Soft Magnetic Ni-Fe Base Alloys.: VDM Report No. 27

VDM Report No. 27 Soft magnetic Ni-Fe base alloys.
B, J BR
BS
-HC
HC
-BR -BS
A company of ThyssenKrupp Steel
ThyssenKrupp VDM
TK
VDM Report No. 27 Soft magnetic Ni-Fe base alloys.

Physical basics and specific applications.
Dr. Heike Hattendorf ThyssenKrupp VDM GmbH 58791 Werdohl
Contents.
Introduction Physical basics Magnetic variables Exchange integral Anisotropy constants The Ni-Fe alloy system Adjusting the properties High permeabilities in high-nickel alloys Permeability as a function of temperature Effects on the shape of the hysteresis loop - Hysteresis loop - Flat loop - Rectangular loop - Lattice defects Textures of medium-nickel alloys Annealing under a longitudinal magnetic field Ni-Fe alloy types Ni-Fe alloys with a high nickel content Ni-Fe alloys with a medium nickel content Alloy production, processing and final anneal Applications Residual current circuit breakers Relays for residual current circuit breakers Transducers Pulse transformers Low-distortion transformers for modems Shielding Summary List of variables and units used Literature Material tables Forms supplied Sales organisation Imprint
2 3 5 6 8 9 11 12 14 16 16 17 18 20 22 25 28 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 40 41 45 46 49
Introduction.
Soft magnetic alloys have played a decisive role in electrical engineering for over 100 years now. Typical applications include the pole pieces of electric motors, transformer sheet packs (Figure 1), shielding, and yokes and armatures in relays. Starting from the original pure iron, a large number of soft magnetic alloy types have been developed over time, each of them improving on specific magnetic properties. Today, soft magnetic alloys include: - Fe-Si alloys - Fe-Ni alloys - Fe-Co alloys - amorphous alloys - nano-crystalline alloys, and - ferrites This report describes the properties and application areas of nickel-iron alloys. It starts with a brief outline of the basics of magnetism.
Figure 1: Transformer station (5000/125 volt) from Augsburg, designed as a poster column, 1900 (original). (Photo: German Museum, Munich)
Physical basics. Magnetic variables.
A magnetic field can be generated with the aid of a current-carrying conductor coil. If a soft magnetic material is introduced into the coil's interior, the magnetic field strength within this material will be higher than the field in the coil would be without the soft magnetic alloy [1], [2]. In other words, the soft magnetic material acts as a sort of amplifier for the magnetic field. The term "magnetic field", however, requires further definition. The magnetic field strength H describes the generating field which in the case of a currentcarrying coil, for example, depends only on the current and the coil geometry. To describe the amplifying effect, a further field parameter must be introduced, namely the magnetic flux density B. The generating field is the same in the soft magnetic material and in air. The magnetic flux density B is greater in the soft magnetic material than in air, depending on the effective amplification. B is the magnetic parameter, which is responsible for the induction of currents! The quotient B/H indicates the absolute permeability. In practice, relative permeability is used more frequently: = B/0H where 0 = magnetic field constant = 1.25710-4 Tcm/A. = 1.25710-6 Tm/A.
H is measured in amperes / metre (A/m), B in tesla (T). For a field in vacuum conditions = 1. For a field in air, 1. The difference between the magnetic flux density B in a soft magnetic material and the magnetic flux density B0 in a vacuum is designated the magnetic polarization J: J = B - B0 = 0H -0H Soft magnetic materials are characterized by high permeabilities, i.e. as a rule B0 can be neglected.
B, J BR
BS
Initial curve Commutation curve
a fixed peak value of magnetic field strength H, and the peak value of the magnetic flux density B is measured, and this process is repeated with various magnetic field strength values H, the measured value pairs (H, B) will lie on the commutation curve which is practically identical with the initial magnetization curve. Applying magnetic field strength levels right up to the peak value of H during alternating magnetization cycles will result in an amplitude permeability a [3] of a =
-HC
HC
-BR -BS
Figure 2: The hysteresis loop.
B = Magnetic flux density H = Magnetic field strength BR = Remanence HC = Coercive force
B o H
at the peak value of magnetic flux density B. Special permeabilities which are frequently used for characterizing a material include the initial permeability (amplitude permeability) i for H 0, permeability 4 at H = 4 mA/cm, and the maximum permeability max.
50 Hz Hysteresis loop
Static hysteresis loop
H
Eddy current losses
Soft magnetic materials are used in alternating fields with varying frequencies. As the frequency increases, the hysteresis loop widens, HC rises, and the permeabilities are reduced. It is therefore important to differentiate between the values of the above mentioned variables according to the frequency at which they have been measured, i.e. at a quasi-static frequency close to 0 Hz or as is often the case at 50 Hz or even higher frequencies (Figure 3). Each time the direction of magnetization is reversed, some useful energy is wasted in overcoming internal friction. This loss is proportional to the area covered by the hysteresis loop. The area covered by the magnetization curve yields the remagnetization loss per unit volume for a complete cycle [1]. o B dH = hysteresis loss unit volume
Figure 3: Hysteresis loops for various frequencies (schematized).
