ANIMAL ULTRASTRUCTURE EUKARYOTIC

NAME

Diagram

Description

Explain the role of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum and Golgi Apparatus in protein transport in cells

1) Amino Acids made into protein on the ribosomes 2) Newly made protein are stored in Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Cavity

3) Protein are then being packaged at the end of Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum . Where, then the membrane would closes forming vesicles 4) These vescicles , pinched off the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum , transporting protein towards the Golgi apparatus. ( Transportings these newly made protein towards the Golgi apparatus) 5) As the newly made protein reaches the Golgi apparatus, these protein are then being modified in golgi apparatus . These vesicles which appear next to Golgi Apparatus may contain extracellular enzymes.

How does the fertilisation work in Plants 1) Pollen fall on the stigma. If the pollen and the plant is the same species but different plant, then the pollen would germinate. 2) Pollen Tube would then grown down the stigma. It secrete enzyme to digest the style and the product would allow the pollen tube growth. 3) As the Pollen tube reaches the ovule, the pollen tube would break down and the generative nucleus would divide into two male gamete. The first gamete would fuse with the female gamete. Whereas the second male gamete would then fuse with the polar nuclei to form primary endosperm nucleus that develops into seed storage tissues.

Fertilisation is important for = genetic variation and to restore the full complement of chromosomes. Cell cycle is the sequence of events from the formation of cell which include three stages which is Interphase,mitosis and Cytokinesis. Interphase is the stage where the cell understakes its normal function, preparing to divide, newly formed cell grows, . Mitosis is the stage where there prophase,metaphase, anaphase, telophase Cytokinesis is where the cell divide to form two daughter cell.

Core pratical for observing Mitosis 1) Firslty, cut the last 5mm of the growing root of a onion because this is where the mitosis occur in plants 2) Next, place the root on a watch glass and add acectic orcein and hydrochloric acid to the root . So the hydrochloric acid could break down the fibre to soften it whereas , the acectic orcein could stain the root to highlight the chromosome. 3) Break the root open with a mounted needle and spread out the cell into one cell think for ease viewing. 4) Place the root on a microscope slide and add warm with a Bunsen burner and then add more stain. TH warm would intensify the stain so it would produce clearer image during viewing. 5) Lastly place the cover slip on top of the root and make sure that there is no bubble trap in the cover slip so the image which projected on the microscope would be clearer to observe.

Fertilisation in membrane
1) Sperm Acrosome reaction= Sperm releases digestive enzyme to break down the zona pellucida so it could burrow through the membrane to reach the egg cell. 2) Membrane Fuse= Cell surface membrane of the sperm and egg cell allows the sperm haploid nucleus to enter the cytoplasm of the egg 3) Cortical reaction= The cortical Granules then move and fuse with the surface membrane and relases it content through exocytosis. This content then changes the surface membrane of the egg , which then stops sperm from entering the egg. 4) Meiosis= Since the sperm nucleus is in there,the second meiosis division 5) Fertilisation = The haploid sperm nucleus restore the full complement of the chromosomes = the diploid number

Structural Differences between Ovule and sperm cell

CAMENS DOUBLEMEMBRANEBUDDIES

Meiosis is the production of gamete = Female male gamete, and it allows genetic variation to occur, Genetic Variation is usually achieved through independent assortnment each homologous pair of chromosomes can line up as shown therefore there is a high chance that the daughter cells will end up with different chromosome combinations when the homologous chromosomes separates. Howevers, genetic variation can also occur through crossing over , as pair of homologous chromosomes swaps parts of their genetic materials. ( genetic information)

Stem Cell are Undifferentiated unspecialized cells Can keep dividing Can give rise to other types of cell

Totipotent stem cells from early embryos can give rise to many type of plant. Pluripotent stem cells from older embros can give rise to most types of embryonic cells. Stem cell can be found from three sources. 1) Fetal stem cells can be found from aborted umbilical cord or the baby fetus 2) Embryonic cell can be found in embryo which are designed for medical uses 3) Adult stem cell which are extracted from some part from an adult tissue to a limited extent without causing an explicit pain to the individual Stem cell => Embryos has cause controversy in the society due to religious and political conviction.

