for them to pass around? How were they involved in what you did?
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2.1.2 Giving instruction and demonstration
TOWARDS ACTIVE LEARNING One of the most important ways of encouraging active learning is by planning tasks and activities which will further learners curiosity, creativity and interest. Imparting skills to learners is a fascinating, rewarding and enjoyable experience. It involves several types of activity: instruction practical demonstration skills practice one-to-one coaching.
Instruction and demonstration will be used in the main by teachers teaching practical or scientific subjects or whose main role is in the workplace. INSTRUCTION Before starting to give the instruction, take a few minutes to create a comfortable learning environment by: being open and friendly calling learners by name telling the learners what you are going to cover in the session arousing their interest and making sure they play an active part by creating an environment in which they feel comfortable to ask any questions, or check they have understood something correctly.
The more the learners participate, the easier it is to check their understanding, particularly when the task is new to them, or when it is complex.
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When you feel the learners are relaxed and comfortable, start your instruction with an explanation of what the overall task is. To make sure you communicate effectively, you should: speak slower than you normally do use simple words and avoid technical terms wherever possible check learners existing knowledge cover only the necessary information to avoid confusion cover the information in a logical order, referring briefly to your flowcharts if necessary allow learners to look at parts of any equipment you are explaining and ask any questions, carefully positioning yourself so that they can see everything you do clearly and the parts of the equipment you are using make sure they can see and hear you clearly ask them to approach the equipment if necessary so that they can examine small parts or controls be aware of the learners body language - often the expression on someones face will tell you that they do not understand something you have said, even if that person is too shy to ask a question allow a reasonable amount of time for any questions or further information after your instruction.
DEMONSTRATION Before starting to give a demonstration, make sure you have: covered your explanation and instructions in a relatively short time, because the aim of this participative style of training is to get the learners using the equipment as soon as possible included any health and safety issues before the demonstration, then reinforce these in the commentary you give as the demonstration progresses. Make sure you comply with all health and safety requirements when using the equipment - after all, learners will copy what they see and you want to set a good example.
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Follow the principle of: instruction - telling learners what they need to know about the task, including health and safety demonstration - showing how its done and repeating the instruction as each step of the demonstration is given.
You should: Allow time - for any questions to check understanding. Give further instruction and demonstration - of all or part of the process if necessary. Give the demonstration step by step. When covering several tasks, first start with the easiest task. Demonstrate the task slowly, explaining exactly what you are doing and why, then repeating it as necessary to make sure learners see the logical steps in the process. Throughout the demonstration, try to avoid making comments about the simplicity or difficulty of the task. Not every learner might find it easy, or difficult. You do not want to influence learners in any way. Tell someone its easy and s/he may lose confidence if they dont find it easy! Tell someone its difficult and you may make them nervous, especially if that person lacks confidence. Youve probably carried out the task many times - but remember how you felt when you first tried it! Repeat the demonstration only once with relatively simple tasks. With a more complex task, demonstrate the whole task once from beginning to end, then repeat it slowly, breaking it down into its component steps in a logical sequence.
During the second demonstration, encourage learners to ask questions, or to clarify reasons for doing this in a particular way, or in a particular order. This is why it is necessary to take such care to create a comfortable learning environment. Learners must learn the basic skills so that they can progress to more complex tasks which build on those basic skills. Enabling them to feel comfortable in asking questions is very important. You could praise a learner for asking a particular question - thats a very good question, John, Im glad you asked that. In this way, the learners will know that you encourage questions.
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SKILLS PRACTICE Learners now need to practise the new skill, so that you can judge whether or not your teaching has been effective. Will they remember your teaching, or do you need to reinforce it? Let the learners practise their skills, supporting them on an individual basis. Before each learner has his or her turn, ask brief questions in a friendly manner, just to check that the learner is confident that s/he remembers what to do and the order in which it should be done. You might ask each learner where s/he will start and why, and what s/he will do next. If the answer is incorrect, or the learner is not able to remember, test the groups understanding by asking the other learners to help him or her remember, rather than stepping in to give the answer. Let learners do the task with as little support as possible, guiding only when necessary. Try to avoid giving unnecessary information or instruction and only stop the practice if you know the learner is making a mistake. Learners need support and encouragement at this time, so try to be as patient as possible. If a learner makes a mistake, ask the other learners what the correct action would have been, only giving further instructions if no-one can answer. This is better than simply repeating instructions, since you are assessing whether the learner has made the mistake due to nervousness, or whether you need to repeat all or part of her training. Give as many opportunities as possible for the learners to practise their skills without constantly supervising them, but make sure you are available to support them, or to correct their work if necessary. Sometimes a reminder of a key part of the training may be necessary, or even a further period of instruction, demonstration or coaching before the skills transfer is complete, but only offer this where necessary. Accept that every learner is an individual, with his or her own ways of learning. If further support is necessary, you may wish to offer alternatives, such as: asking the learner to refer to written instructions to try it out for him or herself letting the learner work with a more experienced member of staff temporarily asking learners to help each other if they get stuck.
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DURING EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES remember that observation is an effective assessment method - watch all stages of activity and pay particular attention to learners body language to gauge progress and participation levels be prepared to clarify instructions or give further instructions where necessary to ensure full understanding of what is to be achieved make sure there are no interruptions adapt or intervene only when necessary (i.e. to ensure that outcomes will be met) allow learners choices rather than giving advice use activities as a vehicle for identifying further learning needs where necessary if feedback from groups is required, encourage group members to nominate someone to do this use questioning to assess understanding.
Think about: the number of different techniques you use (from the above list) the reaction of your learners - are they catching on? how much attention do you pay to visibility; to issues of health and safety?
AFTER EXERCISES AND ACTIVITIES Once the instruction has been given and the learners have done their work, it is clearly good practice to get everyone together (summary/plenary) Remember to: encourage learners to compare and contrast outcomes achieved to the benefit of the whole group encourage learners to reflect on the learning which has taken place and skills gained e.g. teamwork, communications, as well as completion of tasks allow time for feedback and encourage learners to participate in discussion congratulate learners wherever possible check that learning outcomes have been met take time to reflect on how the exercise or activity has worked and how it could have been improved if necessary.
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Practice
Go to http://www.geoffpetty.com/ and explore Geoff Pettys excellent website for many useful resources for active teaching and learning. Select one which youre particularly interested in, and apply it in your teaching - as soon as possible. For example, PAR (Present, Apply, Review). You can see Geoff in action by going to http://www.teacherstoolbox.co.uk/index.html These two websites and Geoffs books Teaching Today and Evidence-based Teaching are wonderful resources which you can turn to frequently for advice and guidance.
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2.1.3 Using visual aids
TYPES OF VISUAL AID Whatever context you teach in and style of teaching you may use, you will use visual aids and materials of some description. You may use: overhead projector slide projector ICT facilities (including powerpoint) handouts TV/video flipchart white/blackboard worksheets.
Overhead projector This versatile machine does not need a blackout - dimmed lights are usually enough You can face and talk to the learners while showing the transparencies You can prepare transparencies before the session and store them for future use Transparencies can be made up using spirit-based pens, adhesive letters or via a computer, printing directly on to special transparencies or photocopying of a printed sheet onto photocopiable acetates. Slide projector There are various models, some using rotary magazines for the slides It needs black out for use It can show large-scale photographic images to large numbers of learners.
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ICT facilities Hardware and software can include facilities such as individual PCs, digital video/scanner, powerpoint/projector, interactive whiteboard Powerpoint has made a great impact upon the world of mass audience presentations but it can just as easily be used with a small group Powerpoint enables the teacher to design and prepare what amounts to an entire presentation in advance. This can include images of all kinds, including moving images and animation. Sound is easily added. TV/Video Educational and other useful programmes are often available on television, especially public service broadcast channels Video is widely used in teaching, coaching and training. Used wisely (i.e. suitably edited or excerpted) it can be versatile and interesting. Flipcharts Flipcharts can be used in the same way as whiteboards but can also be prepared in advance if necessary. This is helpful if you have a problem with spelling They can be used for individual or group contributions in plenary sessions and individual sheets can be displayed as an outcome The following style conventions apply to flipcharts and also to whiteboards and blackboards.
Flipcharts and white/blackboards minimum size 3mm lower case use UPPERCASE, colour or underlining for emphasis avoid symbols, abbreviations and angled or v e r t i c a l words diagrams: excellent but avoid clutter and too much colour label directly; keys are confusing 112
Whiteboards and blackboards These are probably the most commonly used visual aids. They are cheap and reliable BUT: they demand written/diagrammatic skills so practise your boardwork they need a bit of maintenance - washing and cleaning especially check your supplies of chalk/felt-tip pens. Handouts These are mainly information given to learners, to supplement a session or to form the basis of learner activities. The latter include worksheets. Information handouts can be notes that relate to the content of the session - for example, a summary of the main points, copies of OHTs supporting handouts that give additional information. Worksheets These are handouts for the learner to use and write on either during or after the session as part of the activity When designing handouts or worksheets you need to consider: is it really of use - will it help to make learning easier? when will you use it? - as a general rule, information handouts should be distributed at the beginning, worksheets as and when necessary for learner activity always make it clear how the handout is to be used: use the worksheet to make additional notes you may need this for later work learners will work better and learn more from worksheets that they have to complete rather than from pure information - learning will not be reinforced if the learners are given a copy of the presentation and are asked to do nothing but read it will the worksheets be used as a piece of assessed work? (This may change the nature of the questions).
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DOING YOUR OWN You can be confident in designing and developing your own visual aids. Teachers with limited graphic skills can always settle for clear hand-written or computer-generated handouts worksheets and transparencies. Used carefully these will always add to your sessions. If you're not so confident in design, try this: Take time out to see how other material is presented, for example: take a look at advertisements - these are also about conveying message and information quickly and effectively. How do they use lettering, spacing and colour? look at posters - some of these have become classics of artwork computer software - such as websites - are often well-designed
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Practice
Try using a new visual aid: If you do have graphic skills such as the ability to draw quickly, say, in cartoon fashion, by all means make use of it in your presentations If you have a personal computer, the start-up package may include an animated presentation which uses humorous references from a cartoon character to offer online assistance and tuition. These are good sources of teaching/training skills and ideas.
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2.1.4 Supervising learning activities
LEARNER NEEDS Exercises and activities should be based on accurate identification of learners differing needs and abilities. They should be structured to maximise learning opportunities and to encourage learners to participate fully. So we need to look closely at differentiation. Stradling and Saunders (1993) identified five different types of differentiation. These might help you to think about differentiation in your own teaching context. They describe differentiation by task, where learners cover the same content but at different level outcome, where the same general task is set, but it is flexible enough for learners to work at their own level learning activity, where learners are required to address the same level, but in a different way pace, where learners can cover the same content at the same level but at a different rate dialogue, where the teacher discusses the work with individual learners in order to tailor the work to their needs.
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In addition, for younger learners, you can include differentiation by level of support.
Dont worry if in your learning sessions you mix and match these techniques - needs can vary quite considerably within groups e.g. within adult learning groups However the more thought you can give to differentiation, the more effective your learning session will become since learners will be much more comfortable with their own work. LEARNER INVOLVEMENT Another key to successful learning is to include in your session design structured opportunities for learner involvement Opportunities include: discussions led by learners presentations given by learners role play involvement in simulation exercises.
We call this kind of involvement formal involvement because the teacher has designed it into his/her session plan. Informal involvement happens spontaneously, perhaps as a follow-up to a discussion or a question and answer session. MONITORING ACTIVITY Good session planning will include time for setting up and introducing practical work and experiments. Activities such as investigations and debates also need an appropriate amount of time. Learning outcomes are better if the learners don't 'have to hurry. These points will help you monitor activity successfully: Let learners do the task with as little support as possible, guiding only when necessary. Try to avoid giving unnecessary information or instruction and only stop the practice if you know the learner is making a mistake this is the time when learners need support and encouragement, so try to be as patient as possible If a learner makes a mistake, ask the other learners what the correct action would have been, only giving further instructions if no-one can answer. This is better than simply repeating instructions, since you are assessing whether the learner has made a mistake due to nervousness, or whether you need to repeat all or part of his/her instruction
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When you are dealing with mistakes or misconceptions by learners, remember to protect a learners self-esteem. Throughout our lives, our self-esteem helps us to make the most of our abilities. So when we try to support learners to find the correct answers, we should avoid causing them to feel undermined or devalued in front of others Give as many opportunities as possible for the learners to practise their skills without constantly supervising them, but make sure you are available to support them, or correct their work as necessary. Sometimes a reminder of a key point of the instruction, coaching or demonstration may be necessary. You may have to go over a section of your initial input to emphasise a difficult or contentious operation, but only offer this where necessary.
POINT TO WATCH Accept that every learner is an individual, with his or her own ways of learning. If further support is necessary, you may wish to offer alternatives, such as: asking the learner to refer to written instructions to try it out for him or herself letting the learner work with a more experienced member of staff temporarily asking learners to help each other if they get stuck.
SETTING UP GROUP WORK Group work is a very effective approach, in all phases and contexts of education and training. For example, most primary school classrooms use group work as an organisational and as a learning strategy. Before you set up group work remember: You need to decide how the groups are chosen. Do you put the groups together or do you let the learners choose? In the former case you can put together learners with different or similar perspectives or abilities, split groups who are troublesome or isolated and bring individual learners into groups where they normally work alone. But the disadvantages of this approach can include possibly causing some resentment or groups not working satisfactorily at least to begin with. In the latter case - learners forming their own groups - this may encourage group working and harmonious teams. However a disadvantage can be that the same groups will form time after time (since they are based on friendship groups). Then learners will never experience and appreciate working with anyone other than their own group. Of course friends do not always work well together! The balance of groups will depend on what they are being asked to do and how well you know them.
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Several types of learning activities spring to mind as being ideal for group work: drama and simulation games role play team exercises sporting and recreational activities site visits fieldwork such as geography, biology, geology, archaeology laboratory work project work
These can be seen as special situations. But group work can be used as an everyday teaching/learning technique. For example having given instruction on a topic a teacher can form up groups to frame important questions about the topic, develop a viewpoint on the material or summarise effectively what they thought were the main issues arising from the topic. This group work can then be followed by a summary/plenary session which can pool ideas - a very useful follow-up, rich in learning outcomes. SUPERVISING GROUPS One of the most challenging situations to manage in a classroom is when learners are working in small groups. Once groups are working, you must move between them (it is good practice to circulate slowly among learners in any case). Spend time with each group equally as far as possible. There will, however, always be times when one group demands more time than another, e.g. because of lack of understanding. You will need to give this group additional time, but, meanwhile, watch the other groups for questions. One way is to set the less able group small tasks to do while you attend to other groups. This way the less able group will build their understanding more gradually to the same level as the others, but other groups will not be left waiting for attention.
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Practice
Think about incorporating group work into your teaching and learning activities. This is a good opportunity to try a little experiment of your own. Do check that the activity which you have set is an appropriate one for group work and discussion. Many activities are better undertaken by learners as individuals putting learners in groups can be a distraction for many. Group work can set the teacher new challenges in design and class management. The only way to assess its worth and effectiveness is to give it a try!
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2.1.5 Managing the flow of activities
THE FLOW OF ACTIVITIES You need to ensure that the session: as a whole is coherent and balanced leads to positive and productive outcomes.
There are a number of important elements here: 1. 2. 3. 4. Starts, transitions, conclusion Time management Maintaining learner interest Adapting activities.
STARTS This is a time for formality. You'll need to call the learners to attention, checking presence or absence as necessary, running through any domestic arrangements and setting out the programme for the learning session. You need to be clear, calm and in control. This is also your opportunity to identify the objectives for the session. There's no right way to begin. Individual teachers have their own approaches. But whatever method you use it must be definite, clear and purposeful. This is a time when your learners will expect you to be in control. You can always 'relax' afterwards. But if you start in a loose and casual way, you'll find it difficult then to move to giving direction and instruction.
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TRANSITIONS You'll need to indicate and direct the transition from one mode of learning to the next. (Transitions can be identified on your session plan). You'll need to bear in mind possibly: distributing learning materials using different audio-visual aids moving furniture finding text books, files etc issuing a fresh set of learning instructions forming groups or pairs.
It can mean a break in concentration but see such breaks as an opportunity. Everyone can draw breath - relax a little. Then you can make a fresh invitation to start the new activity, and you can give new instructions. Again, this is where the learners will expect you as the teacher to be in control. You should manage transitions with clarity and a sense of purpose, inviting your learners to make the most of the next, new, activity. CONCLUSIONS It is often said that you can tell an accomplished and effective teacher by the way he or she finishes a class. But, just as often, conclusions can be seen as unimportant and teachers sometimes rush or forget them altogether. It's very good practice to finish the learning session with a clear, measured and purposeful conclusion which can: reinforce the main learning outcomes of the session e.g. what important points have we covered today? celebrate success where possible e.g. This was a difficult set of ideas to study but we did well, especially with .. say how this learning session will link up with the next and invite further study e.g. next time we will go on to .. set out what the learners need to prepare for the next learning session. This may be reading, revision, research or formal homework such as completing exercises or attempting a learning task or assignment. provide an opportunity to make a quick assessment of learning e.g. with a group quiz provide an opportunity to evaluate your session from the learners' perspective.
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TEACHER TIME When you are timing your own activities: Be aware of the actual time and the total time available to you for each activity in your session plan Prioritise - see that the main points of the session are covered and the main learning outcomes are achieved Match time to tasks - yours as well as the learners Be realistic - if an activity needs longer, can you adjust the other timings in your session plan? Deal with small tasks quickly.
LEARNER TIME Give realistic, clear and if necessary, reinforced instruction/guidance on how much time and effort learners are expected to devote to particular tasks or activities. Give an accurate idea of time required eg... 20 minutes. If the task has, say, three equal components, encourage learners to spend equal amounts of time on each. MAINTAINING LEARNER INTEREST As you circulate around the class, be aware of cues and signals of learner behaviour. This is often a matter of body language. Teachers soon develop the skills to recognise uncertainty, disinterest, engagement, confidence, happiness or disaffection without so much as a word being spoken. It is good to make a considered response to such body language. This is the opportunity for reassurance, a gentle touch of encouragement, a new task to try, a different way of looking at a problem. There is a balance for you to strike here between letting a learner find his/her own way and intervening in the learning process. There is also a balance between attending to the needs of the individual and to the needs of the learning group as a whole.
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ADAPTING ACTIVITIES You may need to adjust the timing and emphasis of learning activities within the session plan. Teachers everywhere know and recognise that this happens very often - if only because our learners are individual human beings and what went well with one group might not work as well with another. Sensing this and doing something about it is one of the outstanding skills in the art of teaching. For many it is one of the pleasures of teaching. Sometimes we need to adapt our plan because there are problems, say of understanding or skill operation, for the learner Sometimes, it may be that a topic has so aroused the interest of learners that lively discussion produces important new ideas.
In each case you will have to prioritise and rearrange or adjust timing within the session as you go along. Of course these are not the only circumstances which may mean you have to modify the sequence of learning activities. External factors may come into play. You can draw up your own list of interruptions which you have experienced or might experience - from freak weather conditions to unwanted distractions and visitors. For example A teacher trainer was once conducting a skills training session for teachers in a training venue located in a building in a zoological garden. The learners were quietly studying some material when an elephant calmly walked past the picture windows on one side of the room. Initial surprise turned to laughter. The elephant showed no interest in numeracy skills whatever and carried happily on its way. It took some time to restore our focus on the learning session!
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Practice
Try planning a worthwhile conclusion in at least one of your teaching/learning sessions. You can use this pro-forma Planning an effective conclusion Time for plenary/conclusion (minutes) Session objectives Purpose of the plenary Main points we have gained from this learning session 1. 2. 3. Well done! for 1. 2. 3. What we will go on to study next time 1. 2. 3. You will need to bring:
Preparation needed for next time
1. 2. 3.
See you next time!
at on
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2.1.6 Managing the learning environment
We cannot always teach in a perfect environment but we can plan around and within the known setting to make the most of it. Is the room appropriate for the group size? Learners will not work well if they are in cramped conditions or expecting to work as a small group in a large room. In either circumstance teaching is difficult. Changing the layout of the room may be one possible solution to either situation. The 'traditional' classroom layout with separated desks and chairs in rows (theatre style with chairs only) is best suited to whole group presentation instruction and individual/private work by learners.
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The teacher needs to be aware of learners who are sitting to the side and at the front since otherwise he or she may seem not to include these learners. The arc of questioning and instruction is like the beam of a torch. The teacher needs to be remember that, other things being equal, those in the middle and to the front will be more attentive and interested. So he or she needs deliberately over time to direct attention to all in the group.
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Alternative layouts include:
This is a layout more conducive to discussion and, while giving everyone a desk, is a more informal arrangement than, perhaps, a row of desks. The teacher is still in control and presentation styles are still feasible the board, flipchart and overheads can still be seen by all. A horseshoe layout without desks is appropriate for controlled discussions where learners will not need to take notes.
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Cluster and Board layouts can be with or without a table, depending on the proposed learner activities. They have all the advantages of the horseshoe but put the teacher as one of the team. The disadvantage may be that overheads and whiteboard cannot be seen by all without moving some of the chairs. A second advantage is that with no tables or desks, there can be a sense of vulnerability and it is difficult if the group cannot balance all their books and papers. These layouts may best be used for practical work such as role play, debate, discussion.
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Small group work is best conducted when the furniture is arranged in groups around a table ('cabaret' style). Furniture may need to be moved if it is only part of a session, as not all will be able to see flipcharts, boards and overheads. There are, of course, programmes and activities which involve particular permanent layouts in practical areas, laboratories or in the workplace for example and these will have to be taken into account when sessions are planned.
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Whatever the layout certain fundamentals should be considered Comfortable learning environment for example consider space, temperature, lighting, as well as comfortable chairs. Distractions and interruptions should be at a minimum outside noise can distract, as can people walking in and out of the room or alongside windows. Interruptions will affect the flow of any session as well as the learners and staff. Anyone coming into the room should be dealt with promptly BUT finish any instruction or presentation at a convenient point before answering their query. Telephone interruptions especially mobile phones should not happen. Turn off or unplug any handsets before the session starts. (One proviso on this is when the telephone is an emergency connection and cannot be turned off). Noise levels within the room are at the teachers discretion. In some sessions or in the workplace certain work levels are normal and cannot be decreased. In less practical situations, some learners can work with a low level of noise; it is for the teacher to agree on an appropriate level. Maximum visibility for all is essential.
It is up to teachers to establish 'ground rules' on aspects such as noise level. There is no harm insisting that learners pay attention in silence especially where teachers are giving detailed instructions or explaining a difficult point. It is a waste of everyone's time if learners distract each other in conversation when vital work is being covered. This may sound dictatorial. It is in fact good practice. In teaching and learning there is a time and a place for everything. There will be time for conversation and discussion and the teacher will be able to point that out to the learners. If a learner persists in disruptive conversation, have a quiet word with them after the session.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TEACHER AND LEARNERS We need to be able successfully to manage the learning environment so that cooperative, active and effective learning can take place. This is two-way traffic and not just a one-way street! All teachers are concerned about the way they came across to their learners. Wragg and Wood (1989) compared the approach and behaviour in class of experienced teachers with that of new recruits to the profession. Experienced teachers were: more confident, warm and friendly more business-like more stimulating more mobile clearer about their classroom rules.
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and they: made greater use of eye contact had greater presence and authority.
Fine! But what about expectations at the other end of the two-way street? In other words, how do your learners see you? are you organised and effective? do you know your stuff? are you approachable? can they ask you questions freely - without fear of a put down? are you interested in them - as individual learners? do you care about what you are doing? are you apprehensive, nervous or relaxed and confident? how do you come across to them?
If you put yourself in your learners shoes for a while you will soon see that details do matter - so: your interpersonal skills such as your tone of voice, body language and mobility are very important in framing the social environment if you invite and encourage learners to study, this is more likely to gain their approval than issuing an authoritarian instruction or command the learners have to look at you for considerable spells of time. Dress codes vary from culture to culture and institution to institution, but teachers who are neat and tidy and well turned out show not only respect for their learners and their work but for themselves, too.
THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LEARNERS Learners will thrive in an atmosphere in which they feel comfortable with each other. You can develop a happy working climate by consistently applying a few 'ground rules' such as: keeping quiet when others are trying to make a point cutting out backchat and casual quips listening to an alternative point of view helping others with a skill rather than watching them flounder making a positive contribution to a shared atmosphere of achievement.
If a learner or small group of learners deliberately ignore or break these rules then it is time for you to have a quiet word with them. You should not do this in open class as you may then give them the attention they are seeking and they will misbehave even more.
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Remember: 'Praise publicly, but reprimand privately' PHYSICAL Physical factors such as: location group size visibility staffing levels heating and ventilation lighting acoustics programme funding room layout furniture and fittings available resources
can all help or hinder learning. You need to: maximise the use of what IS available make the best of the physical environment make constructive suggestions to line managers as to what could be reasonably available.
ORGANIZATIONAL This is to do with organizing the use of materials, resources and equipment, personnel and, on occasions, the learners themselves. There is nothing more infuriating for learners than working with a teacher who frequently says things like: "..where is that case study file? Im sure I brought it in.." "..that OHT on the Andes shows the point well - if I can only find it.." "..Im sure there were enough handouts to go round.." Learners feel that the teacher is disorganised and is being unprofessional. They are right. We need to pay attention to the availability, production, distribution and collection of resources and materials. Particularly important here is the management of work. You should treat the work you collect from your learners with great care, making assessments properly and returning them promptly. It is a question of trust and authenticity. If you say you are going to mark the work by Wednesday make sure that it is ready for return on Wednesday. HINTS AND TIPS We can learn a lot from professional trainers who travel (often worldwide) from one set of learners and venues to many others. This can be a rewarding experience - you certainly learn how to think on your feet! Most such trainers will agree that the earlier they can visit the training room(s) and venue the better.
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They will go through a (mental or actual) checklist of physical and organisational features. They will also get to the venue well in advance of the learners - at least 30 minutes before - so that they can check and adjust heating, ventilation, lighting, rearrange furniture as necessary, check the operation of machines especially OHP, projectors, videos and Powerpoint. They will also check health and safety aspects such as fire exits, toilets, first aid and telephone points. NO DISCRIMINATION In his book Effective Teaching in Schools, Chris Kyriacou includes one schools multicultural policy. We include it here because it lays down a policy framework for the whole school community which applies especially to learning sessions.
We aim to develop an understanding of different cultures and lifestyles, in order to prepare pupils for life in our multicultural society. This policy affects every aspect of school life and all staff are committed to opposing any form of racist behaviour. 1. The multicultural curriculum
The school aims to encourage respect between individuals by increasing their understanding of cultural diversity. It is important that pupils recognise the equality, warmth and dignity of people from all cultures. Pupils will have opportunities to learn about their own and other cultures throughout the school curriculum. We aim to foster a sensitive, informed attitude amongst its pupils, creating a caring atmosphere in which diversity can flourish. 2. Equality of opportunity The school will endeavour to meet the needs of all pupils and staff regardless of racial origin, colour, religion or sex. Every member of the school is held to be of equal value. Every pupil has rights to the best possible education, and equality of opportunity must be afforded to all. 3. Racial prejudice Racist behaviour is unacceptable at school. Actions by pupils which are clearly hurtful to others include: a) b) c) d) e) racist jokes, graffiti, name-calling, insults and threats language deliberately offensive to others beliefs behaviour such as wearing racist badges or bringing racist literature into school racist comment in the course of discussion in sessions physical assault against a person or group because of colour or cultural background
The school will act to deal with racial prejudice in an appropriate manner and support the sufferers. 4. Multicultural harmony It is the responsibility of all governors and staff (teaching, support, library, administration, catering and cleaning staff) to implement this policy.
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Practice
Good news - you're on a cruise ship! You're in charge of education courses on board! You need to conduct a 45 minute session introducing passengers to the main points of interest in their next port of call. You've assembled your material, made a careful session plan and can expect an interested and varied group of learners. A very fine lecture hall, fully carpeted, air-conditioned and lavishly equipped has been set aside for your exclusive use. 1. what checks would you like to make immediately before your session? 2. how would you create a positive and effective rapport between you as a teacher and, say, 200 people you have never met before? 3. how would you ensure that the organisational side of your enterprise ran smoothly? 4. how would you identify potential disruptions and interruptions? - remember the vessel is at sea and the passengers are on holiday? 5. and how would you avoid discrimination in your activities? 6. any issues of health and safety you need to think about?
BON VOYAGE!
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2.2.1 Motivating learners
Motivation is goal-directed behaviour. It is the reason, or reasons, that we have for behaving in a certain way. Motivation embodies the factors that come together to maintain our interest in, and move us towards, a goal. Everything that you do as a teacher can usefully have the motivation of your learners at its heart. If your teaching and their learning is to be as efficient as possible, they will need to be as engaged as possible throughout your interactions with them. Motivation is facilitated and encouraged not only through the language you use to communicate to your learners, but also through