The relationship between B and H is not unique; and a plot of B versus H will take the shape of a hysteresis loop (Figure 2). As the magnetic field strength H increases, B (or J) will reach saturation; the saturation flux density BS (or saturation polarization JS) is obtained as a result. If the magnetic field strength is reduced to H = 0, the remanent magnetic flux density BR will remain within the material. The zero value of the magnetic flux density is only reached with a negative applied magnetic field strength, the coercive force -HC. A further increase of H in the negative direction yields B = -BR. As H increases in the positive direction, B assumes the value 0 at HC and finally saturation induction BS. The initial magnetization curve is unique, which is why it is also termed a virgin curve. If a specimen is run through multiple full remagnetization cycles with
Remagnetization loss can be broken down into various types. The hysteresis loss is the reduction in area covered by the static hysteresis loop. Normal and anomalous eddy current losses and the residual loss are the loss types that cause the hysteresis loop to widen at frequencies greater than zero [4]. Soft magnetic materials can be readily remagnetized, i.e. their permeabilities are high, and both remagnetization loss and the coercive force are low.
Physical basics. Exchange integral.
Soft magnetic materials are designated "ferromagnetic" substances after their best-known representative, iron (Latin: ferrum). Other ferromagnetic substances include Co, Ni, Cr, Mn and rare earths. The atoms of ferromagnetic substances have a "magnetic moment", i.e. they react to an external magnetic field just like the magnetic needle of a compass. The magnetic moment is the sum total of the "magnetic moments" of all the electron spins (electron rotation around its own axis) and the angular momentums of the electrons orbiting around the nucleus. The magnetic moment of ferromagnetic elements in particular originates from the spin of electrons from open electron shells within atoms. However, the presence of a magnetic moment in a material's atoms alone does not make it a ferromagnetic substance. In a ferromagnet, the magnetic moments of the individual atoms are aligned in parallel by interaction energies of inner-shell electrons, i.e. without an external magnetic field acting on the material (Figure 4). This leads to spontaneous magnetization. Spinning a magnetic moment out of its parallel position requires energy, the so-termed exchange energy wA between two magnetic moments [1], [2]: wA = IA S
2 2
Ferromagnetism
Paramagnetism
Figure 4: Orientation of magnetic moments in atoms in the ferromagnetic and paramagnetic states.
(for small values)
where IA is the exchange integral, S the spin quantum number (proportional to the atom's magnetic moment), and the angle between two neighbouring magnetic moments. As the temperature increases, thermal oscillation competes with the ferromagnetic tendency for spins to align and causes them to fluctuate around the ideal parallels. When the temperature rises beyond the Curie temperature TC, thermal oscillation becomes so strong that the ferromagnetism is broken down. The directions of the atomic magnetic moments are then statistically distributed. In the presence of an external magnetic field, they tend to align in parallel to this field to some extent, an effect called paramagnetism.
Physical basics. Anisotropy constants.
materials, such as ferrites, have a far more complex structure, the basics explained below for a simple cubic lattice apply to all of them.
Edge Edge Diagonal
In a cubic lattice, specific directions, e.g. the edges or diagonals, are characterized by their symmetry (Figures 5, 6). The magnetic moments do not follow a random orientation but specific preferred directions, such as the edges or the diagonals. In the case of Fe and Ni-Fe with medium nickel contents, the preferred magnetic directions are the cube edges, and for pure nickel the body diagonals (Figure 6). These are the easy magnetization directions. Changing the orientation of magnetic moments from the preferred direction requires energy. For example, if a material is used in a 50 Hz transformer, the orientation of its magnetic moments is changed 100 times per second. The energy required for this is termed the crystal anisotropy energy Ek. It can be described by the following equation [1], [2]: Ek/V = K1 (12 22 + 22 32 + 12 32 ) + K2 12 22 32
Preferred magnetic directions: Edges Diagonals
Figure 5: A simple two-dimensional cubic lattice.
K1 > 0
Preferred directions
K1 > 0
Preferred directions
Examples: Fe, 50% Ni-Fe
Example: Ni
where 1, 2, 3 are the cosines of the angle between the magnetization direction and the relevant cube edge, V is the volume unit, and K1, K2 are proportionality constants. K1 is significantly greater than K2. In most cases, K1 will suffice to describe experimental findings. The smaller the amount of K1, the lower the amount of energy required to deflect the magnetic moments from a preferred direction. If the cube edges are the preferred directions, K1 is > 0; if the body diagonals are the preferred directions, K1 < 0. If, for example, the cube edges are the preferred directions, then there are 3 preferred directions. In specific cases, there is only one preferred direction. This denotes a case of uniaxial anisotropy energy EU, where the above formula applies in a simplified form [1]: EU/V = KU sin2 KU is the uniaxial anisotropy constant, the enclosed angle between the preferred direction and the magnetization direction. Such anisotropies can be induced, for example, by magnetic fields during annealing or, as described in the following, by stresses in the material.