Adult stem cell can be dedifferentiated into embryo stem cell => by inducing the stem cell using vectors. In order for cell to become stem cell, it has to be self renewal- able to divide without changing it undifferentiated state. It also need to be unspecialized Who make the decision People who working in the stem cell field because they have an understanding of the issues- everyone else because they can give range of alternative view. Stem cell can develop into any type of specialized cell type therefore it can replace damaged tissue in a range of disease. Some stem cell therapies has existed => the for example the treatment for leukaemia ( bone marrow cancer) destroy kills all the stem cell in bone marroq , so bone marrow can be used to replace the bone marrow. Currently scientist are researching solutions for 1) Spinal Cord injuries- replacing damaged nerve tissue 2) Heart failure or damage which cause by heart attack- replacing heart tissue

The benefits of stem cell therapies is that it could improve society living status ( quality of life) , and save many live. Adult stem cell can be extracted from adult tissue however the stem cell would not be as flexible as the embryo stem cell. Since embryonic stem cell procedure result to embryo destruction, it is then cause an controversy in the society. Embryo is created through IVF in vitro fertilization. The egg is fertilized outside of the womb. The embryo stem cell is usually extracted from embryo when its 4 to 5 days old / blastocyst stage. Because every single egg which is fertilized- lead to many people believe that the moment of fertilization of a genetically unique individual is formed has the right to live. Therefore, it is wrong to destroy embryos.Many people also believed that if the egg is still viable, it is no right to kill it. Regulatory authorities include , looking at the prposals of research to decide if they allow, only allowing licesing and monitoring centres to be a part of stem cell research ( as this will allos only fully trained staff to extract stem cell from embryo), producing guildiness and code of practice, lastly providing advice and information to government and professional would allow them to evaluate whats involved and whats important.

Core Practical of Plant tissue culture can show totipotency Totipotency is where stem cel can give rise to different types of cells, including embryonice cells. 1) Take some cell from same plant called explants 2) Place it in a test tube which contain agar that is also contained suitable nutrient ( growth hormone). The agar medium should be sterile so microogarnism cannot grow on it and compete with the plant cell.However, the agar should also not contain glucose. So there will be no food source for airbone organism. 3) Then cover the explant and the agar with a cling film or a thin foil so there will be no entry from airborne organism. 4) The explant should then divide into a cluster of unspecialized cells. The variables such as Light and temperature should be kepr constant. 5) If the the condition is right, the explants should then differentiate into specialized cels and grow into a full plant. This experiment shows totipotency since a single stem cell can grow into a full plant. => s stem cell can give rise to different cells. Name Embryonic Stem Cell Advantanges Disadvantanges

Adult Stem Cell

Fused Cells

Sketch Mitochondria: Mitochondria is Cell powerhouse- its where aerobic respiration occur. Mitochondria usualy located in tissue where higher energy output is needed.

Sketch Prokaryote Bacterium Prokaryote is a lot smaller than Eukaryote. It has lesser organelle e.g. Bacteria. Its does not have nucleus therefore its DNA loops freely in the cytoplasm.

Sustainability is all about using resources in a way that meets the needs of present generation without messing it up for the next generation. The best stuff to use to maintain suistanability is starch and plant fibre. Plant fibre is biodegrable therefore, its easily to be broken down by mircrobes. It is also easier to extract, process and grown to meet the supply of the next generation. Therefore lesser fossil fuel would be use and the product would also be a lot more cheaper. Starch is also easier to grow and biodegrable. Plastic which are plant base are called Bioplastic. It is biodegrable, renewable therefore it help ini sustaining the environment. Core pratical in observing the effect of plant mineral deficiency 1) 30 seedlings which is the same species ( and have the same height ) 2) Make 3 nutrient broth which contained all the essencial mineral but vary concentrations of calcium. One with high concentration of calcium, another with medium concentration of calcium and the last one should have the lowest concentraton of calcium. 3) Split the 30 seedlings into 3 group and are place into each broth. 4) After 7 week, measure the average height of the plants. 5) Plants with the highest height are usually the ones with the higher concentration of calcium whereas the ones with the lowest height are the usually the ones with the lowest concentration calcium. Therefore this help in proving that plant mineral deficiency does after the growth of plant Plant mineral Water- structure rigidity, photosynthesis, regulate internal temperature, inflating cels Nitrate- making of DNA, Protein ( enzyme) plant hormone Calcium wall structure membrane permeability calcium pectate Magnesium ChlorophyII pigment for photosynthesis. Help in formation of DNA activator of Enzyme Endemism is when there a particular species that can only be found in a particular place. Molecular phylogeny is when we compare molecular structure of different species to study their degree of relatedness. There are three domain Archae Eukaryota Bacteria