the resources you use your body language your facial expressions the nature of the tasks you set the flow and pace of the instruction you give.
In fact everything you do as a teacher has the potential to motivate or de-motivate. There's always the possibility of inadvertently de-motivating learners. So its clear to see why you need a solid, working understanding of motivation and how it works. As a teacher youll be drawing on all sorts of techniques to help you bring out the best in those you are instructing, and motivational techniques will be among your most valuable tools.
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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION Theories of motivation are usually based in psychology. Many consider Abraham Maslow, an American thinker on motivation, to be a leader in this field but there are also many other theories on motivation. The following list of motivation theories has been adapted from the ChangingMinds website http://changingminds.org/explanations/theories/a_motivation.htm

Consistency seeking the comfort of internal alignment Self-discrepancy needing beliefs to be consistent Cognitive Dissonance finding non-alignment uncomfortable Attitude-Behaviour Consistency aligning attitude and behavior Reactance feeling discomfort when freedom is threatened Attribution needing to attribute cause, that supports our ego Extrinsic Motivation external tangible rewards Intrinsic Motivation internal value-based rewards Cognitive Evaluation we select tasks based on how do-able we feel they are Investment Model our commitment depends on what we have invested Goal-Setting we are motivated differently by different types of goals Acquired Needs we seek power, achievement or affiliation ERG seeking to fulfil needs of existence, relatedness and growth Expectancy being motivated by desirable things we expect we can achieve Control seeking to control the world around us
On the ChangingMinds website, you can follow the links for each of the above to find a more detailed description of each theory.
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TYPES OF MOTIVATION Much research and many learned books and articles have thus been produced on the subject of motivation. From this one can point to three important influences on learner motivation. Intrinsic motivation
This is where learners engage in a learning activity to satisfy their curiosity and interest in the topic area to be covered or develop skills in this topic area for their own sake. Extrinsic motivation
Here learners engage in a set of learning activities which fulfils a goal or a need and is a means to an end, for example a training or academic qualification. Expectation for success
This is the extent to which learners feel they are likely to succeed in a course or learning programme. DEVELOPING MOTIVATION This involves encouraging and making the most of learners intrinsic, extrinsic motivation and expectation of success. This is a complex issue. It is clear, though, that learners will be motivated to learn when they: want to learn know what is to be learned find the subject interesting]understand why they have to learn have the chance to contribute see opportunities to learn and carry out tasks in the way they would like are given opportunities to work and cooperate with each other. have sessions planned which enable all learners to have opportunities for success.
OK, fine ... what is our response to this as professionals? A helpful perspective on this comes from Phil Green, whose company Optimum Learning has trained hundreds of trainers. Phil says this of trainers ... Trainers with positive expectations of trainees: create a warm, emotional climate for those individuals give feedback to that group on their performance give more input (information), set higher expectations and demand more of them give more opportunity for output (question and answer).
Perhaps we can encourage ourselves towards these positive expectations by reviewing four aspects of our own practice
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SETTING THE SCENE FOR LEARNING We need to tune into the expectations of our learners. For example what is the purpose of the learning activities? Is it to develop skills, to further understanding, to highlight different points of view of prepare for some kind of assessment (you can see that in this short list we have already covered all three types of motivation.) It is a good idea to provide learners with a route way through the learning sequence. This could be in the form of a visual aid or handout. It can confirm their activities, roles in learning, timescales involved and expected outcomes to be achieved. If you have got a session plan, then share this and the learning objectives with your learners. ASKING QUESTIONS Experienced teachers (and other professionals) can find this a difficult set of skills to develop. Here is one way of sequencing questions to support learning: Ask question Listen carefully to answer Respond to answer giving feedback Build on response positively Perhaps by using a follow up question POINT TO WATCH When you ask questions keep them clear, short and unambiguous. There is a difference between a question and a speech! There are three types of question: closed questions open questions multiple-choice questions.
closed questions These expect a yes or no answer or at least a limited response They are not designed to gather views or opinions Their value in learning environments is very limited They are NOT usually employed to assess knowledge or understanding They are probably simply a method of information retrieval.
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Examples Did you enjoy the lunch? Which button do you press next? How many wishes did the fairy grant? open questions These are designed to gain a fuller response to a given question, but enable the learner to: say as much or as little as she/he feels she/he wishes use his or her own words and ideas expressed in his or her own way interpret the question as widely or as narrowly as she/he sees fit express his/her own opinions.
Open questions usually start with one of the following: who? when? what? which? why? how? Since the response to such questions cannot be predicted, you need to frame open questions carefully to elicit the information or opinions needed. Look at the following examples, where a teacher is asking a learner to self-assess: What do you think you did wrong when dealing with that customer? How do you feel you handled that situation with the customer and what would you do differently in the light of that experience? Notice the tone and usefulness of each of the above. The first question implies criticism; it concentrates only on what went wrong. The second is much wider, more empathetic and is designed to begin the self-assessment. multiple choice questions These are usually used as methods of formative or summative assessments. Learners are asked to select the correct answer from a range of options (usually listed in random order). They are always written questions, although they can also be used in an oral format in a class quiz.
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For example If a computer you were using suddenly crashed, which of the following actions would you take: hit it call your supervisor for help switch off the computer and restart after 10 seconds look at the manual and follow the steps given POINT TO WATCH In the learning session dont be put off if there are NO questions from learners, but do make sure that everyone is happy and understands. USING KNOWLEDGE Learners will be confident in your skills as a teacher if you can consistently demonstrate your own subject knowledge BUT a teacher who only does this will quickly (and rightly) be seen as a show-off and a bore. In demonstrating your subject knowledge you need to express real interest in and enthusiasm for the topic. This will help you customise learning situations to learner needs and their preferred learning styles. CONTROLLING GROUPS An experienced teacher will always modify his/her style of delivery and method of class involvement to the size and composition of the learning group concerned. For example, there is a world of difference between a college seminar group of 10 or 12 and the 200 learners we had on the cruise ship! There are some key issues here: it is sound practice to adopt positive discipline, encouraging the learners to take responsibility for their own behaviour if you can develop cheerful rapport with your learners early on, this will help later if difficulties arise knowing your learners and taking an interest in their aspirations (without being too involved) helps to build mutual respect indiscipline is best dealt with in stages. Confrontations are always best avoided and sanctions against learners will be most effective if used sparingly. Your institution will have codes of discipline and you should consult these for further information.
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POINT TO WATCH Not all learners ask questions and throw themselves into active discussion. Some learners are quiet and cautious by nature. Some are shy. Just because they are not giving overt signals of appreciation does not mean that they are not actively engaged! They may shine in more passive learning activities such as research, reading and individual written work. Recognising and rewarding these kinds of involvement will help the learners enormously.
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Practice
Many teachers find it difficult to frame questions as they go along in teaching/learning situations. One of the benefits of undertaking the Diploma is that it is focused on your own actual professional practice. So let's go back to basics for a moment. 1. Think of a concept or topic or piece of instruction with which you're familiar. 2. Think of some open questions which you could use in this context 3. Write these questions down 4. Think of likely responses to these questions 5. What use would you make of these responses?
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2.2.2 Encouraging learners
SPONTANEITY Formal components of learning sessions - such as imaginative presentations, interesting demonstrations and absorbing practical work - can often stimulate extra-ordinary spells of learning. These spontaneous learning opportunities are unplanned and so we call them informal activities. Here are two examples of this happening. Example 1: taken from a primary class In a primary classroom a planned story session on folk tales was interrupted by the arrival of a school visitor from abroad. The teacher used the opportunity to ask the visitor to tell the children a folk tale from her own culture. Example 2: taken from a secondary learning session
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This drawing is based on a field sketch made during a geography fieldwork study week in Tunisia. The learning session took place on the beach and had two objectives: to tell the story of the formation of the Mediterranean Sea to look at beach profiles in the locality.
The first part of the learning session was a little sleepy as the teacher told the story of the geological sequence which brought about the sea we now call the Mediterranean. The learners basked on the sand and made notes and the teacher stood in the sea to cool off. In the second part of the session beach the plan was to measure profiles. One of the learners, perhaps a little bored by the story of the Mediterranean, idly unearthed one of the small plants which braved salt, sun and sand in the beach. The learners excavation revealed an enormous tap root over one metre long! Pretty soon everyone was digging for taproots! As the teacher tried to explain the reasons for the length of the roots, the learners took photographs and as they went further up the beach the group had a lively discussion about other topics such as plant density. The beach profile exercise had to wait until another time (it was partly absorbed into profile drawings to plot and measure the location and proliferation of species with distance from the sea). This spontaneous study produced a memorable and exciting learning session for both the teacher and the learners. Clearly this sort of event is not exactly an everyday occurrence in the lives of teachers and learners! But small-scale examples can and do happen more frequently. The skill is to recognise them when they happen, make the most of them and build upon them. MAKING THE MOST OF OPPORTUNITIES Such learning activities are like plants. They need a rich soil and invigorating climate to grow in. The teacher can set up that soil and climate as we have seen but it needs some additional skills with which to encourage learners. You can: enable your learners to feel comfortable with themselves (self-esteem), their fellow learners, you the teacher and the learning environment. You want them to feel confident enough to say what they have found, what their theory might be - without worrying about being 'wrong' listen carefully, attentively and sincerely to what your learners are saying and show appreciation of their contribution take up a learners idea and develop it with enthusiasm
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encourage other learners to develop their own interest in the topic include a summary of the value and impact of such contributions in your conclusion to the learning session
This kind of experience is part of the magic of teaching and learning. The key is encouragement. Whatever their ability, skills or understanding, every learner thrives on encouragement. The teacher who can see the value of encouragement is preparing the soil in which our 'plants' - our learners - can grow! THINGS TO DO TO COMMUNICATE EFFECTIVELY WITH LEARNERS
Be aware of your appearance

remember that you never get a second chance to make a good first impression learners form their first opinions of you in under 10 seconds - think about the impression you give and how you can promote the image you want adopt an upright posture whatever you wear (and some teaching situations are less formal than others), make sure that you and your clothes are clean and tidy.
Be enthusiastic about the subject

do not expect learners to be interested if your body language and tone do not reflect your interest good eye contact with learners is essential as this is a natural expression of your interest in your learners.
Use your voice and body language effectively

make sure your gestures are natural and spontaneous and avoid nervous habits use gestures to emphasise your points use all the space available to you - a teacher who delivers information in a wooden voice standing absolutely still in one place is boring and uninteresting BUT continually pacing across the room can be a distraction remember that your voice adds energy and interest to your learning sessions so vary your tone and project your voice to keep learners' attention practise breathing deeply as this helps to project your voice speak louder and more slowly than normal make sure the words you use communicate what you want to say use learners' names wherever possible use humour wherever possible remember a smile costs nothing.
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Active listening skills

The ability to listen actively to another person is one of the most appreciated qualities any teacher can have. Learners will be motivated to ask questions, express feelings and respond to questions only if such conversations are handled effectively by the teacher. The first time a learner asks a question or expresses his or her feelings will set the scene for future communication. If a question or opinion from a learner is badly handled, the learner, plus other group members if learning is taking place in a group, will be discouraged from repeating the negative experience. Here are some tips for listening actively to your learners: clear away your thoughts and feelings from previous events if possible and give full attention to the speaker be aware of your own and the speaker's body language and tone of voice give encouraging verbal and non-verbal signals (smiles, nods, etc) keep good eye contact with the speaker, but avoid staring maintain silence while the speaker is asking a question and avoid fidgeting never be judgmental check that you have heard or understood correctly, asking your own questions to clarify if necessary listen for the main ideas and paraphrase these if necessary to make sure you have understood them remember that we are all liable to 'switch off' if we are bored or disagree and keep your full attention on the speaker re-state what you think you have heard if you are not sure about it, or the point is a little complicated summarise what has been said at the end to allow the speaker to clarify what s/he said if necessary.
Non-verbal communications are also important in establishing rapport. You need to be aware of:
Body Language yours and your learners.