Figure 6: Preferred magnetic directions for K1 > 0 and K1 < 0.
The atoms of substances such as metals do not follow a random orientation but are regularly arranged on a crystal lattice. Figure 5 shows a simple two-dimensional case. If this is extended into the third dimension, a cubic lattice is obtained. A large number of metals are arranged in such a cubic lattice. For example, iron and Fe-Si alloys of a specific type are arranged in a bodycentred cubic lattice, while nickel-iron alloys are arranged in another specific type, the face-centred lattice. Although other crystalline magnetic
If a ferromagnet is magnetized, it undergoes minor changes in length. This phenomenon is termed magnetostriction [1] and it causes, among other things, the hum of transformers. Magnetostriction is measured as the relative change in length in the direction of the magnetic field at saturation polarization (Figure 7). It varies as a function of the direction within the lattice. With cubic lattices, two constants are sufficient: 100 in the cube edge directions and 111 in the direction of body diagonals. The two constants may differ considerably from each other. Frequently the mean magnetostriction constant S is used for polycrystalline materials with statistical distribution of the grain directions. Magnetostriction may assume a negative value as in the case of pure nickel, where magnetization leads to a reduction in length or a positive value as with Ni-Fe alloys with a medium nickel content. In a material with positive magnetostriction, the direction of tensile stress becomes the preferred magnetic direction; with negative magnetostriction it becomes the most difficult direction, while the directions perpendicular to the direction of tensile stress become preferred magnetic directions. There is a further anisotropy energy, the stress anisotropy energy E : E/V = 3/2 S sin2 KU = 3/2 S (for an isotropic polycrystalline material) is the tensile stress, the angle of deflection from the preferred direction. Internal stresses that exist in every material, no matter how carefully it has been treated, have the same effect as external stresses. However, if stress anisotropy energies do occur, they are lower, the smaller the values of the magnetostriction constants. Soft magnetic materials are characterized by low hysteresis losses, high permeabilities and low coercive forces. An essential prerequisite for achieving these properties is to keep all anisotropy energies at the lowest possible level because they make remagnetizing more difficult. In other words, the crystal anisotropy constant K1 and the magnetostriction constants should be small and internal stresses should be minimized by careful treatment of the material. The relation-
H l/2
J = Js
= 2 3 J=0 l
l l
Magnetostriction constant
l/2
Figure 7: Change of length when applying a magnetic field to a ferromagnetic specimen.
ship between or HC and the anisotropy constants K is governed in many cases by the following proportionalities [1]: HC K/JS , JS2/0K
where K can be one, or a sum, of the anisotropy constants mentioned above. The permeabilities behave in reverse proportion to the coercive force values.
The Ni-Fe alloy system.
quenched 1 0 K1 in 10 -3 Ws/cm 3 -1 -2 -3
FeNi3
To achieve good soft magnetic properties in a material, the anisotropy energies must be low [1], [2] (see section "Anisotropy constants"). This is the case where the crystal anisotropy constant K1 and the magnetostriction constants 100 and 111 are very small or close to zero. Figure 8 plots these constants as a function of the nickel content in the Ni-Fe system. K1 passes through zero at approximately 75 % Ni, and the two magnetostriction constants 100 and 111 pass through zero at between 80 % and 82 % Ni*). The anisotropy energies can thus be reduced to very low levels in the range of highnickel Ni-Fe alloys which are characterized by high permeabilities, low coercive forces, low hysteresis loss and a saturation polarization below 1 T. Other Ni-Fe alloys are positioned in the range of approximately 50 % Ni. This alloy group has the highest saturation polarization among Ni-Fe alloys. Permeabilities are lower than with 75 % to 80 % nickel, because K1 is always greater than 0. In some cases permeabilities can be improved by a specific treatment of the alloy.
cooled slowly
111 20 in 10
-6
0 -20
100
40
60
80
100
Ni content in % by mass
1.6 1.4 1.2
TC
600
400
JS
J S in T 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 40 60 80 Ni content in % by mass 0 100 200
Figure 8: Crystal anisotropy constant K1, magnetostriction constants 100, 111, saturation polarization JS and Curie temperature TC as a function of the nickel content (according to [5] [9]).
*) All units in % in the text denote % by mass.
Adjusting the properties. High permeabilities in high nickel alloys.