Starch is the main storage energy for Plants Starch is made up of TWO polysaccharides alpha glucose ( Amylose and Amylopectin) Plant store excess glucose into starch. Amylose is unbranched chain alpha glucose. It is small therefore it is compact and easy to fit into small space. It is also harder to be broken down since it is coil. ( good for storage). Its coiled structure are caused by the angle of its glyocsidic bond. Amylopectin is long branched alpha glucose. Its branches allow enzyme thatbreak down molecule to get at the glycosidic bond easily which then enable energy to be release faster. Starc h is insoluble in water so it doesnt cause water to enter cells by osmosis ( doesnt make them swell)

Cellulose the main component for cell wall Cellulose is made beta gluose. Straight chain therefore the cellulose is also a straight molecule Beta glucose- ARE ALL JOINED BY GLYCOSIDIC BOND. Between 30- 8O cellulose chain, hydrogebn as a glue between these chain and forming strong thread called microfibrils. Structural support The glue give strength flexibility whilst allowing them to be fully permeable to water. XYLEM SCLRENCHYMA

NO ENDS Have lignin made of dead hollow cells Hollow cytoplasm Transporting mineral ions and water for the plants Ends CLOSED Short structure with Tapered ends

NO ENDS Have lignin too Hollow Cytoplasm Structural support for the Plant Ends OPEN Long Cylinders ( made up of column of cells whose end walls have broken down)

Lignified plant fibres are very resistant to chemical and enzyme breakdown. Wood good choice for building material. Cellulose microfilbris has different arrangement: Primary cell wall cellulose microfibrils are arranged in crisscross mannered in embedded glue of hemicellulose and pectin with not lignin present in the cell wall. Secondary cell wall- Cellulose microfibrils is layered sheet after sheet . Lignin is present in this cell wall. Tensile strength of a fibre is the maximum load it can take before it breaks. Core practical of Knowing the tensile strength for a plant fibres 1) Hang a fibre to a clamp stand and place weight at the other end of the clamp stand 2) Increase the weight to the point where the fibre break. 3) The maximum load which a fibre can take should be noted down. 4) Variable such as temperature, diameter and length should be constant. 5) Try with different fibre6) Repeat with different sample 7) Fibre with the highest load is the one with the highest tensile strength 8) Safety measure such as placing a mat under the clamp stand to prevent the changes of having the weight to fell on someone feet

Treatment is tested on patient Initiallly test on small number of patient Wiliam is using chance observation

William used trial and error technique

Treatment is tested on patients Initially test on small number of patients The treatment is firstly test on human tissue and live animal before clinical trials (three phase testing) Has double blind trial Has the use of Placebo- drug which do not contain any active ingredients

Three phase Testing Phase 1 tested on small number of healthy people Range of dose are used just to experiemented on which one is the safe dose To check if it behave in the manner which they predicted from the animal test

Phase 2 Phase 3 Tested on 1000-3000 Patients with the following condition Double Blind trial is used to prevent bias in data This is to collect as much data as possible Placebo is used ( Placebo is a drug which contain no active iingredients) Reduce bias Effectiveness usually compared to placebo or standard treatment Tested on 100-300 patients with the disease /condition Double Blind Trial is included in this Placebo is used To know it the Drug treatment really do treat the following diseas condition

Core Practical to know the antimicrobial properties

Firstly Grind and dry plant extract. Soak them in ethanol ( Ethanol act as a
solvent)

Add agar with bacteria suspended In it to a petri dish so the agar can cool
down and be set firmly. ( Note to self: Bacteria should not be dangerous for human beings) We can add bacteria into the agar by using sterile pipette into the agar.

Dip disc of absorbent paper in the extracts. The absorbent paper should
have the same thickness and size so they would have the same volume of extract ( fair experiment) .

You would then also need control discs that soaked into the ethanol only
( to make sure that ethanol is the reason that inhibit the bacteria growth)

Seal the petri dish.We seal the petri dish so there is no entry of other
microogarnism. ( dangerous ones)

Incubate the petri dish at 25C

( Higher temperature than 37C can cause growth of dangerous bacteria) ( 25 bacteria grow well ( Removal of lid may cause entry/ exit of bacteria including potentially harmful ones) antimicrobial plant extract is working. The large the zone, the more ffective it is.