What are you portraying by the way you stand, sit and place your hands? You cannot hide body language - you can be aware of it and control it. The same applies to your learners. A small experiment which convinces people of the impact of and on body language is unexpectedly to change your approaches to a group of learners. Say something controversial and watch the defensive postures; be more relaxed and laid back than usual and see the learners open up. This is only recommended for those who are willing to accept the responses and what it tells them about their normal style. You can see, by the body language, how well a session is being received. Are the learners showing boredom, lack of understanding, or total enthusiasm? If so, you may have to change your teaching strategies to create a more positive atmosphere. You may need to show more enthusiasm than you feel!
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It has often been said that teaching is not a million miles from acting and it often feels that you are performing. Do not be afraid of 'being on stage', but do not worry if you are a little nervous. Some world-famous actors are almost impossibly nervous before appearing on stage and some excellent teachers with over twenty years' experience may yet be a little 'on edge' before a session. Being a teacher is both enjoyable and rewarding and the adrenalin will run a little - let it run!
Posture
How you stand, sit and move communicates to others. Someone who stands and paces is unsettling. Leaning forward shows interest, but folded arms indicate defence possibly expecting criticism.
Show your confidence

You also need to take into account that dress, facial signs - smile, frown etc and eye contact are excellent communicators. Also remember that proximity - respecting other peoples space and touch can hint at many things. Most centres will have guidelines which deal with this. It can express itself as an equal opportunities or harassment issue. Proximity and touch must be deal with in a very sensitive way.
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Practice
Make a few notes - in your personal development diary - about a couple of occasions in your experience when a formal learning activity led to exciting informal and unexpected learning contributions from the learners. Think of occasions when your sessions took an unexpected turn which resulted in purposeful learning. Reflect on aspects of your personality and approach which encouraged learners to make these contributions. Do you think you and they made the most of the opportunity? If and when this happens again, would you approach the moment in the same way or differently, and why?
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2.2.3 Guiding learners
INITIAL INFORMATION GATHERING This can form part of an induction event, period or phase at the start of a learning programme and can include: an interview with the learner in which the main purpose is to help him or her to identify a programme or learning activity to suit his or her needs and level of skill a diagnostic test that assesses skills specifically related to identified tasks - these are best as single answer or multiple-choice questions which are simple to assess with quick results (computer-based tests are ideal for this purpose) questionnaires which identify skill strengths and aptitudes of an individual - these are particularly useful where the potential learner has not yet specified the particular area they want to study (in these cases the questionnaire will need, after analysis of the responses, to be followed by an interview) a discussion with a teacher colleague, an employer or other stakeholder, about the specific requirements for an individual. This discussion should always, at some point, include the learner a discussion with previous teacher scrutiny of learners' previous work.
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ONGOING INFORMATION ABOUT THE LEARNER Ice breaker sessions, quick fun/quiz activities, impromptu chats, and classroom observations can often provide valuable insights into: learner interests, goals, long and short term aspirations the learners current levels of skills and knowledge learner expectations from the learning programme his or her personal and inter-personal skills his or her preferred learning styles and learning environments any special needs which a learner may have level of social or physical development.
POINT TO WATCH individual teacher-learner interaction is not just used or useful in cases of difficulty able learners often encounter problems and may need added stimulation and support to develop their interests and aptitudes towards heightened learning outcomes recognition, reward and reassurance are needs shared by all learners.
METHODS OF ADDRESSING INDIVIDUAL LEARNER NEEDS 1. Within learning sessions As you can see from the spidergram there can be many reasons for switching your attention from group activities and devoting your teaching time to the needs of an individual learner.
As all teachers are aware, switching attention like this can cause problems e.g. the remainder of the learning group may: lose concentration and attention
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misbehave feel alienated from your attention be underemployed feel neglected or demotivated.
So you need to be confident that instead they can: be getting on successfully with their own individual or group work continue with a fruitful and ordered learning atmosphere respect the fact that individuals (including themselves) have specific learning needs.
2. Beyond learning sessions Clearly the duration of activities like remedial teaching and coaching sessions will vary enormously with the kind of subject and activity being undertaken. Such sessions need clear aims, objectives and schedules and should work to agreed learning outcomes. A clear start and finish time should be set in advance. It is not a good idea to enter into an open-ended commitment. Teachers conducting one-to-one learning activities outside formal classes should pay very careful attention to professional (and legal) regulations laid down by their employer educational, corporate or other institution. It is wise to conduct such sessions in conditions which protect the teachers (and the learners) integrity. FEEDBACK TO INDIVIDUAL LEARNERS You can: write written comments/annotations on the learner's written exercises or assignments add individual remarks/comments to contributions when handing assessed work back to the learner give feedback comments on in class conversations and discussions hold conferencing (audit) sessions in class or after/outside class provide comments on achievement and progress in formal reports.
When you give motivational feedback: be positive, emphasising what has been done well highlight but do not condemn negative issues end with future action which can be taken - set targets agree this action with the learner relate feedback to the objectives set for the work
One method of giving learners such feedback is by reviewing their work on a one-to-one basis. This is sometimes referred to as an audit or conferencing session. You can also conduct such sessions with groups who are working as a team towards some identified set of learning objectives
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Practice
Try audit review/ conferencing with your own learners Level 1 - a sample session You could give this a limited (sample) trial either within or beyond the learning session. You could use this technique for a small number of learners. Why not be honest with the learners? Tell them you're trying a new technique! They'll soon give you motivational feedback on how you are doing!
POINTS TO WATCH How are you going to record what you say and what you find? It is reckoned to be poor practice to sit down with the learner and his/her work and make (furtive) notes all the time. What should be the outcome(s) of this review for: the learner? the teacher?
If this review is being held during the learning session how do you: reassure the remainder of the group who have not been selected for review? ensure that they have something useful to be getting on with?
Remember to make sure that the review happens as soon after the session as possible. Level 2 - carry out review with all your learners (i) (ii) make sure you plan the time and activities in an around this review into your learning programme/session plan(s) allocate enough time per individual. Don't just spend time with problem cases.
You should now try to list some of the advantages and disadvantages of conferencing as a review/feedback technique, eg did it take appropriate time given the kinds of benefits it produced? is it better as a formal (planned) exercise or as an informal procedure? does it suit your style as a teacher and your learners style(s) as learners?
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2.2.4 Supporting learners
ADDITIONAL SUPPORT Individual learners sometimes require additional support to help them achieve the learning objectives. This kind of action is a step beyond the kinds of learning activities covered in 'Guiding Learners'. It is important to recognise that: If a learners ability is only just sufficient to cope with the demands of the learning programme then some kind of individual learning support may be needed. The learner will be all too aware of his/her difficulties and may lose self-esteem. He or she may experience a downward spiral in morale if nothing is done to help It may be that access to learning materials and resources is a problem for an individual learner. This may simply be a matter of location. The learner may live many miles from reading sources, libraries or a computer terminal.
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Environment issues may be important pressures upon the learner, too. For example: key family members may not have the levels of literacy or numeracy they need to offer guidance to their children/relatives the learners family may be unsupportive, even hostile to the whole concept of education in general and the time and money being spent on the learners programme of study in particular the learners neighbourhood may present problems for him/her. The dominant lifestyle may be dismissive of or antagonistic towards education
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social and peer problems e.g. actual pressure not to learn from friends, peers, playground cliques etc. They may exist within as well as beyond the immediate learning environment and extreme cases of pressure may manifest themselves in bullying physical considerations such as illness, poverty, lack of attendance personal issues may lead to learning difficulties. These may include shyness, lack of confidence, lack of self-esteem, feelings of isolation or alienation physical problems and disability may include poor vision, deafness, motor and mobility difficulties, and migraine. Many may produce concurrent psychosomatic problems.
THE TEACHERS ROLE Experience has shown that each individual case is different. Cultures and institutions vary in their methods of approaching such individual difficulties but the following advice can help you: Be aware of your learners general behaviour - especially body language. Look for signs of disengagement, lack of participation, sad or vacant expression Identify carefully and accurately the nature of the difficulties in a one-to-one chat, away from the main group of learners. Reassure the learner In the case of younger learners, ask others classroom helpers, assistant teachers etc to add to your observations Make a record of your findings from this discussion, so that you can refer to this as and when necessary See what the effect of this interaction with the learner is. They may: be embarrassed and wish to say nothing accept your offer of help be relieved that you have taken some notice of their difficulty reject any form of help try to make light of the issue
If you get any form of encouraging response then you can agree ways forward with the learner If you feel that the learner wishes to disengage from offers of help then you need to raise awareness of this problem with others including colleagues and specialists. This will involve referral as a process.
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PASTORAL CARE Pastoral care focuses on the individual well-being of each learner. This may be more a significant concern for teachers working with children and young people than those with adult or professional learners - but even with the latter there are issues. Pastoral care deals with four main aspects of learning
Learning progress
Individual and social behaviour and attitudes
Personal and social development
Individual needs
As the diagram shows these aspects are inter-linked Many schools, colleges and universities have in-house pastoral care systems Some teachers may become pastoral care specialists
All teachers are aware that they are responsible for some element of pastoral care in their teaching e.g. keeping an eye on apparently 'simple' issues such as presence and absence, and supervising health and safety. They need to get to know each learner as a whole individual. Successful teaching is based on the care of the teacher in encouraging the learners educational development. The following form gives some of the major factors which may indicate that support and guidance are needed.
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Factors affecting progress and achievement

1. Learner's capability to progress and achieve (i.e. ability level)
Examples of how to recognise these
Recommended action
Fast learners exhibit signs of boredom and may start to miss sessions Slow learners struggle to make progress and start to fall behind Disruptive behaviour may result from both groups Slow learners may hesitate to ask for help and problem may only be identified during assessment of work
Include more challenging tasks for fast learners or adjust programme to one which will meet their needs more closely Allocate tutorial time to slow learners or discuss possibility of wrong level of programme selected take appropriate action if this is the case Advise slow learners on self-study or selfdirected study or allocate peer mentor in group to work with learner
2. Access to materials
Learners do not have access to materials and this reason is given for non-completion of work Learners are not able to afford necessary materials and work suffers Sharing of materials due to financial constraints is causing problems when completing tasks
Check that necessary/recommended learning materials are available through library facilities Check if these can be ordered from public library Discuss possibility of purchasing necessary materials and, if necessary, including in cost of learning Prepare list of recommended reading materials and pass on to library facilities in time for next programme
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3. Environment
Learners do not attend sessions due to travel difficulties Location for training is cause of complaints from learners Chosen methods of learning do not suit preferred learning styles of individual learners and progress is affected
Discuss alternative sites or methods of travel with centre or learner Analyse complaints to identify problems and take action to remedy or improve within limits of authority and pass on those outside limits to those who can take action Provide access to counsellor to discuss alternatives Discuss directly with learner if within own level of competence
4. Social or group relationships
Bullying is evident Learners start to miss learning sessions Learners who have previously made good progress have problems in reaching required standard Disruptive behaviour is causing problems and interrupting learning Personality clashes in groups or syndicate groups Break up of romantic relationships between group members has effect on progress and achievement of those concerned
Refer to specialist advice or counsellor if outside own competence level Raise matter delicately during tutorial sessions Separate learners with personality clashes Bring out into open and discuss problems with group if widespread, handling very carefully and avoiding allocation of blame
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Practice
Think of three learners you are currently or have recently been teaching/training. They can be three contrasting case studies:
A. A learner who has been or is a high achiever throughout the learning programme, is enthusiastic about programme and session content and seems happy and welladjusted B. A learner who has achieved more of less what was expected of him/her, is very quiet in learning sessions but shows signs neither of enthusiasm nor of disinterest. C. A learner who has clearly underachieved, has been on occasions disruptive in sessions and has shown little interest in the activities.
Some questions for you to think about:

which one of the above might occupy most of your time and attention and why? which one of the above might occupy least of your time and attention and why? how did you deal with the problems you identified for any one of the above?
Next time you're with a learning group, think about the individuals who get the least time and attention from you. Why is this? How many fall into this category? How can you make more of their needs and stimulate more involvement from them (and you as teacher)?
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Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 3 : ASSESSMENT
Module 3
ASSESSMENT
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3.1.1 Preparing formative assessments
Formative assessment tests the current level of understanding and progress at any point in a learning programme and provides feedback information to teacher and learner, to guide the next phase of learning. It is assessment for learning. Summative assessment is used at the end of the programme formally to assess a learners skill, knowledge and understanding gained as a result of that programme. It is assessment of learning.
How am I doing? How is my son/daughter getting on? How are my learners progressing with their learning? These are among the most commonly asked questions in everyday education. They illustrate the important point that assessment is a vital teaching-learning process. Learners see the need for it as much as teachers and, of course, parents. Formative assessment, that is the means for assessing learners progress, is a good way of embedding assessment into learning sessions and programmes. Before you start consider these essential points 1. Ritualised versus Targeted Assessment. It's easy to fall into the habit of assessment for assessments sake. This is where you collect in work and mark it with no special purpose on mind. Assessment becomes ritualised Wednesday is test day, the weekly essay. No-one would argue against frequent formative assessment but it must be properly targeted. 2. In order to target assessment you must be clear about what you want to assess and why. The answers to your what and why questions become your assessment objectives. These need careful consideration and precise identification as we shall see later in this task. 3. Once you have identified your assessment objectives you can choose your methods of assessment.
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TYPES OF FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
There is a large range of formative assessment methods available. This includes

Question and Answer in the Session This is perhaps the most commonly used method and is almost instinctive for teachers. It gives instant feedback, can be used to develop motivation but is largely ephemeral that is to say that it is momentary and difficult to record. Short Tests and Quizzes These are either from textbooks or devised by the teacher. These are informal, can be fun and marks can be simply recorded. Used with care they can become part of every day teaching and learning. Homework Exercises These vary in purpose, design and complexity. Purpose is the key word here. Learners will make good use of homework if they feel it is useful, for example, preparation of material for a class discussion, seeing how a piece of writing ends, developing a skill, are all appealing tasks. Skills Assessment using Formal Assessment Criteria These may be the foundation for many skills-based courses. This method requires experience in on the hoof assessment and systematic recording. Observation of Performance This is often used in the arts such as music and skill assessment such as team and leadership exercises. It needs expert and experienced assessors. Assignments This term spans a vast range of tasks but an example might be individual research assignments say for a group project. A very useful and increasingly used method, especially in conjunction with homework. May involve library and internet investigations, visits and interviews. Difficult to manage and assess. Projects Increasingly used in modern education as it is felt that developing your own learning material/methods gives you an ownership of your own learning experience. The assessment methods of the various project components need careful design and clear communication to the learners. Written Questions / Exercises with Short, Extended or Multiple-choice Answers Very widely used. Easy to design, mark and assess. Simulations, Business Games Almost guaranteed to produce lively learning sessions! Can teach a number of skills imaginatively and effectively. The better ones contain useful directions to possible methods of assessment. May well be time-consuming.
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Conferencing / Reviews / Audit This involves sitting down with learners and reviewing their written work/homework/progress in general. A very useful and beneficial process for teachers and learners. Can be used to introduce care, involvement and motivation into the teacher-learner relationship. Three points to watch when operating it as a method.
1. It can be time consuming as you have to give all learners a review session. (If you do not those who are omitted will feel rejected!) 2. If you do it in class you must ensure that those not involved have something useful to be getting on with. 3. Make notes on learner performance immediately after the review, not during it.
REFLECTION
David Kolb described experiential learning as a cyclical process. A learner can start at any point in the cycle but to be really useful the stages should be followed in the order shown on the diagram.
Lets just rest at Stage 2 for a moment and reflect on the kind of formative assessments you have already used. You could have used oral questioning, oral tests, written tests of skills, knowledge and understanding and many other methods. Ask yourself why you chose these methods. Was it because:

you had used them successfully before? it was department/programme policy to use them? you felt comfortable handling them as a technique? you felt they did the job you were asking them to do?
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There is nothing wrong at all with any or all of these reasons for selection but when we are selecting a method of assessment we do need to think about 1. reasons 2. criteria We can now go on to stage 3 of the Kolb cycle, the abstract conceptualisation stage.
Selecting methods
The methods of assessment you choose will be those best suited to the learning objectives and material present in your learning programme and learning sessions. Consider what you need to discover from the learners. Then consider the possible assessment methods available and select the most effective method of assessment for your teaching and learning environment. Think also about the position of assessment in the programme and sessions planned. Remember:

most formative assessments tend to be relatively brief so tests and quizzes need to be brief and to the point (hence the need for careful targeting and design) some formative assessment techniques such as conferencing (Audit) are brief in so far as the teacher talks to the learner about his/her work but may be very time consuming when the ten minutes per learner is multiplied by the thirty learners in the class.
Criteria for selecting formative assessment methods
Ask yourself these questions:

is the method appropriate to the nature and abilities of your learners? can it be deployed quickly, say during a learning session, or will it require a good deal of preparation and planning? how much time will it take in terms of operation, marking and feedback to the learners? how will you record the findings of the assessment exercise? how formal or informal will it be? will learners be able to develop their motivation as a result of using this method?
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As explained above there is a large range of methods available. These include:

question and answer in the learning session short tests devised by the teacher homework exercises skill assessment using formal assessment criteria observation of performance standardised tests designed by an external agency projects assignments written questions with short, extended, or multiple choice answers simulations online assessments observations presentations to whole group/institution.
The UK Qualifications and Curriculum Authority (QCA) have a useful set of principles for Assessment for Learning. You can find these at: http://www.qca.org.uk/907.html How far do you agree with these statements as principles? How practicable to do you think they are?
Variety, formality and frequency
Keep teaching and learning fresh and engaging. You can assess the same learning objectives in a variety of ways and your learners will thank you for it. You should think of assessment as a partner to learning in the education process. It should not be a dictator, dominating all that happens. Integrate assessment into session activities so that assessment feels like a natural part of learning. Your learners can then get used to assessment and become more comfortable with assessment. You can also vary the formality of assessment. Frame the assessment task and format to the nature of the material and the learning objectives involved. Frequency of assessment also needs some thought. Pestering learners with a stream of questions and tests is not constructive. On the other hand if you are casual about formative assessment, learners may feel they are not receiving sufficient review and guidance about their progress. They may also come to feel that they have had little preparation for the formalities of important internal or external summative assessments. Clearly you need to strike a balance - the best thing to do is to review and to prioritise your learning objectives in terms of skills, knowledge and understanding. Then you can match the appropriate assessment method etc to each.
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Validity, reliability and fairness Fairness is most important. For example in criterion-referenced assessment schemes much depends on the opportunity for the candidate to perform. Each person being assessed in this way must have an equal opportunity to demonstrate their skills. Reliability is difficult to achieve in any assessment scheme. Total reliability implies no variation whatever in the application of marks or grades from candidate to candidate, assessor to assessor. Reliability can be improved, for example by strict use of assessment criteria or mark schemes.
About validity, Geoffrey Petty says:

..the validity of an assessment depends on whether it actually measures the knowledge or skills it is designed to assess. For example an objective test cannot measure a candidates practical skill, or his or her ability to develop a coherent argument. To be valid, an assessment must also sample across a large proportion of the topics ... (available for assessment) ... the breadth and depth of learning sampled by the assessment must be correctly weighed in the markingValidity is also compromised if questions are difficult for the candidates to understand, or are culturally biased. It is common for teachers to confuse poor learning with a learners difficulty in understanding ... questions.
Any assessment you do should ideally be based on the objectives that you have set at the start of a course of learning. You will have identified the skills and knowledge that learners need to acquire and the more specific, carefully defined and elegant these are the easier it will be designing valuable and useful assessments. Any accurate assessment of learners' learning will have assessment criteria at its core. These criteria are what help to make meaning out of the whole assessment process and should reflect the following points:

any assessment should ultimately be standards-based it should support and help to facilitate further learning any assessment methods adopted should be consistent it should achieve what it sets out to achieve it should be appropriate to the subject of the assessment it should embrace, as holistically as possible, the full experience of learning in that subject or topic the justifications for the assessment should be as transparent as possible; in other words, the criteria help to convey exactly why the assessment is taking place at that particular time and in that particular format (note that this is often implicit, rather than explicit, in assessment criteria).
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Practice
A teacher of dance, mime and drama is running a course for adults. There are ten learners in the group which meets twice weekly in two hour sessions for ten weeks per term. The course aims to introduce learners to the techniques involved, develop individual skills and lead to a diploma in essential stage skills. Summative assessment at the end of the course will comprise a series of practical and written tests provided by an external awarding body. Clearly the teacher will be responsible for preparing the learners for these assessments. But how can formative assessment by the teacher best support learning and also prepare learners for the summative tests? Imagine yourself in this teachers position and think of answers to the following questions. Dont worry about your lack of knowledge of the course content! If you wish to substitute a similar skills-based programme (sailing, art, wrestling ..) go ahead. Think about
the assessment objectives formative assessment issues
The assessment objectives
What might these be in such a programme? Perhaps:

suppleness/fitness use of balance use of breathing sense of rhythm ability to express emotion mastery of steps/movements creativity working with others.
These might be the kind of things the teacher is trying to assess
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Formative assessment
What kinds of assessment techniques might be appropriate to these assessment objectives? What advantages and disadvantages might they have in terms of reliability, validity and fairness?
Issues
There may be some important issues to deal with in assessing a course like this on a session-by-session basis. For example how might you as a teacher deal with matters such as:
Differentiation - supposing two or three learners quickly emerge as talented learners with considerable ability and high levels of aspiration while the remainder seem rather slower to progress? How can you deploy appropriate formative assessment without causing resentment, jealousy or other forms of dissatisfaction? Individual versus group assessment - how do you ensure that individuals are aware of their progress and achievement in each learning session? In skills-based courses such as this the teacher can easily speak to the group about progress but how does he/she get round to assessing and re-assessing and motivating individuals? Recording observations - 'on the spot' observation will be a key method of gaining information. How can the teacher keep records of observations?
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3.1.2 Using formative assessments
Formative assessment is fundamentally diagnostic, testing the current level of understanding and progress at any point in the programme. There are three principles which should be followed:
Short term and informal
this will take place either during or immediately after a session Question and Answer is the most obvious method, although short tests and homework are also relevant and widely used an emphasis must be on improvements that can be made rather than a mark or grade to be awarded it is a motivational tool.
Methods of assessment of activities in learning sessions will depend heavily on the types of activities undertaken. It is often useful to consider the best methods of assessment to be used before considering the activities to be undertaken to promote learning. No matter which assessment strategy is adopted, adequate time should be built into learning sessions for assessment to take place. With methods such as observation, skills tests and simulations, quality of information recorded depends heavily on both:

your ability to design assessment records which will capture a variety of information in the simplest way possible your ability to record what has been observed quickly and without interfering with observation taking place - no one can write and observe at the same time.
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Rapid feedback
to be most effective, feedback must be immediate or as rapid as possible in the case of written work this is most effective with question and answer, but can be through comments in the classroom or in tutorials one helpful technique is to ask learners to describe what they have done - in this way understanding can be gauged and feedback and support can be immediate rapid may mean comments following a short test or work done, in which case it will not be immediate but within a short time.
Motivational feedback
feedback needs to be positive, emphasising what has been done well negative issues should be highlighted, not condemned feedback should end with future action that can be taken.
To apply these principles means that you should plan the use of the techniques into your Learning Session Plan.
REVIEWS
Assessment of progress on learning programmes must take into consideration the fact that all learners are individual and will progress and achieve at different rates, some more quickly than you expect and some more slowly. For this reason, structured opportunities for reviewing progress should be made available and information on the availability and purpose of these disseminated to all learners. These reviews could be formal or informal and include individual tutorial sessions and more informal reviews. It is good practice to sit down with learners during a class and look through what they have been doing. It is almost always easy to check whether work is complete and if it is not identify what is missing. Praise and encouragement can be given for work well done and learners who went that 'extra mile' to take their efforts to a new level. New ideas can be fed back to the group as a whole so that they can try them out. A brief look around work and files and an encouraging chat with learners can make them feel valued and cared for. It can also short-circuit small problems which may become bigger ones by the time a more formal review is due. The purpose of these opportunities will be to:

create opportunities for learners to discuss and review their progress in an informal setting give constructive feedback to learners on what has been achieved and what is yet to be achieved discuss alternatives where expected progress has not been made or where learners have progressed more quickly than expected identify any problems or areas of concern which are preventing expected progress
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discuss additional support, perhaps from others within the organisation or from external agencies plan future progress and achievement and agree appropriate action with learners.
It is essential that results of these reviews are recorded fully and accurately and used to inform future sessions. Records would contain information such as:

the purpose of the review where and when it took place what was discussed any issues or concerns any problems identified as a result of the review future actions agreed to ensure progress and achievement.
Note that it is NOT a good idea to make copious notes during the review. A few brief notes of important points are all that is required. Then immediately after the review, the teacher can make a fuller record of what went on. Individual review sessions are time intensive but are extremely useful. The quality of the time given is more important than the amount.
A CASE STUDY
We're going to look at a case study to see how teachers can manage assessment to ensure fairness and to facilitate performance. Rose is teaching a programme for a group of new recruits to a large international corporation. This programme aims to introduce and develop a series of skills which will be vital for the learners to apply in their various roles within the corporation. The programme has a number of learning objectives such as

the ability to work constructively as a team member the ability to contribute usefully and effectively to group discussions development of time-management skills development of problem-solving techniques making a presentation constructing a short written report.
It is a formative assessment because it will provide Rose with information to help her prepare the next stage of the course to meet particular needs.
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Rose is using a criterion-referenced assessment scheme It works like this
NB: Rose produced this assessment scheme herself. Usually the boxes for scores contain descriptors which are quite specifically worded and go well beyond simple statements like little evidence. Such assessment schemes are widely used for skills-based exercises and activities. Note that the scoring system is augmented by a brief supporting comment. Clearly such scoresheets minimise the amount of preparation you need - they can be reproduced quickly in advance. They involve rapid recording (circling numbers) and only a brief comment so they are easy to use in an observation assessment context.
GOOD PRACTICE
It's always good practice to outline in advance the purpose, conditions, method of operation and kinds of outcomes to learners before the assessment takes place. Rose prepares her learners by reassuring them about the nature of her assessment, the criteria being used and what she would be looking out for in the discussion.
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If time is available you can conduct a dry run of the assessment. It is very good practice in skills assessment for learners to have more than one opportunity to demonstrate their competence at this particular set of skills. Always write a time and a date on the assessment sheet (as Rose has done top right on James Chengs sheet) You should always take care storing such assessment records. They will provide useful evidence for:

conferencing with learners about performance and progress compilation of summative and other reports discussions with internal/external visiting moderators reporting to parents, carers, employers, other teachers.
A LEVEL PLAYING FIELD
In Roses case it might be good practice to try to assess each learner within the same discussion context (i.e. the same learning session). But is 20 minutes enough time for that? Some learners may offer three contributions; some only one. Has enough time been allowed for this kind of assessment? Probably not. Rose probably needs to see the group in action again to give everyone a fair chance. Does the composition of the group affect the performance of individuals? Does this matter? Even when enough time has been allowed, the discussion may be disrupted - a visit from an outside individual or even a simple sneezing fit. Note that if other groups are in the room at the same time they must be usefully occupied and in no way intrude upon the assessment.
FEEDBACK AFTER ASSESSMENT
Even the most confident of learners can become concerned about an aspect of performance in a learning session. This means that your feedback should be immediate where at all possible. Learners should leave the session confident about what they have done and can do and know how they can improve their performance, rather than be worried or not knowing about how they have done.
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Clearly time and need are important questions here. You should allow time for

a few well-chosen and positive general comments reassurance for those who are aware that they have not done as well as they could.
You can then keep more detailed feedback until you can use purpose-built feedback such as conferencing sessions and written progress reports. We have looked at only one method of formative assessment in action. But many of the points above can be applied to more complex schemes relating to role play and simulations or the implementation of simple question and answer sessions. A final word on what makes a good test? Phil Green reckons that the features and characteristics of a good test are:
Questions are based on objectives
When they are used to test transfer of knowledge and understanding, the questions must relate to an identified objective. Do not include questions just because they are good. The learner always receives some feedback
You must always give learners feedback to their responses. If there are particular reasons why they should not know whether their answers were right or wrong, give them a thank you message The learner is in control
Because tests are important to learners, you must take whatever steps are necessary to reduce learners anxieties. One source of anxiety is the level of control they have over the questioning. You can overcome this by giving learners the chance to change their answers and letting them review questions they have selected. Tests should be unambiguous
Tests should make clear how the learner should tackle the problem and under what conditions Tests should be valid
Tests should be confined to the content within the learning session.
With these points in mind its worth taking time out to think about the way you use your own formative assessments.
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INFORMAL EVIDENCE
The most informal of formative assessments can happen naturally as part of the teaching-learning process and may be totally spontaneous. Heres an example. A General Studies teacher was conducting a learning session on developments in art in the twentieth century. She asked the learners to consider a slide which showed a Picasso painting of a sad young clown. Spontaneously, one of the learners began to speak about his own views on the colours and construction of the figure in the painting. The teacher invited the learner to take his time to explain to the group what were clearly deeply held personal views about Picassos work. A lively discussion followed. It was a memorable learning session for all present. The learner in question had made a big contribution and had stimulated other learners thinking. He had shown understanding, courage in his own views, ability to support his arguments and presentational skills. This wasn't a prepared assessment task. But it was certainly an opportunity to record evidence of the learner's progress, for feedback and further development. There should be some record of his contribution he should have credit for its content and style and effectiveness. Perhaps the place for this record should be in the file, diary or log which the teacher maintains as a record of his/her teaching activities? An event like this would certainly also figure in the teachers regular reflections and ongoing evaluation of his/her learning sessions. In a primary classroom, the teacher is always undertaking informal assessment. Many teachers keep notebooks with a page for each child. Unexpected happenings and evidence of learning can be recorded as they happen. Such a notebook can help the teacher to ensure that, over the course of time, all children have been observed.
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Practice
Using a scheme such as Roses criterion-referenced assessment grid raises a number of assessment issues for you to think about. Supposing there are five group members in the discussion exercise: 1. How many learners can Rose usefully and accurately assess during a 20 minute discussion? 2. Supposing a learner makes very little or no contribution, can/should Rose look at another discussion session to see if the learner takes part then? 3. What about conditions in the specific learning environment in which the discussion exercise takes place? Have you any recommendations for the physical conditions for action and assessment? 4. The issue of transparency - should the learners see a copy of the assessment grid before the discussion? 5. How can the teacher best prepare learners for such an exercise and assessment? 6. How might the teacher arrange individual feedback from the assessment to individual learners? 7. What issues of session and programme design might surface as a result of using such an assessment scheme? 8. Is there scope to record any other aspects of learning which Rose had not planned for or anticipated?
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3.1.3 Analysing formative assessments
Quantitative Data
Teachers normally accumulate sequences of scores based on exercises held during the course of the module, term or part of the learning programme. They are part of the pattern of formative assessments. For example there are the short vocabulary tests used by language teachers, tests of arithmetic, spelling and short tests of skills. These tests may well have raw marks or percentages as an outcome. Numerical data will fascinate some teachers but may (unnecessarily) scare others! We need to be able to make some sense and some good use of this valuable store of information. Here are ideas to help you analyse numerical data. Supposing a large group of learners take the same short test, it is usual to get a frequency distribution of the marks. It might look like this distribution: Marks Number of learners (Total 113)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
15
21
30
20
10
We can use these raw marks (each out of ten) to construct a frequency distribution histogram:
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Test 1 35 30 25 Learners 20 15 10 5 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Mark 6 7 8 9 10
The teacher needs then to evaluate the distribution. Given the stage of learner development, the purpose of the test and its level of difficulty is this distribution expected? Or are the learners scores skewed towards higher or lower marks? Three other measures can be useful in analysing performance data:

mode mean median
The mode is the mark which occurs most commonly. So in our original table of marks the mode was 6. It occurs at the peak of our histogram. The mean is the arithmetic mean. It is calculated by adding all the marks together and dividing by the total number of learners. For our original scores the mean was 653 divided by 113 = 5.78. The median is the mark of the middle learner. So if you had eleven learners in your group and their test scores (out of 20 marks) were as follows: Marks 2 5 6 8 10 12 13 14 15 17 19
The median mark here would be 12. Notice here we have arranged the marks in order and there are as many scores below the median as there are above it. Means can be very sensitive to extremes in data sets but medians will be less affected by one of two very large (or very small) scores.
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Ranking learners by scores can also be a useful exercise. For example: Marks Rank 2
11
5
10
6
9
8
8
10
7
12
6
13
5
14
4
15
3
17
2
19
1
All these measures are useful. Mean, median and modal values will give you a picture of average performance. Histograms show the spread of scores among the candidates. Ranking also shows spreads and the order of performances.
QUALITATIVE DATA
If you have a sequence of qualitative statements, descriptive paragraphs or notes, e.g. in point form, you cannot apply quick arithmetic measures. So most measures of performance tend to be converted into a quantifiable form (for example the criterion referenced scheme used by Rose in the previous section). However you can analyse qualitative data by commenting on the following:
Variations in performance
Did the learner perform well (gain positive remarks) right across the range of assessments or did he or she perform much better in some exercises than in others? Did the learner produce performances which require special praise, attention and congratulation? These may be exceptional or typical in the learners list of achievements.
Performance below the level required
Where this happens you can say whether it is typical of the assessed performances or whether it has occurred occasionally. POINT TO WATCH Comments and reports based on analysis of assessment data (quantitative or qualitative) should be objective, truthful and evidenced. It doesn't help the learner, the teacher or any other stakeholder in the learners record of achievement to ignore unsatisfactory performances. One of the most useful styles of analysis comes about when quantitative and qualitative evidence is used together. For example: Her performance has been consistently impressive: on no occasion did her marks in tests fall below 70% (mean marks 46%) and her rank order in tests was never less than 5th (out of 26 in the group).
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Practice
Expected vs Observed
Take a piece of paper and align it vertically so that the list of learner names is revealed but their marks for the last couple of exercises/tests are concealed. Briefly refresh your memory as to the nature of the last couple of assessments. For the first assessment quickly write down beside each name the mark or percentage that you think he/she ought to have achieved (the most likely outcome) - think clearly but dont spend too long pondering. Leave the next column on your paper blank, then draw in a third column and repeat the exercise for the second assessment. You can now reveal the two columns of actual (observed) achievements. For each learner now compare the expected marks (which you have in two columns on your piece of paper) with the observed (actual) marks which you have on your existing lists. Record the differences e.g. +5, +1, 0, -2 etc. The next step is where things get really interesting. In your differences columns are there any:

Wild variations big negative and/or big positive differences? Spot ones zero differences? Performance as predicted? Small perhaps trivial or inconsequential differences which can be explained in part by minor variations in performance (and the crudity of the method).
How would you take this information further? Were the variations in the first column of differences repeated to any extent in the second? Are we actually looking at achievers and underachievers here or were there any other reasons for the differences? These may encompass variations in three aspects of your learners make up.

Educational ability to respond to tasks of knowledge, skills and understanding Managerial ability to use assessment instructions, manage time, prioritise effort Personal health, motivation, mood, maturation aspects of performance.
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Food for thought
Marks and quantitative assessment can be fun. Really, they can! Have a look at the following. It is used by John Lewis in his book The Teaching of Skills and has caused much amusement at many a conference. The story begins with a class of twelve learners who took their 'in-house' examinations and the marks were collated. Totals were calculated and a rank order was produced as follows. The question is to whom should the overall prize for best achievement be given?
Maths Alan Belinda Charles Diana Edward Fiona George Helen Ian Jill Kenneth Lucy Fre Eng Geog Hist Bio Chem Phys
TOTAL
RANK
100 90 61 63 56 80 23 40 85 72 50 10
30 38 36 32 55 45 47 35 40 54 56 60
47 43 40 51 41 49 45 52 60 50 55 59
72 6 45 90 82 64 55 70 40 10 34 20
40 20 41 30 45 65 60 56 28 25 70 35
75 65 55 70 40 45 80 20 51 35 60 30
30 48 62 47 49 38 32 60 55 66 36 70
47 70 80 35 41 20 60 65 30 75 10 58
441 434 420 418 409 406 402 398 389 387 371 342
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Well, it looks as though the overall form prize should go to Alan. But is this fair? The top mark for mathematics was 100 whereas the best mark for English and French was 60. Perhaps it might be fairer to scale the marks so that the top mark for each subject was 100 and the bottom mark in each subject was 0? If this strategy was put into operation, the results would look this:
Maths Lucy Kenneth Jill Ian Helen George Fiona Edward Diana Charles Belinda Alan Fre Eng Geog Hist Bio Chem Phys
TOTAL
RANK
0 44 69 83 33 14 78 51 59 57 89 100
100 87 80 33 17 57 50 83 7 20 27 0
95 75 50 100 60 25 45 5 55 0 15 35
13 30 0 38 75 56 68 90 100 44 63 78
30 100 10 16 72 80 90 50 20 42 0 40
17 67 25 52 0 100 42 33 83 58 75 92
100 15 90 63 75 5 20 48 43 80 45 0
69 0 93 29 79 71 14 44 36 100 86 53
424 418 417 414 411 408 407 404 403 401 400 398
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
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You can go on with this. Supposing the top learner in each subject is given 1, the second learner is given 2 and so on, with the bottom learner being given 12. The figures can then be totalled and the learner with the lowest mark gets the prize.
Maths Fiona Kenneth Charles Helen Ian Edward Diana George Belinda Alan Jill Lucy Fre Eng Geog Hist Bio Chem Phys
TOTAL
RANK
4 9 7 10 3 8 6 11 2 1 5 12
6 2 9 10 7 3 11 5 8 12 4 1
7 3 12 4 1 11 5 9 10 8 6 2
5 10 8 4 9 2 1 7 6 3 12 11
2 1 6 4 10 5 9 3 12 7 11 8
8 5 6 12 7 9 3 1 4 2 10 11
9 10 3 4 5 6 8 11 7 12 2 1
11 12 1 4 10 8 9 5 3 7 2 6
52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52 52
1= 1= 1= 1= 1= 1= 1= 1= 1= 1= 1= 1=
This final table makes everyone equal!

So we can see that different presentations can produce very different results.
Food for thought?
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3.1.4 Providing feedback about progress
WRITTEN COMMENTS
These need careful handling. You can use them for:

indicating good work and giving praise highlighting unsatisfactory work and making connections showing where further explanation is needed pointing out where ideas/material are missing setting targets commenting on whether objectives have been achieved.
You need to be careful with the wording of these comments. Obviously you must avoid any threatening, abrasive and excessively negative language. You can get your point across to the learner without having to make destructive annotations! Instead, you should try to be informative, objective and constructive. Always comment on the work and not on the learner himself/herself. You can also address attitude and behaviour, but not at the same time as responding to the work being assessed.
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ORAL FOLLOW-UP
Many teachers follow up the return of written work with individual and/or group oral remarks. This is a good idea but you need to take care not to embarrass individuals in any way. You can always see learners individually if you know that difficult issues are going to be involved. Some formal assessments are based on complex learning activities such as simulations, games, extended project work, fieldwork and team exercises. These are often rewarding and exacting experiences for teachers and learners - but their assessment regimes can be equally complex involving several sources and times of assessment. So you need to allocate time for careful interpretation of assessment outcomes. Such follow-up sessions can have functions beyond assessment such as:

review and reinforcement of themes and topics which learners have found difficult links with sessions which lie ahead in the learning programme advice on assessment handling technique motivational advice linked to further technical practice, private reading etc at this point the teacher might outline techniques for self-assessment by learners. These are particularly useful for revision programmes.
FEEDBACK TO PARENTS
Feedback to parents of younger learners may be communicated in a number of ways, eg

written reports delivered by hand or postally telephone calls (usually as part of pastoral systems) oral feedback at meetings with parents, parents and learners together, etc.
In each of these you need to be careful with tone and use of language. As with annotation of assessed work it is good practice to be professional, objective and constructive. You need to be able to support what you say with evidence. It is a good idea to have your files with you. If you mark work to high professional standards you can always invite parents to look at their sons/daughters work on a regular basis. Try to give some perspective on your comments, however. If you see signs of potential - say so. If there are problems, outline a few possible ways forward from them. Answer questions honestly and openly.
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FEEDBACK TO OTHER STAKEHOLDERS
Your learners may well be employees of a company, perhaps even the company which also employs you. Line managers, such as departmental heads, may need regular formal updates on learners progress in which case the same approach as that suggested above for parents is applicable. It may be that you receive a telephone call from a stakeholder demanding instant feedback. This requires deft handling by the teacher. Knee jerk reactions top of the head comments and other forms of reply are not advisable. They may not present a full picture of the learners range of performances. They will give little evidence and may be anecdotal and inaccurate. If you politely reply I will call you back you will have the opportunity to:

research reflect report.
SELF ASSESSMENT BY LEARNERS
Learners, like teachers, will improve their performance if they are encouraged to reflect on their own progress and performance. They will need guidance from you for this to happen and you will need to help them with processes like:

identifying their own learning needs reviewing the rate and effectiveness of their learning progress updating and developing their own aspirations looking at learning outcomes still to be achieved when and if to consult outside agencies.
Introducing such processes is well and good but it is very frustrating for the learner if it is:

introduced as an idea but never followed up outside the regular feedback/reporting system not acted upon.
Experienced and mature learners can often articulate their own feelings about their progress and would appreciate a framework on which to develop them. The teacher can help directly. Such self-assessment, done thoroughly, can be a very fruitful exercise which can also help the teacher plan further learning activities. Its use in coaching and other one-to-one learning activities is widely recognised.
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The value of self-assessment by the learner as an integral part of providing support and guidance cannot be underestimated. Often in tutorials or review sessions, the teacher receives from, and provides valuable information to, learners on areas of progress and achievement and areas where further development is necessary to achieve learning outcomes. Problems can arise where the perception of learners about their progress and achievement is different from the perception of the teacher. Self-assessment may be defined as: The process in which the teacher asks the learner for information on his or her current ability to perform a task, or after a period of learning. The teacher does not offer any opinion which may bias this information in any way until after the self-assessment, but is seeking information from the learner on which to base constructive feedback. By finding out the learner's perception of 'where s/he is now' before venturing an opinion, you can pitch feedback on performance or progress at exactly the right level using a technique called 'framing'. Think of a painting you like. It is always enhanced by having the best possible picture frame around it. If the frame is not exactly right for the painting, it can detract from the overall effect. In the learning process, framing is where the teacher has already examined the facts about progress and achievement and has formed a view about the feedback s/he will provide and the action the learner needs to take to ensure progress (if any). Since the whole purpose of constructive feedback is to encourage the learner to take responsibility for his or her own progress willingly, the teacher puts a 'frame' round the content of the feedback based on the learner's self-assessment. Here are some examples of 'framing' in different contexts (the 'frame' is in italics) "Jane, I can see you think you are not doing well on the programme. Let me point out all the areas where I believe you have made excellent progress.." "Manuel, you have told me you think you are progressing well in computer skills despite missing several sessions. I know you want to make your career in this area. Let me tell you about where I believe you have progressed well then we will go on to discuss the areas you need to concentrate on if you want to be a good programmer.." "Ahmed, I know from what you say that you don't believe it is important to study independently. Let me explain the advantages of this and how it could improve your work."
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Feedback provided in this way is far more effective and motivating because it is based on the opinions held by the learner. Without knowing these opinions, the teacher's feedback may not be pitched at the right level or be based on what the learner perceives to be the case about his or her progress.
Constructive feedback by the teacher
This type of feedback gives learners specific information about those aspects of their learning which have been done well and those where further development is necessary. Constructive feedback can be defined as: The process in which the teacher communicates his or her decision on the competence of a learner in performing tasks or in progress and achievement on a programme, usually after the learner's self-assessment of how s/he has performed. Constructive feedback involves praise for those aspects of learning or performance which have been done well, plus information on ways in which the learning or performance can be improved, rather than any criticism. Constructive feedback should be given at different points of the learning programme:

immediately after a learning activity - to congratulate or provide information on where further progress or learning is needed at structured points of the learning programme - so that each learner is fully aware of progress and achievement to date, and any areas where further progress or learning is needed at specific points of the programme where problems have arisen and must be resolved promptly.
When teaching a new skill, constructive feedback should concentrate on the one or two main aspects of learning which needs improving. Any more than this might be demotivating in a situation where people are learning new skills.
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To be effective, constructive feedback should be done quickly and well, keeping comments brief and to the point. Feedback is very important, especially when learning a new skill so remember the key principles:
The Principles of Feedback
Give feedback as soon as possible and keep comments brief - dont let a feedback session become an inquisition Base the feedback on the persons self- assessment (where available) before commenting - how well does s/he think progress is being made? Give comments which are constructive and help to perfect skills Concentrate on one or two key areas - rather than measuring against perfection Be positive and give encouragement to motivate Refer only to progress made not the person - people can change their behaviour or rate of progress, but not themselves Offer alternatives - better ways of doing things - rather than criticism Stress the learning achieved and what will happen next Agree actions necessary to make or maintain progress and keep a record of this in readiness for the next feedback session
Obtaining feedback
Remember that each review session with learners is an opportunity to gain valuable information about the aspects of the programme which are helping learners to progress and those where improvements can be made. If you can encourage learners to reflect on the value of the learning programme in meeting their aims and learning needs, you can receive essential information about the effectiveness of the programme itself and your own professional practice.
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Practice
Many teachers may not have considered building learner self-assessment into their learning sessions or programmes. Such self-assessment is not only related to making assessment as 'transparent' as possible, but also may well add a different dimension to your professional practice. This is an opportunity for you to experiment with the technique to assess its feasibility and effectiveness in your particular teaching-learning context. There are design considerations, however: Consider learner maturity, in terms of:

age/maturity, e.g. younger children will need some step-by-step help experience gained of the learning programme. Self-assessment may be something to introduce once the programme is well under way and the learners have developed confidence in it and their own ability to succeed in its various demands.
You'll certainly need to prepare the kind of initial guidance you'd give to learners (an outline of possible ideas is given in self-assessment by learners above - but the list is not exhaustive - you might wish to include other reflective components). Perhaps the most important (and interesting) section of your experiment is to decide on how learner self-assessment will be communicated and then developed by the teacher. A useful way forward might be to link self-assessment to some form of conferencing system with learners, where their work is reviewed and your assessment is matched to the learners self-assessment. New goals for the individual could then be agreed on the basis of shared input to reflection. We are getting into some very powerful evaluation here! It can also be linked to your record-keeping. There are of course constraints - time comes to mind straight away - but this is for the moment an experiment - a one-off. You can't make an informed assessment of its effectiveness until you've designed it, tried it and reflected upon it.
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3.1.5 Maintaining records of learners' progress
THE NEED FOR RECORDS
Teachers need to give this area of professional practice more attention than ever before. There are many reasons for the increased interest in record-keeping including:
Requirements of national government bodies concerned with educational achievement and standards for evidence of learner performance with accompanying remarks/commentary Inspection of educational establishments, teacher competence and other performance issues Increasing involvement of parents, management and other stakeholders in learner achievement. For example sponsorships and scholarships may require considerable material about individual learners progress as part of the application process The technology for keeping records is changing rapidly. Paper-based systems are being replaced by computer storage which can now be space-saving and very versatile. They enable hard copies and electronic transfer of extensive data to be made, literally, at the press of a button New assessment methods such as school-based assessment in public examinations often require greater accuracy, fairness and sophistication of record storage and maintenance.
Teachers are therefore accountable for ways in which they gather, analyse, store and publicize assessment data.
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ISSUES
These changes mean that you need to be aware of issues which are developing concerning the maintenance and storage of records of learners progress.
Who has access to such records? What procedures are in place to give colleagues and line managers easy access to your records? Do the learners have any rights of access to these records? If so how and when can they exercise such rights of access? Confidentiality is a problem for teachers and learners. This involves taking and making records (say of review and conferencing sessions) as well as storing and using such information Security is also an issue. Its not just a matter of physical safety of filing cabinets and store cupboards, but system and network safety and the need to keep back-up copies and anti-virus protection for electronic storage systems. There may be insurance and even health and safety considerations at issue here, too Updating of records must be regularly (preferably immediately) and thoroughly carried out. Design of well-planned, easy to operate, easy to replicate paper of software systems is well worth time and effort Teachers need to be on the lookout for new developments in information storage and retrieval systems, as they need to keep ever-increasing volumes of data about learner development.
MANAGEMENT OF INFORMATION
This has become a crucial issue for educational establishments and training organisations. Some learning programmes involve many different assessments and the number of learners involved may number thousands per year. Data quickly accumulates but the same demands may be placed on its input, storage and retrieval. Teacherassessed and practical assessment schemes may make big demands on space for learner portfolios, files of work and product of practical work. Given the importance and sheer size of such material and data flows, we need to ask questions about human resources.

Who manages these systems? Who operates them? Who is responsible for maintaining them? Who advises on legal systems which may change and in turn cause new requirements to operate? Who in the institution is ultimately responsible for such activities?
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POINTS TO WATCH Some societies are becoming increasingly litigious. Education and training can be caught up in this. Any form of legal action will ultimately call for evidence and evidence is mainly found in records. The more complete, relevant and up to date your records are the better position, you, your learners and your employers are likely to be in. Issues of management may call for changes to be made in your information systems. This may well be a new requirement in your programme design, or one to which you need to give more importance or attention.
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Practice
Remember:

performance records are information which is in demand such records form part of a range of professional information important issues surround access to storage and retrieval of such information.
AND NOW
AN INSPECTOR CALLS!
A simulation: Imagine that you face an official external inspection within the next 28 days Your head of department or training manager has given you the task of reporting on your 'maintenance of systematic, useful and usable records of learners progress. Ever mindful of your enthusiasm for and skill in handling issues such as this your line manager has proposed the following steps in producing your review. Conveniently these address possible questions which the visiting inspector might pose.
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1. Current procedures On a pro-forma like this indicate how information on your learners performance is managed and maintained (you will need to produce a larger version - this version is to show column headings only). Examples are given.
Types of assessment information recorded
observations of drama techniques
Method of recording
notes made on observation of performance
Method of storage
placed in files stored in secure staff office
Access
me H of Dept
Additional notes
Files are colour coded by course: yellow = basic red = standard blue = advanced
2. Management of information Who in your institution is responsible for:

Direction of overall input, storage and retrieval policy? Designing and maintaining records of assessment? Supervising security and storage of record material? Updating staff on legal and regulatory developments regarding records e.g. data protection legislation? What, if any, training have you received on issues affecting the nature and maintenance of such information?
3. Recommendations for development What recommendations would you set out for improving your own use and management of assessment information?
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3.2.1 Preparing summative assessments
Summative assessment is used at the end of a programme formally to assess a learners skill and knowledge gained as a result of that programme. The table provided below illustrates assessment methods and gives advantages and disadvantages of each:
Assessment method 1. Observation of performance Advantages The most reliable method of assessing performance of practical activities Can be used to assess application of knowledge and understanding into a real work environment as well as skills performance If carried out using a welldesigned checklist, observation can capture evidence of performing a range of subject or vocational skills plus interpersonal and communication skills to measure actual performance against desired outcomes Most useful when used to individuals rather than groups Observation can be carried out by others (e.g. supervisors) and used as evidence of reaching learning outcomes May require more than one observation to assess consistency of performance Can be combined with oral questioning to confirm knowledge and understanding or 195 Disadvantages Time consuming, especially if teacher has to travel to carry out observations May not be suitable for assessing in group situation as evidence of individual performance must be recorded simultaneously Not all skills can be observed readily Requires careful planning for situations when teacher can observe the maximum possible range of tasks being carried out Learners may feel under pressure Learners may be nervous when they know they are being observed and may make mistakes If carried out under simulated conditions, may not assess learner's ability to perform in a real work environment (see simulation)
any areas not observed 2. Skills test Can be effectively used to assess ability to carry out a practical task to the required standard after training has taken place, e.g. speed, accuracy, performance to standards Learner completes task against given parameters which are then used to measure successful performance Can be used to assess application of knowledge and understanding into a real work environment as well as skills performance Can be effectively used as tool to measure current level of performance and note areas where skills must be improved during diagnostic assessment Successful achievement may be measured through observing skills test or by examination of products completed during skills test May be carried out through computer-generated programmes where learners work through scenarios and have to successfully complete each one before starting the next As with observation Can be expensive to set up in terms of provision of resources and equipment
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3. Simulation
4. Projects and assignments
Can be effectively used to simulate realistic conditions, e.g. flight simulator If conditions for simulation reflect pressures and constraints of a real work environment, enables learner to perform tasks in a learning environment before undertaking them in the work environment Suitable for assessing performance where assessment of performance in real work environment is not suitable, e.g. where unsuccessful performance could cause danger or damage, e.g. assessing ability to fly an aeroplane Successful achievement may be measured through observing or by examination of products completed during simulated activity Useful for providing opportunities to learners where real work environment is not available, e.g. provision of a model office where learners can practice skills by carrying our real tasks for members of staff May be used successfully using appropriate IT programmes Work-based projects are an effective method of assessing application of skills, knowledge and understanding in a real work environment Can be used to assess learners problem-solving and decisionmaking strategies as well as ability to complete to required standard Can be used effectively with open or distance learning Most effective if used with marking scheme and grading criteria (if relevant) which provides basis for assessment and can be used for fair and objective assessment of results
May be difficult to reflect pressures and constraints of a real work environment Expensive to set up and resources and equipment required for successful simulation may not be available IT skills may be needed and success may depend on how well these are used
May require a level of literacy and/or numeracy which is not a requirement of the task Need to ensure that material submitted has been completed by the learner Requires careful preparation of learners by teacher to ensure ability to complete and full understanding of what is required
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5. Oral questioning
Can be combined successfully with observation, skills tests or simulation to assess knowledge and ability to apply understanding in different contexts Useful where learners have literacy problems or disability as alternative to written tests Useful to assess retention of knowledge Multiple-choice tests and those which require learner to adapt learning to provide answers offer opportunities to assess understanding All learners complete same test under same conditions, thus is an objective measure
Requires considerable expertise from teacher in interviewing and questioning techniques Learners are under pressure or may be nervous
6. Written and oral tests
Assesses knowledge and possibly understanding if well designed Considerable expertise is required to ensure tests are fair and at correct level Adult learners may have been adversely affected by past experience in the educational system Does not provide a true reflection of a learner's ability to perform tasks May require literacy or numeracy skills which are not immediately required for performance of a task Rationale of tests depends on ability of learner to recall selected information 'on demand' May not provide the opportunity to review performance and identify future learning or actions unless these are planned into time available Requires 'examination techniques' on the learner's part Otherwise, as for 'tests'
7. Examinations
As for tests Examinations can be used effectively as a final measure to assess achievement of learning outcomes on a learning programme
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PREPARING YOUR LEARNERS
Formative and summative assessments complement each other, assessing progress and achievement in relation to the learning objectives. This continuity should be clear to your learners as well as to you the teacher, and any other stakeholders in the successful delivery of the learning programme. So the summative assessments themselves should hold no surprises in terms of concepts, topics and skills for those who have to undertake them. Your learners need to be prepared. You should properly introduce summative assessments to your learners. They should be aware of:

the purpose of the assessment process the nature of the assessment objectives and criteria for success appropriate methods of response to/involvement in assessment methods any revision or preparation requirements permissible learning aids e.g. calculators, laptop computers regulations about what cannot be used in the assessment room, e.g. programme notes, mobile telephones the exact duration of the assessment sessions : dates, times and venues arrangements for the communication of results and feedback regulations from the external awarding body (if any) or company administering the training programme.
POINTS TO WATCH You should be well prepared yourself for these sessions. You should have to hand necessary exemplar material, schedules and copies of regulations (if these are appropriate/relevant to learners). You will need to be formal when administering summative assessments but in practice assessments and preparatory sessions you can reassure learners should be reassured and reduce nervousness. With young learners, many teachers undertake summative assessment procedures without taking the learners through all of the items above - this is a matter of judgement about how much and what information will reassure. Also younger learners will need to know the procedures they can follow e.g. can they ask questions? can they use dictionaries?
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ASSESSING FINAL ACHIEVEMENT
Assessment of all agreed learning outcomes may take place in several ways, depending on the types of outcomes required, the assessment strategy selected and the centre in which the learning programme took place. In an educational institution, final assessment may be through:

formal examination, at the end of the programme or part programme (module) a mixture of coursework and module tests or examinations module assignments or projects, each contributing towards the final marks obtained a portfolio of work gathered over the length of the course.
In a training organisation or a company where the learning focus is skills development, final assessment may be through:

skills tests assessment of performance in the learners work environment e.g. through observation evaluation of information from the learners supervisor or line manager relating to successful and consistent performance to the standards required.
DESIGNING YOUR OWN SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENTS
You will find it useful to gain experience of this and the various disciplines involved. Opportunities may arise for such design work at the end of modules for internal school or college examinations or tests. If you are going to design your own summative assessment material, these points will help: 1. Check out the relationship between programme aims and objectives, syllabus and session content and your summative assessment objectives. You and others should be able to identify continuity between them In the case of written assignments such as tests and examinations make sure that you design a full mark scheme to accompany your question paper. This is particular important if more than one person is going to mark learners' work. When setting out your question paper pay particular attention to:

2.
3.
The rubric (instructions to candidates - including time allowed) The layout and wording of questions. Questions should be clearly and unambiguously worded Options and sections should be clearly identified Any additional material (such as maps, diagrams etc) should be clearly produced and headed Check that the learners know what has to be handed in at the end of the assessment session
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Ensure that the allocation of marks is clearly shown on the paper itself Make sure that sufficient copies of the test/examination paper are available with spare copies in the assessment session. Check validity and reliability.
The following table illustrates possible assessment strategies for the activities listed:
Activity 1. Practical tasks Most suitable assessment methods
Observation combined with oral questioning to confirm knowledge and understanding
2. Activities in small groups
Observation where assessment of the process is a key component, e.g. where learners are developing interpersonal, communication, and teamwork skills Examination of the results of activities Learner's self-assessment may contribute Video-recording of activity and scrutiny of final tapes
3. Simulation
Observation Examination of products created during simulation Video-recording of simulation and scrutiny of final tapes
4. Role-play
Observation Learner's self-assessment may contribute Peer assessment
5. Assignments and projects
Scrutiny of assignment or project using marking scheme as basis for assessment Scrutiny or discussion of written or oral summary of findings
6. Case studies
7. Business games
Scrutiny or discussion of written or oral summary of findings Observation of process Observation combined with oral questioning to confirm knowledge and understanding
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8. Skills practice
ADMINISTERING SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT
You must be careful with the environment in which assessment takes place. For example, if learners are asked to prepare for a one hour set of written tests, then the room must be quiet, well-lit, well-ventilated and so on. There should be restrictions on conversation and comment so that everyone has the same chance to think and write in comfort and confidence. This enables equal opportunity for each learner - the level playing field. The term level playing field is commonly used in discussions about assessment. It has come to mean a combination of concepts which include:
1. Fairness/equality of access to assessment
In both formative and summative assessment teachers should ensure that all learners involved in the assessment exercise should have: Equal notice of the time, date, venue of the exercise Clear instructions as to what materials they are to bring along A clear picture of the skills, knowledge and understanding to be assessed Guidance over what to prepare and how Time schedule for marking, results and feedback. 2. Fairness/equality of operation The assessment environment should be managed in such a way that: All learners have the requisite test/examination materials, paper, etc There is silence within the room so that all may concentrate at ease Matters of comfort such as light/shade, temperature, ventilation, etc. have been dealt with in advance Teacher supervision ensures that no form of copying or discussion takes place during the assessment session External interruptions and disturbances are minimised Timings are clearly stated and adhered to. 3. Marking, results and feedback

The time schedule for these should be familiar to all learners and should be adhered to There should be as little variation as possible in scheduling if more than one group undertakes the same assessment exercise Clearly the same mark scheme must be operated and the same methods of results communicated and feedback to stakeholders employed if more than one group undertakes the same assessment exercise.
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Such practical considerations need even more attention when important observation of performance assessments are taking place (eg for coaching and sports certificates, drama and music qualifications, oral examinations for languages, workplace skills, teamwork demonstrations etc). Here environmental considerations can include the noise levels and activities outside the test location as well as conditions inside the venue. Sports and outward bound assessment need to pay careful attention to:

weather forecasts and conditions issues of health and safety transport to and from outdoor venues suitability of candidate's clothing.
MORAL ISSUES
As well as fairness in assessment (the level playing field) a number of moral issues may arise in the context of assessment. These include.:
Transparency
To what extent should our designs, purposes and operation of assessment regimes, justification of choice of assessment and communication of results and feedback be transparent? Why, to what extent and to whom should such disclosure be effected? There is no single simple answer to these questions. There may be school, local or national regulations to guide you on this issue or it may be left to your own professional discretion. If there is choice available on this issue be careful to consider the likely consequences of your options.
Performance and Personality
It is important to emphasise, especially in feedback to learners, that any criticism you may advance is of a learners performance and not of his/her personality.
Nervousness and Sensitivity
Learners are understandably nervous about three stages of assessment: Preparation for assessment exercises (revision) The assessment exercise itself Feedback; getting the results and dealing with the feedback and other consequences An understanding teacher will reassure and clarify in the first stage, administer the second stage rigorously and fairly and handle the third stage sympathetically and honestly.
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Public v Private Results/Feedback
This may be a difficult balance to strike, especially with summative assessment results. Many teachers feel that a factual communication of results by lists on notice boards, websites, postal information, etc followed by individual feedback which stresses ways forward for the learner is an effective combination of methods especially in cases of difficulty and/or disappointment. Even in the communication of formative assessment results care needs to be taken when work is returned to learners in class. Those with problems can be helped by:

Realistic and constructive comments on returned scripts A quiet chat after the class
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Practice
Revising assessment procedures Check out these questions against your experience with a summative assessment: Validity - did the assessment test all required levels and subjects? Relevance - did the assessment meet the needs of all stakeholders? Did the learners view the assessment as valid and reliable? Was the standard of the assessments appropriate to the programme? Were most learners able to succeed? Was the time allowed for each assessment task reasonable? Were tasks clear, technically correct and appropriate? Were tasks relevant - not going beyond the content of the programme? POINTS TO WATCH There are number of factors which may impact on the teachers ability to be fair and impartial such as: learners are unaware of, or do not fully understand, the criteria against which they are being assessed learners are assessed before they are fully prepared and at a level where they are able to demonstrate competence learners are nervous and intimidated by the environment or administrator of the assessment process, and make small mistakes as they perform tasks, although they have the ability to perform competently learners assessment is carried out using methods that are inappropriate to the skills that must be demonstrated although criteria for successful performance have been set, the teacher adds additional standards based on his or her opinion of what the learner must demonstrate or interprets the criteria in too stringent a manner the teacher does not like the learner and is biased OR the learner does not like the teacher and does not expect a fair assessment younger learners may be fearful of expectations, processes or outcomes. Avoid these pitfalls and you will be
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3.2.2 Using summative assessments
SEQUENCE OF USE
Here we are managing summative assessment to ensure fairness and to facilitate achievement. This is a sequence of linked processes:
1. Design of assessment tasks and mark schemes
2. Instructions of and preparation of learners
3. Management of assessment sessions
4. Assessment of outcomes - marking/grading
5. Results and feedback to learners
6. Evaluation of the summative assessment process
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CASE STUDIES
In this section we are going to look at two case studies:
Christina is dealing with a summative assessment exercise for her sequence of drawing classes
Etienne is setting up an end of module examination in AS level physical geography. Case Study 1
Christina has decided to run a 2 hour practical assessment of her learners drawing skills. The assessment objectives follow closely the technical instruction themes carried out in the sequence of learning sessions. These include:

ability to use line, methods of shading composition use of tone (light and shade) confidence in handling appropriate materials observational skills.
She has devised an assessment grid which includes her marking scheme. The levels of performance are graded from poor to acceptable to outstanding. There are no quantitative marks as such.
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Her assessment system looks like this: (only part of the grid is included)
Skill Requirements Level of achievement 1 2 3 Poor Acceptable Excellent Assessor Signature Date
Ability to locate drawing sensibly and accurately on paper Ability to apply basic principles of composition to still life assembly Ability to use line and shading confidently and appropriately
This scheme is Christinas own design.