Figure 8 shows that K1 and 100 or 111 in the twocomponent system nickel-iron never assume the value zero simultaneously. This can however be achieved by alloying with Cu, Mo or Cr. Unfortunately there is no way of reducing all magnetostriction constants to zero. It has been shown though that the highest permeabilities can be achieved for 100 0 or 111 0. Figure 9 presents the multicomponent system Ni, Mo, Fe + Cu ([10] -[12]). The K1 = 0 curves are plotted for various cooling conditions from tem> peratures ~ 900 C. K1 = 0 varies considerably according to heat treatment. The curves shift to higher molybdenum contents with slower cooling rates. The same effect can be achieved with a tempering treatment at around 500 C after > quick cooling from temperatures ~ 900 C. So it is possible to influence K1 subsequently and take it down to zero by targeted heat treatment.
Figure 9: The multicomponent system Ni, Fe + Cu (according to [10] [12]). > Curves for different cooling conditions from temperatures ~ 900 C.
Composition Magnifer 7904 80 % Ni, 5 % Mo, bal. Fe Magnifer 7754 77 % Ni, 5 % Cu, 4 % Mo, bal. Fe Magnifer 75 76 % Ni, 5 % Cu, 2 % Cr, bal. Fe
Strip thickness 50 Hz permeabilities in mm 4 max 0.065 0.065 0.065 200-300 000 200-300 000 150-200 000 320-420 000 320-420 000 240-320 000
Table 1: Alloys with 111 0 and K1 0.
As the molybdenum content increases, the curves for K1 = 0 are shifted toward higher nickel contents. Iron can be replaced with copper without any significant shift in the curves for K1 = 0. The behaviour of the magnetostriction constants is exactly the reverse: their passage through zero as a function of heat treatment varies by less than 0.05 % Ni. On the addition of molybdenum, the curves for 100 or 111 stay the same with nickel content. When iron is replaced with copper, their passage through zero shifts to lower nickel contents, i.e. there are many ways of reducing K1 and one of the three magnetostriction constants to zero. The technically relevant alloys are positioned close to the curve for "Cooled quickly from 550 C". A few examples can be seen in Table 1. K1 is strongly influenced by heat treatment (Figure 8). This has specific consequences:
10
Magnifer 7904 1200 C - 4h - Cooling rate 0.9 C/min 500 000
K1< 0
400 000 max Permeability 300 000 4 200 000
K1 = 0
K1> 0
100 000 440
460
480 Withdrawal temperature TE in C
500
520
Figure 10: 4 and max as a function of the withdrawal temperature TE.
Figure 10 shows the permeabilities of toroidal strip wound cores in an alloy with 80 % Ni, 5 % Mo, balance Fe. The toroidal strip wound cores were annealed at 1200 C, followed by cooling in the furnace at a rate of 0.9 C/min. They were taken from the furnace at the withdrawal temperature TE and then allowed to cool quickly in air. The permeability 4 at 4 mA/cm and the maximum permeability max depend strongly on TE. Missing the optimum withdrawal temperature by only a few degrees will result in a significant drop in permeability. This means that the temperature control system of an annealing furnace must meet the highest requirements in terms of precision, if maximum permeabilities are to be achieved outside the laboratory as well. Further, it should be noted that the maximum is asymmetrical. At temperatures above the optimum withdrawal temperature, permeability will suffer a sharp drop. At the maximum, K1 = 0, as Figure 8 shows, faster cooling in the furnace or a higher withdrawal temperature TE will result in K1 > 0; with slower cooling or a lower TE, K1 < 0.
Adjusting the properties. Permeability as a function of temperature.
11
Magnifer 7904 1200 C - 4h - Cooling rate 0.9 C/min 400 000
K1 = 0
TE
515 C 500 C 495 C 490 C 475 C
300 000 Permeability 4
200 000 460 C
K1< 0
100 000
K1> 0
0 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 Measuring temperature C
Figure 11: 4 as a function of the measuring temperature and withdrawal temperature TE.
Roughly constant permeabilities and magnetic flux densities between -25 C and 80 C are important for many applications. Figure 11 shows the temperature dependence of permeability 4 between -25 C and 80 C. In the specimens taken at 495 C, this temperature dependance is less marked at higher measuring temperatures and shows a significant drop at low measuring temperatures. K1 = 0 at the maximum of this curve, greater than 0 in the range of the significant fall, and smaller than 0 in the range of the less marked flat temperature dependance. At lower withdrawal temperatures, the passage of K1 through zero shifts to lower temperatures and so the flat section of the curve covers an ever increasing measuring temperature range. The dependence of permeability on temperature decreases, but the permeability level drops as well. This means a compromise has to be found for the individual application between a low dependence on temperature and high permeability.
12
Adjusting the properties. Effects on the shape of the hysteresis loop.
Round
Flat
Rectangular
Hysteresis loop
Figure 12: Hysteresis loop shapes.
The hysteresis loop can have a variety of shapes (Figure 12). These are described by the ratio BR/BS or by the ratio BR/BM, which probably reflects practical conditions more correctly. BM stands for < a defined magnetic flux density BS (Table 2).