Observe without removing the lid

Check the inhibition zone. The inhibition zone tells you how well the

Biodiversity is the variety of organism in an area. Species Richness is the number of species in an area druing a particular time. Genetic Diversity is the genetic

variation in a species. We Can measure Species Richness through random sampling ( Quadrat) whereas, we can measure genetic diversity by know how many allele are there in the gene, or how many gene there are in a species. Natural selection is the survival of organism where their gene give them advantange in fertilization and environment. Sample of natural selection is the penicillin bacteria bacteria which have the enzyme that can break down penicillin has higher chance of living whereas the ones that doesnt have one soon died out and the ones that survive will pass on their advantageous gene to their younger generation. Phenotype is the outward expression of a organism which affected by Genotype and environment. Ways to maintain biodiversity

ZOOS SEEDBANKS
Zoos can maintain biodiversity through education, universities, science research, captive breeding program, Reintroduction program. Education o Increase the public awareness on illegal trading e.g. Ivory o Education on maintaining the biodiversity o o Captive Breeding Program Scientific Research ( Univeristies, etc ) o Researching for any treatment on animals disease ( therefore improving animal quality of life ) o Behavioral studies on animal ( increasing mating success in captive breeding program) Captive Breeding Program o Maintaining Biodiversity o Prevent animal extinction o Maintaining Genetic Diversity of the species Reintroduction Program o Maintain the population natural breeding Problems which can be encountered during Captive Breeding Program ( Zoo) Zoo has limited amount of animals therefore theres a high chance of inbreeding would occur- reduced genetic diversity Animals would have higher chance of having disease due to inbreeding

We could avoid such problem by keeping a record of the animal breeding history. Do not allow the animals to repeatedly breed with the same partner. Interzoo swapping. IVF.

Seeds
Seeds is small therefore it is cost effective since we can store lots of seeds Store lots of seeds- maintaining genetic diversity Dormant How does a seedbank conserve a rare plant species Take seeds from different species/ different type of plant Xray to know if it viable and still can germinate Take out water from the seed/ Dried the seed so the inner seed wont freeze when put in the cold temperature Stored in cold temperature to slow down enzyme activities and lengthen the length of storage- slow down germination After a certain period of time, the seed would be check whether its still germinate or not. Ift 75% of them didnt germinate, the ones that germinate would be allowed to grow into a full plant and seeds would be taken from that plant instead. However if 75% did grow, the seeds would be kept until another time of inspection.

How does Zoo (Captive Breeding Program and Reintroduction Program) help species conservation.

Captive Breeding Program would kept extinct species away from predators. Captive
Breeding Program would also conduct things such as IVF and In Zoo Transfer to prevent the following species from going extinct. However Captive Breeding Program also have breeding program for the animals and precaution such as e.g. kept a record of the animals breeding history to prevent inter breeding should be kept to prevent disease.Captive Breeding Program is where zoo captive and breed animals which in danger of extinction. This would also increase awareness of extinction to the public.

Reintroduction Program restore the natural breeding and the habitat of the species.
Reintroduction Program is where zoo release captive-bred animal back into the wild.

DRAW AND DESCRIBE MITOSIS STAGES

Brief introduction about Ultrastructure Lysosome contain mix of enzyme Can self destruct Apoptosis Break down contents into molecule which can be reuse They always fuse with another membrane Made by Golgi Apparatus Nucleus Contain Ribosomes make protein DNA , therefore control activities of the cell

Rough Endoplasmic Renticulum Where they systhesis, organize process protein and release protein which made by ribosomes by exocytosis to Golgi Apparatus Covered with ribosomes Large surface for synthesis for all the prioteins

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum Sytem of membrane enclosing fluid filled space. Sythesis, store and process lipid

Golgi Apparatus Enclosing fluid filled in flatten sac Close link to the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Process and modify and package protein and lipid. Make lysosome Made up of stacks of parallel flattened membrane pickect called cisternae., Golgi Body takes proteins from the rough endoplasmic reticulum, assembles and packages them and transport them to where they are needed. The vesicle which sent by RER fused with Golgi body. Involved in producing material for cell wall Some protein in golgi body is digestive enzyme

Mitochondria Site of aerobic respiration

Found in large number in cell that are very active and require a lot of energy