Case Study 2
Etienne has set up an examination paper for his AS level geography learners. This is how it begins (again, only part of the paper is shown)
Question paper AS LEVEL PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY TIME ALLOWED 1 HOURS
INFORMATION FOR CANDIDATES The number of marks is given in [ ] at the end of each question or part question All the figures referred to in the questions are contained in the Insert Sketch maps and diagrams should be drawn whenever they serve to illustrate your answer Make sure your name is on each piece of paper you use for your answer and you indicate clearly which question you are answering Answer one question from Section A and one question from Section B
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Section A Hydrology and Fluvial Geomorphology
1. Study diagram 1
(a) What kind of rainfall is being generated on the diagram?
[1]
(b) Give an example of an area of the world where this type of rainfall is frequently seen [1] (c) The diagram shows a cross-section through a drainage basin. What effects might the basin suffer if much of its vegetation is suddenly removed? [11] (d) What kinds of human and physical forces might be responsible for the rapid removal of vegetation from the basin [12] 2. (a) Outline the processes by which rivers erode their channels (b) Explain the effect of erosion on the form of river channels [7] [8]
(c) Using examples discuss the effects human activities may have upon the different flows that occur within a drainage basin system [10]
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Mark scheme
Here is part of Etiennes mark scheme for question 1 (a) orographic or relief rainfall (b) west coast of USA or South America (except desert areas of Peru and Chile)
(c) for 9-11 marks
[1] [1]
High quality explanation with abundant illustration: wide range of points covered. Mentions and explains incompetence of soil from removal of root system; collapse of channel banks; increased sediment yield; clogging of channels, lakes and reservoirs. Reduced transpiration from surface. Reduced interception therefore more direct pounding of surface; gullying and other accelerated erosion. Destruction of humic layout of soil with reduction in soil fertility. Rapid run-off. e.g. Cumberland or West Virginia in 1930s; slopes of 1990s Madagascar; deforestation in Nepal, Brazil, Indonesia.
for 5-8 marks
Explanation of some of the above points with some examples. Partial answer.
for 1-4 marks
Poor quality level of explanation; answer skeletal with one, two or no examples. Only a few explanatory points identified.
(d) for 9-12 marks
High quality explanation with wide use of a range of illustrations. Mentions and explains: (i) Physical forces of removal: fires (natural) e.g. Rocky Mountain National Park; volcanic eruptions e.g. slopes of Vesuvius, Etna, St Helens; increasing acidity e.g. Sahel (ii) Human forces of removal: creation of ski-runs/slopes e.g. French Alps: Albertville; overgrazing e.g. West Africa, Sudan; fires (accidental and deliberate) e.g. S France, Portugal 2003
for 5-8 marks
Explanation of some of the above points with some examples.

for 1-4 marks
Poor quality level of explanation; skeletal answer only.
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POINTS TO WATCH 1. When he was developing his summative assessment paper, Etienne modelled his rubric (instructions to candidates) on past examination papers. His question 2 is in fact taken verbatim from the specimen paper for AS Geography which was published by Cambridge International Examinations. These steps give his learners some experience of summative assessment which is close to the kind of examination experience they will shortly be preparing for. 2. On the other hand Christina designed her entire assessment scheme. It has some weaknesses and may lead to a high degree of subjectivity. However it could be developed into a more effective criterion-referenced scheme of assessment. For example she can improve the descriptors for levels of performance. 3. Many of your teaching colleagues can be of direct help to you - even if they conduct entirely different learning programmes. A second opinion on assessment objectives, layout of questions, mark schemes and wording of assignments is often very useful. A colleague will often identify omissions, highlight ambiguities and suggest amendments from his/her experience. This is good professional practice and its good to give your summative assessment material such a critical read/review before it gets to the learners! 4. If a number of your learners use English as a Second Language (and the test is in English) you need to check that they are disadvantaged by the vocabulary used in the assessment.
REVISING ASSESSMENT PROCEDURES
In all programmes it is necessary continually to check and perhaps revise the assessment procedures being used. You need to ensure that the validity of assessment (checking against a syllabus or Programme Plan to ensure a representative sample of topics and abilities are being assessed) and the reliability of them (through a mark scheme to ensure that all assessments are consistent for all) continually improve. Changes can and should be made were it is found necessary or desirable. It is useful periodically to ask the following questions:

validity: does the assessment assess all required levels and subjects? is the assessment meeting the needs of stakeholders how do the learners view the assessment (valid and reliable?) is the standard of the assessments appropriate to the programme (check against the Programme Plan)? are most learners succeeding? ( are assessments too difficult, too easy, not related to the teaching); if not, the reason will need to be identified
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are results what you expected? If not, why not? were assessments achievable in the time allowed? do assessments allow for the assessment of all levels of ability, or were some disadvantaged because assessment tasks (e.g. questions) were too easy/hard and were therefore unable to show their true skills? were tasks clear, technically correct and appropriate? were tasks relevant - not going beyond the content of the programme?
Assessments must be fair, objective and impartial. Internal assessments need to be above reproach with no bias, and the scrutiny by external agencies e.g. awarding bodies or internal personnel help to ensure this. Most educational institutions will have verifiers who check assessors work and external agencies will moderate a centres grades and systems. There are a number of factors which may impact on teachers ability to be fair and impartial. Such factors include:

lack of awareness by learners of the criteria for assessment learners are assessed before they are fully prepared learners are intimidated by the environment, teacher of the assessment process inappropriate assessment methods additional criteria added lack of time or resources for assessment.
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Practice
Check out the room in which your summative assessment session is to take place and the staff who may be involved in it.
1. Step One Talk the Talk
Imagine you had to hold a summative assessment session of your own design (i.e. outside the normal schedule of public examinations, etc) (a) who would you contact to check room availability? (b) who would you contact to arrange invigilation (supervision) if you could not be available yourself? (c) what arrangements would you have to make with the invigilator to:

check presence or absence of examinees? Give instructions to examinees? supply script and question papers? return scripts and question papers (if required)?
2. Step Two Walk the Walk
Go to the room selected and check it out for yourself for the following:

potential causes of exterior disturbance e.g. building work potential causes of interior disturbance e.g. noisy fans count numbers of desks and chairs. If insufficient, where can extra supplies be obtained? Include chair and table for invigilator arrange furniture so that desks are equally spaced construct notices asking for Quiet Please; Examination in Progress any potential difficulties with heating, lighting, ventilation and/or air conditioning.
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3.2.3 Analysing summative assessment data
MARKING
In written summative assessments it is essential to mark work with accuracy, consistency and thoroughness. This means you need to refer closely and carefully to mark schemes and assessment criteria. If you know you have a great many scripts (i.e. completed assessment written work from learners) to mark, be fair to yourself and your learners by breaking up your marking sessions, taking proper comfort breaks and maintaining your concentration. If you are part of a marking team you may have to submit samples of marked work to the team leader who then checks your marking and compares your marking with those other markers in the team. There may be a meeting then to agree how the marking will be interpreted and details managed. This process is called standardisation of marking. It is an essential part of the formal assessment of public examinations. In a skills-based context, similar advice applies, although here you could well be dealing with a series of exercises involving use of assessment criteria. This can be very taxing and a great deal of concentration is required. Moreover, such assessment may require more than just circling of letters of numbers on a scoresheet. Some of these assessment systems ask for the provision of comments and remarks. This is not easy at the best of times and teachers who work in outdoor environments can describe the difficulties of writing assessments in snow, blistering heat and driving rain!
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Not many teachers see marking as being the highlight of their professional activity. Can it be elevated above the level of necessary chore? It can certainly be made more interesting and more worthwhile if it is geared to a variety of assessment designs which are in turn, linked to specific sections of teaching and learning. It therefore shows learners varying abilities to respond to different learning experiences. If we see marking as part of a process or design, enquiry and professional development then it can act as a key source of information on the way in which learners can act as a key source of information on the way in which learners can develop their own skills, understanding and knowledge. Marking is at its fairest and most productive if a mark scheme is consistently developed applied. Make marking work for you. Merely ticking, correcting and scoring does not make the most of a valuable opportunity to feedback directly to the individual learner. Not many such opportunities may exist. So take the opportunity to:

Highlight successes (however small) Correct errors or misconceptions Say what a mark means Show the learner ways in which his or her work can be developed Set new goals try this
Marking makes much more sense if it is seen by learners and teachers to perform a series of valuable purposes. So it must be carefully targeted and interwoven into the Programme Plan. It should be a natural follow-up to learning and assessment objectives. These, not some misconceived ritual or habit should drive the frequency of marking.
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PROCESSING OF EXAMINATION DATA
Let's assume that we have collected summative assessment data from our group of learners who have just completed a written examination. The examination was designed and conducted in-house and there are 25 learners in the group. Have a look at the table which shows the results obtained. Weve substituted learners names with letters of the alphabet.
Candidate A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Percentage 61 92 57 68 48 32 43 57 37 88 20 47 86 70 57 44 85 45 50 57 45 51 46 56 55 Rank 7 1
8=
6 16 21 22 8= 23 2 25 17 3 5 8= 21 4 19= 15 8= 19= 14 18 12 13
You will see from the table that we've already processed the data by producing a rank order, giving the relative positions achieved by the learners. We can see the range of the data from the highest (1st) of 92% to the lowest (25th) of 20%. We can calculate the mean mark - 55.88% the median - 55% and the modal mark - 57%.
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Very often such measures are recorded on and form the basis of summative assessment reports. How much detailed analysis you enter on such reports is determined by: i. ii. iii. iv. school or college or departmental policy your own preference perhaps a combination of i and ii requirements of local or national bodies
You can, given the choice, extend your analysis by reference to percentiles, standard deviation and other such measures. But theres an important question for you to consider here:
Who is going to be making use of such data?
There are two main groups of users:

1. Learners, parents and other stakeholders
These will want to know
the marks or percentage achieved i.e. a measure of outright/raw attainment how the learner did relative to other learners in the same class/group/year/cohort what the teacher made of this performance.
In these circumstances
raw marks or percentages, plus rank order and mean marks (for set and/or group/year) will give an accurate numerical response to the first two requirements but what did you as teacher make of the performance? Here we need to look at the relationship of the expected to the observed performance there is no reason, having constructed the test paper and the mark scheme, why you should not pencil into a fourth column on the results table the mark or % you would expect each candidate to achieve. In a fifth row you can indicate with + and - signs the differences between the expected and the observed performance .... an interesting exercise!
2. Departmental, school, college users
Here there are other considerations such as how did groups perform relative to each other. We can look at comparisons of marks ranges, means, medians, and modes and we could if necessary look at percentiles and standard deviation. We can also look at year-on-year comparisons for the same or similar tests. You can end up handling great masses of data (as examination boards do) and there is no doubt that computerisation can help you enormously especially through adept use of software packages (eg spreadsheets).
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SKILLS-BASED DATA
Supposing our group of learners has been undertaking a course in communication skills. Such skills might include: making a presentation speaking and listening conducting an interview note taking producing a short report. As we've already seen, many such skills can be assessed using a criterion-referenced assessment scheme. These feature levels of competence or performance plus descriptors of qualities needed from the learner to establish themselves at that level. A simple example of such a scheme in the UK is the Diploma of Achievement 16-18 skills-based course. In this scheme a six mark range is employed but the descriptors are written for 2, 4 and 6 only eg:
Making a presentation 2
The presentation is complete
4
As 2, and the presentation is interesting and competent
6
As 4, and the presentation is confident, enjoyable and appropriate to the audience
Here you have three levels of achievement. But when the scheme of assessment was trialled, teachers thought it better in practice to include three other marks - 1 (not quite a 2), 3 (not quite a 4) and 5(not quite a 6). This was a useful suggestion, enabling teachers to make finer judgements, which was in the end adopted into the assessment scheme. Notice that we have written marks in single inverted commas because strictly speaking 2, 4 and 6 are not really marks. They are levels or bands of skills attainment. They could just as easily be called gold, silver or bronze or A, B, C or whatever. You will come across similar criterion-referenced schemes. You can use limited numerical analysis of performance but be very careful of what such measures actually mean. Much depends on how the descriptors are constructed and worded and what the designers expectations of performance were and are.
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Practice
Next time you're involved in the processing of summative assessment data, try working as a team. When examination boards undertake this task they work through a number of examination teams, each with its team leaders, chief examiners and so on. Your team could actually manage, process and evaluate the entire summative assessment system for your particular set of responsibilities. Individual team members can be assigned to:

draw up possible questions, assignments and assessment tasks produce mark and assessment schemes develop score sheets, marksheets, report forms handle the marking of a component, question or paper be responsible for making calculations based on data produce graphs, charts etc of data produce written analysis of findings from data processing.
The whole team could finalise task designs

agree mark schemes standardise marking and assessment procedures help process data evaluate the assessment exercise(s).
Alternatively, if you work in a small institution (eg a small primary school), you can collect example of learners work for each of the levels identified in the institutions curriculum. You can annotate samples with descriptors of ways in which they have met the required standards (the criteria/mark scheme employed).
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3.2.4 Providing feedback about achievement
'HIGH STAKES'
Communicating results of summative assessments to learners is always a momentous event. You can use all kinds of methods including sending results by post, making them available for collection at institutions, pinning them up on university noticeboards, reading them out in learning sessions and even publishing them in newspapers. The results of examinations, especially public examinations, performance on training courses and skill tests are becoming more and more important. They are pivotal to academic, professional and vocational qualifications. They are not only indicators of success but also milestones in people's lives. They will almost certainly affect prospects for future courses, future employment and future life styles. Of course the most important and immediate 'consumer' of such results of summative assessments is the learner himself/herself but there may well be other users of such information:

Within companies results of training programmes held in-house or externally may well affect the direction of a trainees' career within the organisation. Some employment activities cannot and will not accept applicants who do not possess nominated fundamental qualifications. Employers are users of this data. Success in one set of summative assessments may allow entrance into new courses and further qualifications e.g. the transition into higher education depends to a great extent on summative assessment data. The institution itself will wish to record and store internal and external summative assessment data. Even once the learner or trainees has left, others may request information about individuals' performance for reference purposes. In some cases the publication of a schools results will affect parental choice of school for their children.
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Given the growing importance attached to performance in summative assessments it is vital for us to consider the way we as professionals support learners when they receive such results.
FEEDBACK FOR THE NEXT STAGE
Where groups and/or contacts with learners resume after the results of summative assessments have been made known, the teacher should:

Debrief learners on the outcomes of the assessment, being sensitive to the emotional needs of the learners Set out ways forward for all the learners, reassuring those who have not done so well. This will include details of new courses to apply for, new sources of information, details of retake opportunities where applicable and other potentially useful ideas. It is important to be positive as well as realistic. Clear up any individual problems arising from marking or other technical issues.
This kind of feedback session needs to be carried out promptly once the summative assessment results have been made known.
FINAL FEEDBACK
Where the learners leave the institution and have no more learning sessions with the teachers - usually a learner's situation after external examination results.

Here the learners may call at the centre to find out their examination results Where this happens (and it happens at most schools or colleges) then staff should be available on-site or at least on-call to deal with enquiries and agree new career or educational strategies as and when these may be required. It may be necessary for learners who are applicants to colleges or universities to telephone these establishments. It is good to set aside a room with telephone facilities for this purpose. Directories, career data and notebooks also come in handy. There may be a health and safety issue. These are stressful events for even the most 'laid back' of learners and there might be some risk of illness or injury if results are disappointing. Senior colleagues may need to be present to deal with the possibility of queries about marks/grades. Stress is also an important feature in the lives of younger learners. Knowing the learners is a key quality for a sensitive teacher to have.
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Practice
1. For teachers of older learners:
Canvass the opinions of former and current learners who have undergone the stress and worry involved in obtaining external examination results. Some questions for them include:

How did they feel about the way their learning centre handled the distribution of results? What was their view of the role played by learning centre staff in acting as counsellors and 'back-up' in the hours after results were made known to learners? Can they suggest any ways in which: results might be better, more thoughtfully, distributed? the facilities open to learners at 'results times' might be improved?
2. For teachers of younger learners:
Consider how learners are helped to cope with success and failure. This could be done in the context of winning and losing school matches, quizzes etc.
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3.2.5 Maintaining records of learners achievement
FORMAT?
We've looked at problems involved in storage, access and security. Now we're going to focus on the format of records. In one way this seems to involve a question with a straight choice between:
hard copy or disk storage?
Increasingly institution and teachers are opting for the latter, though there are advantages and disadvantages with each format.
HARD COPY? Advantages
It's already in existence - a known set of methods such as filing and cheap, easy to operate systems such as folders, filing cabinets etc It's paper-based and so copies can be readily made It requires no power source other than human labour to operate it It requires little investment in machinery and training though it can become unwieldy without photocopying facilities.
Disadvantages
It's bulky and time-consuming. Special rooms and cupboards may be needed for physical storage of files, registers etc It's paper-based. Paper is both heavy and inflammable It's clumsy in terms of entry of data onto pro-formas etc It's not easy either to use for cross-referencing and or to access and replicate.
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DISK STORAGE Advantages
Disks, CDs, etc can hold enormous amounts of data on a very small physical space Once saved, data can be quickly and easily retrieved (but also easily erased!) Even cheap printers can produce copies of very acceptable quality very rapidly Spreadsheets and other software applications make entry and processing of information easy The price of PCs is gradually decreasing There is little doubt that technological developments will make this option even more attractive in the future in terms of size, speed, applicability, versatility and price The machinery concerned takes up very little space and can be operated in a wide variety of teaching/learning areas. Laptops, especially, make proper recording of data highly mobile.
Disadvantages
Cost: equipment is still more expensive to purchase than hard copy but it is decreasing and reliability is increasing Distribution: if the institution is to purchase these machines then which members of staff, which departments will receive them and where will they be located? Training : some basic training in procedures and keyboard skills may be required Security: of the machines themselves. As they are versatile they do have resale value so are attractive targets for theft of material stored on disks, hard disks, etc. This can be attached by hackers and corrupted by viruses
Individuals: computer-based records work well for the recording of statistical information but may not reflect other areas of a learners progress and achievement.
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Practice
Think about the following questions:

How long should you maintain records of learners' achievements? What kind of material needs to be stored for a long period? Does your learning centre have any policy framework for dealing with the difficulty of length of storage of information like summative assessment results? Can long-term storage be concentrated around one or two 'master' or 'central' storage facilities?
POINT TO WATCH Is your institution affected by regulations brought about by data protection legislation and, if so, how? Check your understanding if data protection legislation.
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Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 4 : EVALUATION
Module 4
EVALUATION
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4.1.1 Evaluating learning
REFLECTION
You've planned and taught your programme, and assessed the learners progress and achievement. You've been keeping notes and reflections which you have kept since you started your Diploma experience. Let's remind ourselves about the Kolb experiential learning cycle
Looking at the diagram you can see how we could almost rename it 'the reflective learning cycle'. Reflection is a most important part of our professional practice. But we all know that reflection is often put off until later, squeezed out by other pressing needs. Then by the time we get round to it, we can't quite remember all the points which were important, and we've lost the freshness of the ideas. Or we may just simply forget. Many teachers would benefit immediately from devoting more time to the process of evaluation. Some shy away from it because they are worried about 'criticism'. Be positive! Think of reflection as being an exercise to build strength. This series of activities will build up your awareness and confidence. It will also enhance the variety of your professional practice.
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PLANNING FOR EVALUATION
Successful evaluation can only be carried out if you have three things in place: 1. A set of criteria against which success can be measured 2. Effective methods of gathering and analysing information 3. Procedures covering the ways in which evaluation is to take place and the part to be played by everyone concerned. You can't measure unless you have something to measure against. The criteria for evaluation may comprise any or all of the following:

performance indicators measurable objectives national or professional standards centre standards personal expectations or goals.
Properly worded, detailed performance indicators describe the standards which should be reached by anyone performing a skill, i.e. they indicate the required performance levels. Whether these five types of indicators of success are designed by the teacher as measurable objectives, are part of national or professional standards or are set by the centre, they are essential as a measurement tool.
BASIC STEPS IN PROGRAMME EVALUATION
You should have given these some thought along the way as you have been teaching your programme. 1. Decide what you want to find out about 2. Decide from whom you can obtain the variety of information needed for successful evaluation. Use notes on self-evaluation, too 3. Decide the methods you will use to collect the required information 4. Design your criteria for success against which you can evaluate the information you will collect. Remember: this is about evaluating the programme, not only about the assessment of learning.
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METHODS OF EVALUATION
Evaluation can be achieved by using a wide variety of methods:

discussion planned oral feedback during the programme written feedback spontaneous feedback.
People who can be involved in evaluations can include:

learners colleagues or members of a teaching team, other non-teaching staff working alongside you line managers other stakeholders funding agencies awarding bodies and other external agencies.
POINT TO WATCH It's good to aim for a variety of evaluation sources as each of the above will have their own (probably different) perspective on the learning programme.
WHAT SHOULD BE EVALUATED?
All aspects of the programme can be evaluated, but the main aspects include:

learning methods/learning strategies organisation of learning sessions and the learning programme itself use of resources the content of the programme individual satisfaction of results and addressing needs contribution of activities to other aspects of learner development e.g. language skills.
POINTS TO WATCH 1. It is important that you ensure everyone involved in evaluation has a clear idea of their role and the desired outcomes. So: Keep your contacts with people 'warm' - do a bit of 'networking' Go that extra mile - go to see them - make a special effort Have your questions sharp and ready - don't waste people's time
2. Feedback information needs careful examination and analysis which may be quantitative as well as a qualitative. When designing questions think of the best format for answers in terms of processing those responses 3. Make sure you can list main points arising from your feedback sources. Use appropriate methods to support and illustrate these points
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4. If you are going to use methods of quantitative analysis, there is no need to involve yourself in sophisticated statistical techniques - unless you want to. Simple frequency charts, means etc will suffice. Look for what is significant in your data and any anomalies which occur 5. Listen carefully to oral responses to your questions. Note down key issues which are raised. Think of yourself as a journalist looking for quotes. Make sure you make a clear written record of what is said 6. Do not forget to review and use your own reflections from your records - e.g. you personal development diary. your log or 'day book' - made during the progress of the learning programme. This is vital reflective evidence!
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Practice
Now try your hand at designing your own evaluation questionnaire. Questionnaires are by far the most widely used method for collecting information, so here are steps you can take in designing your own questionnaire. 1. Decide what want to find out 2. Decide from whom you can obtain evaluation information 3. Methods of collecting information?
Step 1: Decide what you want to find out
You'll want to discover the strengths and weaknesses of your learning programme. It will help to know which parts of the programme you organised and carried out well and where your professional practice could be improved. The following are important questions to ask but don't be afraid to add in your own:

did the methods used achieve the outcomes required? were sessions organised effectively? did activities used within sessions achieve the desired outcome? were resources used effectively? was the content of the programme suitable to achieve desired outcomes? were both learning outcomes and individual learning needs satisfied for all learners taking part?
You can add your own specific question(s).

Step 2: Decide from whom you can obtain evaluation information
Clearly you'll wish to get feedback information from the learners themselves. There could be a great many of them, so processing the data could be very time consuming. You could go for responses which are quantifiable and easy to process eg
The learning sessions stimulated my interest in the subject as a whole
(Circle the number to indicate your response)

Strongly agree 1 2 3 Agree 4 5 Disagree 6
As well as from the learners you might wish to obtain information from:

teachers, support teachers, and others who have played a part in the learning programme line managers responsible for learners and their progress and achievement, both in your own centre and in companies where learners might operate
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learner's employers (if relevant) funding agencies who have paid for all or part of the learning programme (where relevant)
Methods of collecting information?
Step 3:
You could use postal or other methods to send your written questionnaire to the evaluator. You would then expect a written, postal response. These tend to be either slow or 'overlooked'. More effective as a method is to take your questionnaire with you and use it as a working basis for interview. You might want to use the questionnaire at events such as parents' evening, open days etc - but don't make the questionnaire too long and cumbersome! You can build in regular times during the programme when you encourage the learners to reflect on their own learning. POINTS TO WATCH 1. You might wish to consider different types of questionnaire tailored to different events/circumstances and different types of respondent. You could keep the main approach of the questioning the same but amend the length and format. 2. This will certainly become necessary if you're dealing with very young learners. But, you can still get a flavour of their views!
How did you like the session on friendship?
(Colour in the face which says your answer)
3. Think about the spatial design (layout) and quality of production of the questionnaire itself. Don't produce a 'rushed' version. Make sure it is typed or word processed. Write a clear, professionally phrased letter to accompany it if you are using a postal method.
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HIGH FIVES AND LOW NOS
Look at the information you have been collecting through evaluation during the programme. Filter out from the feedback information the teaching and learning activities which went really well (let's call them the High fives) and those which misfired (let's call these the Low nos). In this activity you will look in turn at 1. the activities which went well. Identify reasons for their success 2. the activities which didn't go so well. Identify reasons for their relative lack of success.
High fives
Activities which went well need careful thought. How are you going to define what went well? Perhaps they were frequently mentioned in feedback? Perhaps they were easier to manage in the classroom? Perhaps they motivated learners or helped them achieve learning objectives successfully. Take one example of a high five and write the reasons for its success in your diary. Remember, your diary is for you to include as much detail as you think will be useful for future reference, for example, when completing your assignment.
'Low nos'
Activities which didn't go so well also need careful thought. In the same way as you analysed the reasons for the success of high fives look in detail at the reasons for lack of success in the low nos. Take one example of a low no and write the reasons for its lack of success in your diary
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4.1.2 Using evaluation to plan improvements
ANALYSING INFORMATION FROM EVALUATION SOURCES
For quantitative responses, tabulate your data, draw your histograms, calculate your percentages and your means. Use spreadsheets where applicable or possible. For qualitative responses, look for emerging trends which repeat themselves from a range of sources. Note dissenting views and 'anomalous' remarks. Identify and use statements which seem significant for any reason. Don't be afraid to quote directly from your own notes or remarks made in writing. For younger learners, count those smiling faces! Also remember that younger learners remember more about how they learn than what they learn. Young learners will also need to learn the vocabulary needed to express an opinion or to give an example to support what they are thinking.
Generally look particularly for responses which will help you:

make changes to learning methods make for more effective organisation make changes to topics and content make more effective use of resources devise more effective methods of satisfying learning outcomes.
This list is just a start. You'll have had subject specialist and other questions which will produce useful feedback.
DETERMINING FEASIBILITY AND BENEFITS
The first stage of planning for improvements is to review the feedback you've had and physically highlight (or write out afresh) all potential improvements. Don't be afraid to recognise the strengths in your programme.
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After you've done this, you can select the improvements which are necessary. These will be necessary for a variety of reasons, listed in order of priority: 1. Identified problems relating to health and safety issues and must therefore take priority to ensure the health and welfare of learners and safety of the learning environment 2. A problem has been identified which is preventing the majority of learners from achieving their identified outcomes 3. The benefits to be obtained from implementing the improvement will outweigh the costs or time implications in implementation 4. The improvement is within the teachers control or level of authority, is easy to implement and will resolve an issue of which the teacher was unaware before evaluation.
FORMULATING AN ACTION PLAN
An effective action plan will provide the following details. Bear in mind that your recommendations might need approval by other persons. They'll need factual information on which to make decisions about expenditure in terms of costs and time:

the improvements need to be made, listed in priority order the benefits to be obtained from each improvement how each improvement will be implemented by whom each improvement will be implemented by when each improvement will be implemented.
Objectives must be:

Specific Measurable
Everyone knows exactly what has to be done The teacher can evaluate whether or not improvements have actually brought about the intended benefits and have been achieved by the planned deadlines by nominated persons The desired outcomes can be achieved to the required level by the deadline required The outcomes can be achieved within existing resources and practicalities Everyone knows the intended deadline for implementation
Achievable Realistic Time-scaled
Here is a sample from an action plan

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Area for improvement 1. Photocopying of materials
Benefits to be obtained Some of these are admittedly poor as copies are then photocopied. By improving the quality of master copies, photocopies will in turn be legible and of higher quality. Allowing more time for photocopying by support staff will avoid these being rushed. Photocopies to be checked prior to sessions to ensure legibility and ease of understanding by learners
How improvements will be made Prepare set of master copies for each handout Store these in folders under name of session Meet with support staff to discuss how quality of copies can be improved Allow time for checking of copies prior to session Sessions plans to be examined and improvements made to timings
By whom Teacher Support staff
By when Immediate
2.
Timing of presentations and Q&A sessions Etc
Shorter presentations will allow for improved knowledge retention Selection of vital information for Etc
Teacher
Immediate and on going
Etc
Etc
Etc
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MODULE 4 : EVALUATION
Practice
Fine - you've got ideas for improvements. But how are you going to put ideas into practice? Various factors may have an effect, including

people resources organizational structures.
What factors will help, and how can you get them to help you? Jot down your ideas in your diary. Are there any factors which will cause problems, and how can you avoid these? There may be many reasons why the best laid plans do not work out in practice. You can make a start on your own action plan You can use a pro-forma such as the one used in our 'sample from an action plan'. But, you don't have to take it as the only way to produce an action plan. If you want to redesign, reword the headings, go ahead. If you want to use a different format - give it a try! You might want to include in your plan an area for notes on progress of each 'area of improvement'. That's a good idea. It converts a document into a living document. It might be useful to you to devise a way of mentioning the source prompting the 'area for improvement'. Was it the learners, a line manager or something from your own reflection? It could be good to have this as you'll be looking at this document quite frequently. A point of good practice here - go for 'agreement in advance' over as many points as you can. Talk to those involved in implementation as early as you can, get their agreement and keep talking to them! POINT TO WATCH The very act of listing your areas for improvement and methods of tackling them will etch this plan on your subconscious mind. In order to internalise your goals it's helpful to write them down as part of your commitment to making improvements in your professional practice.
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4.1.3 Making improvements and planning further evaluation

CLOSING THE CIRCLE
We've now got to stage 4 in the Kolb learning cycle. This is where we get to put plans into action. Planned improvements must be put into action effectively however and we must plan for evaluation of the results of the improvements. This means that when we come to the next round of design, practice and assessment, we can include changes we have ourselves identified as a result of on-going evaluation. POINT TO WATCH Implementing change is one of the most difficult tasks you can set yourself. Changes in education and training will affect not only learners but colleagues, line managers and any other stakeholders. This is about dealing with people effectively.
Why planned improvements sometimes fail
Let's be realistic. Well planned improvements may fail for a variety of reasons, eg:

staff are not committed to the ethos of continuous quality improvement implementation of improvements has not been planned so that it does not interfere with the learning process in any way
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no mechanisms have been planned for checking progress and/or for evaluation of successful implementation of improvements time or cost implications cause practical difficulties in implementing improvements staff are constrained by other priorities or have insufficient time to carry out improvements staff are unable to see that benefits will outweigh efforts in implementing changes resources which are needed to implement improvements are not made available.
You'll see that several of the difficulties may be beyond your control. For example a sudden change by your managers may result in an overall reduction in your budget or contact time with the learners.
WAYS FORWARD
It might be that you did not make your case for improvement particularly well
Don't be put off! Here some practical ways of making progress: 1. Introduce the idea of making changes gradually, by stages. 'Warming' colleagues and line managers to your thinking reduces suspicion. It enables others to respond in a considered fashion rather than give a 'knee-jerk' reaction which is usually negative 2. Involve people in your thinking. Make them feel part of your ideas. Then they will feel more receptive 3. Do as much research as you can. Try to find out what the budgetary constraints are and are likely to be. Frame proposals in that light 4. Do not be put off by 'failure'. Failure is part and parcel of professional experience as it was for:
Thomas Edison - failed then thousand times before he perfected a lamp which could be worked by electricity J K Rowling - turned down by several literary agencies before Harry Potter became a worldwide success
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Guiseppe Verdi - rejected by a music conservatoire in his native Italy, went on to write Aida and other operas. It is said that one million people attended his funeral.
5. Always picture success in your mind. Don't get 'attached' to outcomes - one or more details in your plan might not get realised. It wasn't you who 'failed'! 6. It helps to share experiences. It's a good idea to talk through your ideas with someone else. They might be a colleague - maybe from a different department or discipline. They might be someone from a different institution or company. You'll probably know someone whose professional thinking 'chimes' with yours. You'll be able to 'bounce' ideas off them, sound out ways forward. This is a very powerful method of development and can effectively produce a third thinking force: 1 + 1 = 3! 7. Persistence - do not pester, but be persistent! 8. Early warning - always be up to date. Keep your eyes on notice boards, websites, newspapers, professional journals - any source of information which might convey changes in your institution, its operation and development, in requirements of external bodies e.g. awarding bodies.
EVALUATING THE SUCCESS OF PLANNED IMPROVEMENTS
Here you are planning for a fresh round of evaluation data to be collected. Targets without evaluation have a nasty habit of disappearing from sight! So keep your eyes firmly on your targets through evaluation. This data may be collected through a variety of methods including:

Evaluation of learning sessions on a continuous basis. Oral or written feedback from learners and others involved in the next programme Final evaluation of the next learning programme Own observation to ensure planned benefits have been achieved Observation carried out by others to obtain an objective opinion.
We've almost closed the Kolb learning cycle we're at Stage 4.
We're planning 'active experimentation' before we incorporate it into our next design session our next Module 1.
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WORKING WITH OTHERS
Our trainers travel worldwide to introduce the Diploma to new centres. The training often involves group exercises. It's noticeable how quickly and effectively teachers respond to group and team challenges. Teachers make fine team members and leaders, yet it's surprising how little they use teamwork techniques in getting their own work done. In reflecting upon your course plan and considering improvements to it for the next teaching-learning cycle, you should think about using teamwork to greater effect. Which of the questions on this list might be more effectively and efficiently tackled by teamwork?

designing course plans designing session plans designing assessment schemes managing assessment developing use of audio-visual aids developing use of ICT programme plan evaluation designing improvements to plans implementing improvements to plans trialling new techniques evaluating new techniques attending external courses, exhibitions, organising learner visits, fieldwork designing and monitoring induction.
Teamwork enables you to bounce ideas off each other, discuss the pros and cons of methods, allocate tasks, motivate each other, produce developments quickly, monitor and evaluate improvements effectively. Teaching can often be seen as a lonely business. Lonely in the sense that teachers may see their tasks as being solitary or individual. This may sometimes be true but there are ways of breaking the mould and learning a lot by doing so. We have looked at teamwork as a way forward but there are other ways.
1+1=3 is a technique frequently used by professional people. It is a kind of sharing. You will find it useful and therapeutic to talk to someone else about professional matters. This kind of interaction can be very effective and productive (hence 1+1=3 not 2). The other person may be from a different discipline, department or field of interest. Its good if they are.
Think now about who you talk to frequently and frankly. Always choose someone with a positive approach. 'Mutual moan' sessions produce even more negativity avoid them at all costs!!
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Practice
Two things for you to try. 1. What improvements are you going to make to evaluation features in the next and revised programme plan? Evaluation itself can be improved so as to be as streamlined and effective as possible. Some thoughts to help you with this:
Was your on-going evaluation of the learning sessions and the learning programme strong enough and consistent enough to be of much use to you when final evaluation was considered? If you're not really satisfied, then you need to make some practical changes. Did you really give enough time and opportunity for learner feedback? Even when you are not taking your learning programme as a context for undertaking this Diploma, might there still be a case for inviting external observation of your learning sessions? Do you need to expand your canvas of the opinions of other stakeholders in the learning programme's success. Such involvements can have all kinds of professional benefits.
2. Have a good think about 1 + 1 = 3.

Think about sharing your ideas with one other colleague, or with a support group. Such discussions can be professionally and personally beneficial. Sharing successes with a colleague prepares the ground for those times when you'll need to share the failures too.
POINTS TO WATCH Always choose someone with a positive approach to life as well as with an open and positive professional standpoint. Avoid people who'll tell you 'it can't be done' and 'you'll never get that off the ground!' If the Wright Brothers had listened to them at Kitty Hawk they would have made just another boring canoe!
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4.2.1. Evaluating own practice
WHY?
There are many reasons for evaluating your work as a teacher. Some of these reasons might be to determine what changes you may need to make in your planning or classroom practice, or to recognise when a particular session or technique has worked effectively. Evaluation doesn't always have to be done to identify change. Sometimes it can establish that change is not necessary. It's not possible to evaluate yourself as a teacher simply through the assessments that you do of your learners' learning. Although there will be a natural correlation between the quality of teaching and the quality of learning, this is not as clear cut as it may sound. Many factors impact upon what learners learn. As well as teaching styles for example, there's also the actual programme or scheme of work that you must deliver that can have its effect too, as can the resources available to you and the time scales in which you must work. In short, evaluation of the work of a teacher is necessarily complex, and not possible to achieve on the basis of one single line of enquiry, such as the educational outcomes achieved by learners. Although evaluation is complex, it is also something that can be achieved on an ongoing basis. If you get into the habit of spending time regularly reflecting on your practice in the classroom and in the profession generally, you will amass a significant amount of evidence on which to base your self-evaluations.
BE POSITIVE
One of the curious things in life is how little time we spend thinking about ourselves and what we do. We tend to give 'ourselves' remarkably little space. This Diploma asks you to take a planned approach to evaluating your own professional practice, including courses, criteria and goals. This is a positive, beneficial and fascinating set of processes. It involves you as a person as well as you as a professional. It is interesting that in teaching we can often learn as much if not more when things go wrong as when they go well. If a session appears to have been
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successful we often dont feel the need to reflect. However, if the learners have been difficult, or do not appear to have learned anything, we need to reflect on reasons and think about the changes which we might need to make.
COLLECTING DATA
It's good to gather information from a variety of sources. Select those which are likely to provide valid and reliable evidence of your own professional practice. These include:

self assessment against set criteria, which may have been developed by either the teacher or the institution work results - learner qualifications etc results of observed performance results of assessment by others against national and/or centre standard results of own evaluations of learning sessions and learning programmes results of appraisals of performance ongoing feedback from others including learners and others in the centre information on future changes relating to areas of work.
The principles for evaluating your own professional practice as a teacher are very similar to those used for evaluating learning programmes. Again, three things must be in place at the planning stage: 1. a set of criteria against which success can be measured 2. effective methods of collecting and analysing information 3. procedures covering the ways in which evaluation takes place and the part to be played by everyone concerned.
CRITERIA, METHODS AND ANALYSIS Criteria can include:
agreed performance indicators measurable objectives organisational standard.
These can be quantitative and/or qualitative.