Hysteresis loop shape Round Flat Square BR/BM approximately 0.6 0.7 < 0.5 approximately 0.9
Table 2: Hysteresis loop description by of BR/BM.
13
Magnetic field strength H
Rectangular loop
0.8 T
Flat loop
0.8 T
B B H
B B H
5A/m
H t
5A/m
Sinus-shaped (50 Hz)
0.8 T
B B
0.8 T
B B
H t
5A/m
5A/m
Pulsating
Figure 13: Magnetic flux change in sinus-shaped current and pulsating DC with a flat and a rectangular hysteresis loop.
For residual current circuit breakers with pulsed current sensitivity, a material with a flat loop is required, [11] [13], to ensure that pulsating direct currents also induce a sufficiently large magnetic flux change in the core. Figure 13 shows this for a toroidal strip wound core with a rectangular and flat hysteresis loop respectively. With a pulsating direct current the hysteresis loop will run in the region above to the upper remanent magnetic flux density. During the period with no current, the magnetic flux density drops to the static remanent magnetic flux density from which the next pulse starts. For a core with a rectangular hysteresis loop, the static remanent magnetic flux density is very high. Hence, in the case of pulsating direct current exci-
tation, the achievable change in magnetic flux density or flux density swing B is much smaller for a core with a rectangular hysteresis loop than for a core with a flat loop. Compared to a sinusshaped magnetic field strength of identical value, the change in magnetic flux density will be somewhat smaller in a core with a flat loop than in a core with a more rectangular loop. With pulsating direct current, on the other hand, the magnetic flux density swing is greater because the remanent magnetic flux density is lower. The shape of the hysteresis loop can be influenced and varied over a wide range by means of targeted heat treatment.
14
Hysteresis loop In the section "Exchange integral" it was mentioned that all magnetic moments in a ferromagnetic material are parallel. Although this is correct, in reality it is somewhat more complex. The atomic magnetic moments are not polarized parallel to each other throughout the material but within individual regions the Weiss domains (Figure 14) [1], [2]. The individual Weiss domains have different magnetization directions. They are separated from each other by Bloch walls (Figure 15). A Bloch wall is a transition area between two Weiss domains in which the neighbouring spin magnetic moments rotate gradually from the magnetization direction of one Weiss domain to another. In a demagnetized specimen the Weiss domains are so arranged that their magnetic moments cancel each other (Figure 16, upper section). When an external magnetic field is applied to a demagnetized specimen, the favourably positioned Weiss domains grow at the cost of the unfavourably positioned domains, i.e. the Bloch walls are forced to move (Figure 16). The specimen shows a magnetic polarization J and magnetic flux density B unequal to zero. Of course real materials usually have lattice defects such as dislocations, grain boundaries and impurities that impede the Bloch wall movement. These inclusions or defects are often referred to as pinning sites. With very small magnetic field strengths, a minor bulge in a Bloch wall between its pinning sites suffices as movement. Magnetization is still reversible; if the magnetic field strength H drops to zero, the magnetic polarization disappears (Figure 17). This phenomenon is termed reversible Bloch wall movement. With greater magnetic field strengths the Bloch walls gradually detach themselves from their pinning sites and move towards a new equilibrium position. This movement can be observed: it is known as the Barkhausen jumps which can, for example, be clearly heard as clicks in a loudspeaker. The magnetization cycle has now reached the steep section of the hysteresis loop. If H drops to zero now, J assumes a value different from zero. The Bloch wall movement is now no longer reversible.
Weiss domains
Figure 14: A ferromagnetic specimen broken down into Weiss domains (according to [1], [2]).
ain
Do
oc
wa
ll
Figure 15: Rotation of the magnetization direction in a Bloch wall (according to [1], [2]).
Do
ain
Bl
15
Wei domain
H=0
Bloch wall
B, J = 0
Demagnetized
H>0
With further increased magnetic field strengths, the magnetization direction within the individual Weiss domains also rotate out of the preferred direction (spin rotation processes, Figure 17). The magnetization curve becomes flatter until, on completion of all spin rotation processes, it reaches the saturation polarization JS. If the magnetic field strength is now reduced to zero, the magnetization direction returns to the nearest preferred direction and the formation of Bloch walls commences. The remanent polarization JR remains within the material. On the application of a magnetic field strength in the opposite direction, further Bloch walls form. The total polarization becomes zero again only with a sufficiently high magnetic field strength -HC, (coercive force). If H is further increased in the negative direction, the same processes will take place in the other direction, and so on. The magnetic field strength H required to cause the Bloch walls to bulge, loosen and move varies with the number and type of lattice defects. Permeability and coercive force increases with greater numbers of Bloch wall pinning sites. Hence obstacles to Bloch wall movement must be avoided.
B, J > 0
Figure 16: Magnetization of a demagnetized ferromagnetic specimen.
J, B JS JR
Spin rotation processes
Irreversible Bloch wall movement
Reversible Bloch wall movement
-HC
HC
Initial curve
Figure 17: The various types of Bloch wall movement through the hysteresis loop.
16
Toroidal strip wound core
Later magnetic flux direction
Flat hysteresis loop A flat hysteresis loop is obtained, when the spin rotation processes that govern the flat section of the loop, start at a very early stage of the remagnetization cycle (Figure 17). This is the case with a preferred direction perpendicular to the later magnetic flux direction, so most of the Weiss domains are magnetized perpendicular to the later magnetization direction (Figure 18). To achieve this in high-alloy nickel alloys it is necessary to make sure that K1 0, i.e. there is no preferred magnetization direction. Then the material should be heat treated at temperatures between 300 and 350 C for 1 to 1.5 hours under a magnetic field perpendicular to the later flux direction (Figure 18). This treatment is termed transverse magnetic field annealing. It generates uniaxial anisotropy with a correspondingly high uniaxial anisotropy constant KU transverse to the later flux direction. Figure 19 shows how the magnetic flux density B in a field with a peak value H = 15 mA/cm varies with the transverse magnetic field annealing time tQ. With a sinus-shaped magnetic field strength it decreases continuously, with pulsating direct current (index "stat") it reaches a maximum. With longer times tQ Bstat also decreases because the hysteresis loop becomes too flat and permeabilities drop to very low values. An annealing treatment under a magnetic field can also produce uniaxial anisotropy in mediumnickel alloys all of which always have K1 > 0. A transverse magnetic field annealing, for example, will result in very flat loops with a higher flux density swing than in the high-nickel alloys [11]. Rectangular hysteresis loop A rectangular hysteresis loop is obtained when magnetization (Figure 17) is more or less exclusively governed by Bloch wall movement and almost no spin rotation processes are required. This is the case if there is a preferred direction parallel to the later magnetic flux direction. Such an example will be discussed in the section on medium-nickel alloys.
Preferred direction
= direction of the magnetic field applied during annealing = induced uniaxial anisotropy energy ~ Ku
Figure 18: Heat treatment under a magnetic field transverse to the later direction of magnetic flux (transverse field annealing).
Magnifer 7904 F 600
400 B in mT
Bstat
200
0.5 t Q in h
1.0
1.5
Transverse field annealing at 340 C for tQ Magnetic field strength H (50 Hz) H stat
= 15 mA/cm
Figure 19: B, Bstat as a function of the annealing time t under a transverse field.
Q
Adjusting the properties. Lattice defects.
17
The magnetic field strength H required to cause the Bloch walls to bulge, detach from their pinning sites and move depends on the number and type of lattice defects. These pinning sites should be avoided because the greater the number of these obstacles to Bloch wall movement, the lower a material's permeability. Generally, the permeability of a classic crystalline material will be higher, the lower the amount of impurities (nonmagnetic inclusions) it contains, the greater its grain size, and the smaller the number of dislocations. This explains why, for example, deformation should be avoided. The structure of a Bloch wall is influenced by interaction of the anisotropy energy and the exchange energy. In a 180 Bloch wall, for example, the magnetic polarization vector rotates towards its new orientation along the length (Figure 15). The magnetic moments of two neighbouring atoms form the angle between them. This increases their exchange energy wA, which increases along with . The smaller , the smaller wA, but the thicker the Bloch wall. As the magnetic moments within the wall are not aligned in a preferred direction, i.e. the crystal anisotropy EK is not equal to zero, EK increases with the Bloch wall thickness and thus acts in the opposite direction. The optimum Bloch wall thickness is obtained when the total wall energy assumes its minimum [1]. In this condition, the following relationship applies: kTC aK1 lattice constant Bolzmann's constant crystal anisotropy constant Curie temperature
Permeability
Degree of purity
Grain diameter in
Figure 20: 4 as a function of the degree of purity r (reciprocal of the volume in % take up by inclusions, according to JIS G 0555) and grain diameter.
led condition. However, greater hardness coupled with good soft magnetic characteristics would be desirable for components susceptible to wear, such as sound recording heads. This is achieved by alloying with Nb, Ti, Al, etc. Yet a targeted annealing treatment leads to the formation of fine precipitates which have an adverse effect on permeability. In high-nickel alloys with K1 0 this effect is limited because the diameter of the precipitates is significantly smaller than the Bloch wall thickness [11]. The permeability of the alloy 80 % Ni, 4 % Mo, Fe is essentially determined by the grain size in the final annealed condition. Figure 20 plots 4 as a function of the grain size for heats with a varying degree of purity r (reciprocal of the volume in % taken up by inclusions, according to JIS). All the points lie on one straight line, independent of the degree of purity. The degree of purity of these heats is so high that the direct importance of the few relevant inclusions (in this case those in the m-range) in their role as pinning sites for the Bloch walls is insignificant when compared with the grain boundaries. Indirectly, however, the degree of purity is important, because heats of the highest degree of purity always have the greatest grain sizes.