Methods include self-analysis and analysis with professional colleagues.
We 've already mentioned the benefits of '1 + 1 = 3' - they are seen clearly when your colleagues help you to conduct evaluation of your own practice. These benefits include:

simple re-assurance - 'talking you through' the steps involved checking that you have thought through all aspects of your evaluation helping you to get issues in perspective and identify experiences.
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Perhaps other professionals can be of help, too. For example:

line managers and heads of departments colleagues with experience of professional development and experience of inspection members and officials of professional and subject associations.
On the next page, youll find a basic self-evaluation tool you can use. These questions are only intended as a guide and you may well find that there are other more suitable questions covering issues that relate to your specific circumstances, which you can add if necessary. Go through the questions one by one, using them to evaluate yourself as a teacher. Although technically they only need a yes, no or sometimes answer, you may wish to think about any further comment that you would like to add in your diary.
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Evaluating my work with my learners Answer each statement by circling either yes, sometimes, or no (coded as Y, S, N). Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y S S S S S S S S S N N N N N N N N N My learners feel happy and safe in my classroom They are able to question me when they dont understand something They have the opportunity to develop their thinking skills through their written and oral work I work hard at developing sound working relationships with my learners I help my learners to feel self-reliant and to show self-respect in their behaviour and dealings with others I nurture effective communication in my classroom There is a culture of trust in my classroom My learners develop self-worth and self-esteem in my classroom I help my learners to develop skills such as creativity, literacy and numeracy.
Evaluating my other work as a teacher Y Y Y Y Y Y Y S S S S S S S N N N N N N N My classroom is set up for effective learning to take place I collaborate with other teachers where appropriate The assessments of learners that I do inform my teaching I work within institution-wide policies I teach with emotional awareness in mind I involve parents in learning where appropriate I encourage a relationship between my learners homes and school
Identifying what I do well in my work Which three aspects of your work as a teacher do you do well? 1. 2. 3.
Identifying what I would like to improve in my work Which three aspects of your work as a teacher would you like to improve? 1. 2. 3.
For each of these aspects, how can you improve, who would help you, and what resources are available to you? How 1. 2. 3. Help Resources
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Analysis
You can use a variety of methods to analyse the impact of your own level of skills and competence on learners and their learning outcomes. You might want to list the areas which seem to you to be of interest and concern and then expand each area, supporting the findings you list with evidence (either qualitative or quantitative) from the data you've collected from the various sources you've used. Look for the expected and the unexpected, the typical and the atypical. Highlight areas of good practice and be frank about areas for further improvement. Chris Kyriacou lists some useful areas for professional reflection: obtaining a 'measure' of the classroom climate or working atmosphere exploring your use of classroom rules exploring how pupils feel about particular topics monitoring a particular learner's curricular experiences for one week examining tasks in terms of their learning demands investigating question and answer sessions evaluating the techniques you use to assess learners' progress reviewing the motivational qualities of different activities looking at the quality of your relationships with learners examining the time learners spend on different types of activities reviewing the work you set for the more able learners reviewing your use of information technology activities.
These tend to be generic professional issues but there may also be subject specific issues which you also wish to identify from your teaching and training experience. For example teachers involved in skills tuition and training courses 'on location' in manufacturing or business workplaces are often involved in demanding learning environments. Teachers of science subjects may wish to look at aspects of experimental and laboratory work. Those dealing with special needs education may have a number of issues which need specific reflection and analysis.
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Practice
This is the time for sorting through the information you have collected and making sense of the important themes which you can identify. It's important to make notes on these themes and collate them into a series of expanded points. One way to think of this is to imagine you had to produce a written report on your own practice for some outside body.
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4.2.2 Identifying goals for improvement
GOAL SETTING
We've reached the point where we can identify and record personal goals for improving professional skills and practice. When we talk about 'personal' goals we are talking about goals specific to you as a teacher. Goal setting as a technique involves a lot of quiet contemplation by the goalsetter and imagination. It is an important stage in the professional development sequence:
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Goals:

can be characterised by their priority and their feasibility should be SMART, that is to say: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic, Time-scaled
It does help if you can 'picture' where you would like to be with certain aspects of your professional practice by when. Human beings can be very effective at this. But we are often reluctant to use this technique and are even more reluctant to talk about it! The fact is that all successful people have these 'pictures' in their mind and are determined in achieving their aims.
Step 1: Consider yourself
Your current level of skills and competence Your individual aspirations connected with your current job and future plans learning aims Your current and anticipated job requirements Your preferred learning styles.
Step 2: Think practically how to achieve your goal
programme attendance/attendance at professional courses work experience on other programmes of where delivery methods are different job shadowing/ observing a colleague in a similar teaching role coaching from more experienced teachers mentoring from another teacher open and flexible learning, distance learning, e-learning through internet or intranet self-study through books and other publications.
Step 3: Research ways to achieve your goals
publications attendance at conferences information from professional bodies through subscriptions and periodicals internet information on government policy relating to your future needs emerging national and international standards, curriculum development and new areas of work.
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Step 4: Create a realistic plan of action
Remember that professional practice goals need to be

Specific Measurable Achievable Realistic Time-scaled Example
As a result of a completed Evaluation Plan for her own performance as a teacher Maria identified these goals for developing her own professional practice: 1. Develop use of IT Skills so that I can operate new computerised system of maintaining learner records 2. Address issues of timing of activities within session plans, identifying specific delivery areas where insufficient time has been problematic 3. Improve time management skills to ensure that all resources are available prior to learning sessions 4. Review handouts and materials provided to learners to ensure content and format are clear and accurate and provide all necessary information. Subsequent compilation of a set of master copies for each learning session 5. Review of time allowed for tutorial sessions with Programme Co-ordinator 6. Closer supervision of learners when completing classroom activities. At first glance these seem to be clearly identified goals, but we asked Maria to sharpen them up a bit by considering two additional considerations for each goal
Feasibility Priority
These helped Maria gain a fuller understanding of what exactly might be involved in advancing these potential improvements.
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For example: In Improvement 6

'closer supervision of learners when completing classroom activities'
Maria knew from feedback from learners that this was an important issue for them, so its priority is high. It is a question of redirecting attention and effort in the learning sessions and should be easily achieved. It is therefore feasible.
Thoughts on continuing professional development
In her book Continuing Professional Development (RoutledgeFalmer, 2000), Anna Craft emphasises the wide range of methods of professional learning. These include:

action research self-directed study as well as teacher research linked to awards such as masters and doctorates using distance-learning materials receiving and/or giving on-the-job coaching, mentoring or tutoring school-based and off-site courses of various lengths job shadowing and role rotation peer networks membership of a working party or task group school cluster projects involving collaboration, development and sharing of experience and skills teacher placements including those in business but also in other schools personal reflection experimental 'assignments' collaborative learning learning mediated by information technology (for example, through email discussion groups, or self-study using multimedia resources)
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THE PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT MINDSET
The mindset that encourages in you a drive to progress in your career (even if that means maintaining your current position) will undoubtedly enhance your mental and intellectual well-being. In fact, it could be said that a successful approach to professional development is dependent upon your attitude of mind. Regardless of any external factors that may impose limitations on you, the way in which you handle these will ensure you gain as much as you can from what's offered. Factors which indicate the presence of a state of mind that is open to personal and professional development include:

a willingness to seek out learning opportunities a willingness to see positive learning potential in all aspects of life an affinity with the process of reflecting on learning and change an overriding leaning towards curiosity about, rather than resistance to, change.
THE TENSION BETWEEN PERSONAL AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
There's no doubt that all forms of personal and professional learning and development can have a positive impact on a school, but this does not negate the inevitable tension that will exist between individual and institutional priorities for development. These will be linked, but they are not interchangeable. Put simply, the ambitions and targets of the individual would, in an ideal world, be perfectly matched to internally and externally perceived development needs that must reflect nationally imposed targets and obligations as well as reflecting the need for the school to be accountable for the education it provides. In order to avoid damaging degrees of tension between the direction in which you, as an individual, want to travel and the direction in which others within your school would like you to develop, a balance needs to be sought. It's no good training to be a pastoral leader because it would really fit nicely with what your principal has in mind for you when what you truly have your heart set on is being a head of department. Responsibility for appropriate development must be accepted both by you as an individual and by the institution in which you work.
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WORK-LIFE BALANCE
As societies and economies develop and modernise, occupations become more demanding and complex and the balance for individuals between work and life more difficult to manage. Work is occupying an increasing and increasingly dominant part in our lives. Teaching is an excellent example of this. Teachers can point to the growing number of roles expected of them as professionals. As we have seen in this guide, they are becoming counsellors, organisers, designers, mentors, trainers and so on. The needs of learners are becoming more demanding, specific and urgent, as the world around the school becomes more sophisticated. This flower diagram shows a broad classification of activities which make up our lives. Look carefully at the diagram. Each one occupies a space in our life. Each petal represents activities in your life. You can invent new categories and have more petals if you wish. Note that WORKSPACE is only one of our petals. We have drawn the petals as though they occupy equal space in our lives. They never do! But have you got the shape of flower that you would like? Notice the arrows on the diagram. They all emanate from the centre SELFSPACE because it is from our own minds and imaginations that the power to effect changes in the petals originates. Supposing you were to draw each petal proportionate in size to its importance in your life, how big would each be? Sketch your personal flower taking each petal (and the centre) in turn. You could check it out by looking at the actual time you spent on each petal yesterday, last week or last month.
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Teaching brings with it many possibilities to expand into other spaces. For example marking, writing and out of school activities can easily invade the spaces around actually being in school. This is understandable most teachers are lively, enthusiastic and care a great deal about their work. The Diploma itself may seem to add to your pressure on time. Our insistence that you consider properly-targeted design and carry out full on-going evaluation adds to the time already spent on other teaching-learning activities or does it? Proper, fully thought-out design can lead to efficiency as well as effectiveness in teaching. A full, detailed teaching course plan can cut out last-minute panics, fraught negotiations over resources, clashes with colleagues and many of the frustrations which can wear you out so easily. Involving others, working as a team or a group can lighten your load by sharing the work equitably. If you plan your time at school effectively you should be able to get some marking done before you leave for home. Try to manage your effort at work more effectively. Perhaps you might take a bit of time for your own selfspace and now that you are in control of your workspace you might look at some of the other petals in the same constructive light.
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BRANCHING OUT
Teachers can sometimes see themselves as isolated professionals. It's possible to turn up to school, get on with the teaching and return home, and have little contact with other teachers. But let's see things differently. Look at this diagram, which shows a teacher as tree!
In the diagram, the tree is firmly rooted in professional skills and training, subject specific knowledge and grows upward in professional skills and training. Notice the function of the branches. By reaching out to others in the school the tree will

make a contribution to the development of others derive beneficial input from others.
Teamwork is a very strong way in which you can branch out. We're thinking in terms of your own institution and its professional teachers. These trees make up your own 'forest'.
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This diagram shows that there are many other forests.
How can you reach out to them? There are plenty of options. The following list will give you a start:

join a professional association and attend its meetings self-study through books, publications and on-lone courses observe professional practice in other schools arrange teaching/learning exchanges with other schools.
In your experience, what has worked best for you in terms of interacting with colleagues outside of your own school?
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Feeling good and moving on
The following table offers a framework of questions that have been designed to help you to focus your thoughts on any development and career planning needs that you may have. The questions in the framework are not exhaustive by any means. Read the questions and think about the responses that you want to record in your diary. Consider these points as you work through the table:

always trust your instincts and intuitive feelings when deciding where you want to go in your career and the path you'd like to take to get there think about the development of new skills and the expansion of existing skills and the relationship between the two gather as much information as possible about the resources available to you consider the short, medium and long-term think about what's urgent to you and what's important to you
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Practice
Draft your own development plan. You can identify and refine your own goals for potential improvements in your own professional practice. The themes arising from your analysis of your evaluation should help you immediately. You can now use a pro-forma to state/identify your potential improvements, comment on their feasibility and identify their priority. For example:
Potential improvement Need to keep records up to date Feasibility of making improvement I need to redesign my system so that it becomes easier to operate Priority? Urgent each week I get further and further behind with my record keeping because my existing system is too complex
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4.2.3 Completing a professional development plan
BE PRACTICAL
You can now draw up a development plan to identify and prioritise development needs so that you realise your goals. Many people almost set themselves up to fail in their intentions largely because:

they have planned too 'long-term' and been too ambitious and so deadlines appear far away in the future and the impetus of the plan is then lost.
A development plan should concentrate on immediate short-term and mid-term priorities. Long-term priorities can be recognised but only insofar as they provide a working context for more immediate issues. If your institution has an appraisal process in operation, use this opportunity to discuss your perceived needs and bring them to the attention of line managers.
COMPLETING A DEVELOPMENT PLAN
As we have seen there are essentially four principles in developing your own professional development plan: 1. 2. 3. 4. assessing your own current professional practice identifying areas for potential development prioritising these identifying the most suitable methods of satisfying identified development needs.
SHORT-TERM AND LONG-TERM DEVELOPMENT PLANS
The short-term plan is based on the evaluation of your current practice and you use it to develop your professional practice in your current role. The long-term plan is again based on evaluation of current practice but sets out to be your long-term goals to further your career. Both are important in terms of lifelong learning and development. If development is planned only against short-term goals and targets, or to remedy current problems, you may not strive to advance in your career. If development is planned only against long-term goals and targets, your progress may slide as deadlines appear to be far away and not urgent. Development plans should be agreed with everyone else involved in your development, such as your line manager or head of department. An ideal opportunity for raising such issues is at an appraisal. Development plans can be finalised after advice and guidance from these or any other relevant sources. Here is a sample development plan, developed in more detail from the draft plan written earlier.
Area of improvement Information technology training to operate new computerised system of maintaining learner records Actions to be taken Contact Programme Co-ordinator to identify dates and times of IT training programme Register for training programme and carry out all necessary training Target date By the end of this week Criteria for success Suitable dates identified. Permission to attend granted. Training covers all necessary knowledge and skills. Time is allowed for practice to make sure learning is applied to new system before next induction sessions All plans collected and placed in folder by the end of the week. Individual session plans to be reviewed and revised at least 2 weeks prior to each session, with amendments completed in time for photocopy deadline. All amended materials to be supplied to support staff by
Completion by date of implementation of new system
Feedback from learners for selected sessions indicates that support and supervision has been effective and enabled identification of any problems
Collect together all session plans for review at scheduled time Carry out review of all plans and identify those areas where problems have occurred due to insufficient time allowed Rewrite sessions plans to incorporate planned changes
By the end of this week
Deadline in two weeks from start of new recruitment
At least two weeks prior to each session to allow time for
Guide for the Cambridge International Diploma for Teachers and Trainers MODULE 4 : EVALUATION photocopying photocopying deadline. Feedback from learners for selected sessions indicates that support and supervision has been effective and enabled identification of any problems
Closer supervision of learners when completing learning activities
Review of session plans should ensure that time allowed for activities is realistic. Self assessment after each learning session is then necessary to ensure that supervision has been effective
Ongoing during each session Self assessment after each session
POINT TO WATCH You can see that a lot of thought and preparation has gone into the way this plan has been designed and phrased. 'Area of improvement' and 'actions to be taken' have been sharpened up to make them specific. Including the 'criteria for success' column has made them measurable. You can see that the teacher has concentrated on quite detailed short-term objectives which are achievable. The range of measures being considered is also realistic. The 'Target Date' column makes the scheme time-scaled
SMART work indeed!
Practice
Over to you! Now's your opportunity to draw up your own professional development plan. It's a good idea to approach this in two clear stages.
Stage 1: Short-term development plan
Using the columns and headings in the 'sample development plan' as a working template write in your own:

areas of development actions to be taken target dates criteria for success.

Long-term development plan
Stage 2:
You can use the same template for this This is more personal and 'timings' may be more difficult Try to use the same phrasing and be specific.
4.2.4 Specifying actions and evaluating outcomes
ACTIONS AND BENEFITS
This is about the ways in which you can put the main points of your plan into action. Then we'll see how these steps can be evaluated. There is no really foolproof way of doing this - much depends on what suits you as an individual. Using the planning example we set out above in the guidance for Completing a Professional Development Plan we can look at what our teacher, Maria, had to say about the actions she intended to take and the benefits she expected to gain. She commented on benefits for her as a teacher:
BENEFITS FOR THE TEACHER Forward planning will help improve time management during the next programme and meeting deadlines New skills learned through the Diploma have already been put into action in the current programme Continuous evaluation and self-assessment help the teacher quickly to identify and act on potential problem areas. The teacher can make small improvements along the way which lead to big improvements in the programme as a whole The teacher can develop time management skills by implementing the development plan to deadlines set The teacher will be able to facilitate learning outcomes more consistently, leading to job satisfaction The teacher will receive a better response from his or her learners by developing better or more appropriate learning materials.
Interestingly, and encouragingly, Maria also looked at benefits for her learners
BENEFITS FOR THE LEARNERS Sessions and activities will be more realistic and help learners gain skills and knowledge through doing rather than listening Learners will be able to learn through reflection on what was achieved and how achieved if more time is allowed for feedback and review of activities Learners will benefit from higher quality of resources and clarity of handouts Learner records of progress and achievement will be computerised and this will lead to greater safety sand security of records Learners will continue to be involved in review and evaluation of the programme and individual learning sessions. This will enable them to give their own views, feel involved and so improve learning on a continuous basis.
MILESTONES AND RECORDS
You need to involve yourself in implementing and updating your plan. This includes actually ticking off targets when they have been achieved. It sounds almost nave, but achievement and recording achievement is just as important for professionals like teachers to do for themselves as it is for their learners. Achieving important improvements and planned objectives is a cause of real satisfaction for teachers. You should make a record of what you have achieved and what the benefits of that achievement have been. You can incorporate these records into future design and evaluation, and they can be produced and discussed in appraisal and may be used in inspection or other professional reviews. These records act as milestones in your professional development. There is a saying 'nothing succeeds like success'. All successful individuals and successful organisations are careful to follow up one achievement with another so that a 'culture of success' is developed. Playing a part in constructing such a professional working environment is a great source of professional satisfaction.
CAREER DEVELOPMENT AND LIFE GOALS
We have been involved almost completely in explaining goal-setting and development in professional terms. This is fine because this Diploma is about developing professional skills and practice and projecting these developments into the future in a positive and constructive manner. Career development is clearly closely related to professional development but it is part of a much wider range of considerations. These include:

family and partner relationships happiness with your current post awareness of fresh opportunities elsewhere financial and accommodation matters leisure and social interests need for further training and qualifications desire for promotion or work in another field desire to travel and/or live and work overseas
There may be many more considerations we have omitted. But notice our choice of words - you can see these as 'considerations' not 'constraints' POINTS TO WATCH You've gained a taste for achievement. Try to picture what you'd like to happen in your life as a whole. You can set yourself 'life goals' and pursue them enthusiastically. If you do set yourself these broader goals: 1. Write them down. People who write their goals down are many more times more successful than those who do not 2. Write them down exactly 3. Pursue them tirelessly. Never give up 4. Don't show them to anyone. Not even friends and relatives. People you know best can be the first to discourage you - without realising. If you can manage your professional work effectively and satisfactorily, you will be in command of your own efforts. You'll be able to manage not only your own work but also the other spheres of activity which make up your life - family, home, friendships, sports and hobbies, spiritual and religious activities The final words in the conclusion to CIE's video about The Reflective Teacher are 'What have you learned for the future?' So, how are you going to teach in the future, and how will your learners learn?
Practice
Our final activity is something for you to think about. In a personal development course a trainer was trying to explain the benefits of 'taking command of your own life'. Perhaps his audience, his learners, were dumbfounded by such a thought; their faces showed little sign of response. With just a little air of desperation the trainer cried out .
'Well what are you then? A piece of driftwood bobbing up and down on the sea or a speedboat cruising smoothly across the ocean en route to Paradise?'
and finally Learners sense a teacher or trainer's feelings If you feel confident, they will feel confident in your ability to pull them through If you enjoy then so will they Enthusiasm is greeted by enthusiasm so in your teaching be confident and enthusiastic, but above all
Enjoy

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Cambridge International

Teachers and Trainers

1 University of Cambridge International Examinations 2007

2.1.6 2.2.1 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.2.4

3 University of Cambridge International Examinations 2007

Paul Beedle, CIE Manager Professional Development Certification

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THE SPIRIT OF THE DIPLOMA

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THINKING ABOUT YOURSELF AS A TEACHER

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WHAT MAKES A GOOD TEACHER?

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PERSONALITY AND PROFESSIONALISM

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INTRODUCING YOU TO THE DIPLOMA SYLLABUS

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YOUR PERSONAL DEVELOPMENT DIARY

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Examples of contrasting sessions within a series of sessions

Resources Teaching aids

Learner learning styles

1. Classroom-based 2. Trip to a newspaper office

Outcomes from the session

A word processed class newspaper Researched notes on topic of interest

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notes questionnaires structured questions interview and notes.

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1.1.1 IDENTIFYING LEARNERS' NEEDS

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