a k K1 TC
The smaller K1, the thicker and the more blurred the Bloch wall. This relationship is relevant in the context of inclusions. Not all inclusions are equally important but it is mainly those whose diameter is roughly equal to the Bloch wall thickness that act as pinning sites. The significantly smaller or larger inclusions are "overlooked" [2], [11]. Soft magnetic materials are not just magnetically soft but often mechanically soft as well. The 80 % NiMoFe alloy, for example, has a hardness of only 110 - 130 HV5 (Table 12) in the final annea-
18
Adjusting the properties. Textures of medium-nickel alloys.
Grain boundary
Grain
In medium-nickel alloys, the saturation flux density reaches a maximum yet the crystal anisotropy constant K1 is always greater than zero, i.e. the cube edges are preferred magnetization directions. Permeability is therefore generally lower than with high-nickel alloys. It can, however, be increased via a specific texture [11]. The crystal lattice does not usually extend across the material but only over a specific area i.e. the grain. In the neighbouring grain it is turned through an arbitrary angle [14] (Figure 21). In an isotropic texture, the cube edge directions are statistically distributed in each grain within the lattices (Figure 22 left). In the second texture in Figure 22, all grains are oriented approximately in the same direction, i.e. the cube edge direction [15]. This can be achieved by a specific rolling and annealing procedure. If a cube edge direction i.e. a preferred magnetization direction lies approximately in the direction of magnetic flux, remagnetization up to high flux densities is governed by Bloch wall movements. The result is a rectangular loop with high permeabilities (see section Rectangular hysteresis loop). In an isotropic texture where only very few grains are aligned in the preferred direction, the spin rotation processes commence at an earlier stage. This results in a somewhat flatter loop (see section "Flat hysteresis loop") with somewhat lower permeabilities, because the spin rotation processes are energetically less favourable.
Figure 21: Grains and grain boundaries in crystalline materials.
Figure 22: Explaining the term "texture" (schematic, two-dimensional).
27
.
Strip plane Strip plane
[001]
Rolling direction Magnetic flux direction (210) [001] texture
[001]
Rolling direction Magnetic flux direction
Cubic texture
In nickel-iron alloys, various types of textures can be generated (Figure 23): in the cubic texture [15] one side of the cube lies on the strip plane and one cube edge points to the rolling direction which later becomes the magnetic flux direction. In a further texture, the cube is rotated through approx. 27 about the rolling direction, but the cube edge pointing in the rolling direction/later magnetic flux direction retains its orientation. It is named (210) [001] texture. This terminology will be used to designate this texture in the following text.
Figure 23: Textures of NiFe alloys.
19
25 Primary recrystallization Initial grain diameter in m 900 20 fine-grained 850 15 cubic texture 800 increasing intensity 10 80 85 90 95 97
25 Initial grain diameter in m
1100 - 1200 C
Primary recrystallization
Secondary recrystallization 900
The highest permeabilities are achieved with a texture of the (210) [001] type. A coarse-grained microstructure has lower permeabilities because the grain orientation does not follow a preferred direction. Permeabilities in a fine-grained, isotropic microstructure are also lower because the grain size is significantly smaller. A cubic texture generates a marked rectangular loop; once again, however, the very small grain size results in low permeabilities. Table 3 gives an overview of how texture influences a 48 % nickel-iron alloy.
Structure RG TG T Isotropic Secondary-recrystallized (210) [001] texture 4 9,900 16,000 max 82,000 95,000 40,000
20 fine-grained
] pr efe rred
850
15
10 80 85 90
(21
0) [
coarse-grained
800
95 l Final stain in % lo
97
20 mm
Cubic texture BR/BM > 0.95 <1,000
Table 3: Effect of textures on Magnifer 50 (48% Ni, bal. Fe; strip thickness 0.20 mm for RG and TG, and 0.10 mm for T).
Figure 25: Secondary recrystallization in medium-nickel alloys at temperatures of 1100 C 1200 C (according to [16]).
Temperatur of intermediate annealing in C
If the material is annealed at temperatures between 1100 C and 1200 C, a second recrystallizing process [17], [18] called secondary recrystallization will take place after the formation of the cubic texture. As a result, the cubic texture will be destroyed and a (210) [001] texture with a millimetre-range grain size will be generated instead. Excessively high strains will lead to centimetre-range grain growth with varying, magnetically unfavourable orientation directions (coarse grain). Each of the textures is clearly identifiable by its very marked grain structure (Figure 25). The transition area between the individual texture types varies with the degree of impurity and the chemical composition of the alloy.
l Final stain in % lo
Figure 24: Primary recrystallization in medium-nickel alloys at temperatures of 1100C 1200C (according to [16]).
-In (l/lo) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
001
Temperatur of intermediate annealing in C
If a material of a specific grain size is deformed by a strain of only some 30 - 60 %, then after recrystallization annealing in the range of 900 C to 1050 C, the material will have a fine-grained, approximately isotropic microstructure. The grain size varies with the annealing temperature. With higher strains the intensity of cubic texture increases. Depending on the initial grain size mainly the cubic texture is formed after strains between 90 % and 96 % (Figure 24). The cubic texture will become more marked as the strain increases.
-In (l/lo) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
900 - 1050 C
20
Adjusting the properties. Annealing under a longitudinal magnetic field.
Toroidal strip wound core
Current I
The following section looks at the process of annealing under a longitudinal magnetic field parallel to the later flux direction (Figure 26) [11], [19, 20], a process referred to as longitudinal magnetic field anneal. The toroidal strip wound cores are strung onto an isolated electrical conductor through which current of a suitable intensity is conducted during the heat treatment. A precondition for this treatment is that the uniaxial anisotropy constant KU induced under the magnetic field can assume a value larger than the crystal anisotropy constant K1. Figure 27 plots a comparison of the uniaxial anisotropy constant KU and the crystal anisotropy constant K1. With an annealing temperature of 450 C, KU reaches its maximum at approximately 65 % Ni, which is where the difference between the Curie temperature and the tempering temperature is greatest. From approximately < 55 % Ni, K1 can be reduced to a value of K1 KU. In addition to cause generation of uniaxial anisotropy, the magnetic field annealing also changes the value of K1. The values of K1 and KU vary with the annealing temperature and time. K1 becomes smaller, the lower the annealing temperature and the longer the duration of the annealing treatment because its value shifts toward the "cooled slowly" curve (Figure 27). By contrast, KU increases with decreased annealing temperatures and increased annealing times.
Later magnetic flux direction = magnetic field direction during annealing = preferred direction of induced uniaxial anisotropy energy, strength ~ KU
Figure 26: Heat treatment under a magnetic field parallel to the later direction of magnetic flux (longitudinal magnetic field annealing).
21
At lower temperatures (approx. 420 C) K1 < KU for an alloy with 55 % Ni [11], [19, 20]. The preferred direction is the direction of the magnetic flux density. The hysteresis loop is rectangular because the spin rotation processes start at a very late stage in the cycle (Figure 28); The permeability 4 is low. Slightly higher temperatures generate a state where K1 KU. The hysteresis loop is round and permeabilities are very high. At even higher temperatures, the loop is extremely flat, despite the longitudinal field annealing. Permeabilities drop, and B for pulsating direct current increases significantly. In these conditions, KU << K1 [13]. Annealing without a magnetic field produces very low permeabilities in alloys with 53 % to 65 % nickel. Below the Curie point of approximately 530 C, a material with 55 % Ni is magnetized to saturation in its Wei regions. This means that during cooling it is exposed to magnetization which has a different direction in each CurieWeiss region. From this it follows that a magnetic field treatment is essential for these materials. What has been said previously about the influence of texture also remains valid here: maximum permeabilities can only be achieved where the optimum (210) [001] texture has been formed.
K in 10 -3 Ws/cm 3
quenched
1
K1
FeNi3
K U after annealing
at 450 C
-1
cooled slowly
-2
-3
40
60 80 Ni content in % by mass
100
Figure 27: Ku as a function of the nickel content (according to [6] - [9], [23]).
Magnifer 53 after longitudinal field anneal 100 000 75 000

max
200 000 150 000 100 000 50 000 0 0.8 0.6 0.4
B R /B M
50 000 25 000 0 800
B in mT
600 400 200 B for H=20 A/m 0 400 420 440 460 480 Annealing temperature in C
0.2 0 500
Figure 28: 4, max, BR/BM and B as a function of the annealing temperature during longitudinal field treatment.
BR /B M
max
22
Ni-Fe alloy types. Ni-Fe alloys with a high nickel content.
This group includes the nickel-iron alloys with the highest initial and maximum permeabilities. Their saturation flux density BS lies between 0.7 and 0.8 T. The soft-magnetic nickel-iron alloy Magnifer 7904 with approximately 80 % nickel and approximately 5 % molybdenum has the highest technically achievable permeability values of all nickeliron alloys - i.e. 4 240,000 for a strip thickness of 0.065 mm also with very small coercive forces of HC 1 A/m (Table 4, Figure 31). Magnifer 75 alloy with 75 % Ni, 2 % Cr and 5 % Cu can reach initial permeabilities of 4 = 150,000 in strip of 0.065 mm thickness (Table 5, Figure 31). Its ductility is superior to that of the alloy with 80 % Ni and 5 % Mo (Table 10). Major application areas include toroidal wound strip cores for integrating current transformers in residual current circuit breakers, transducers, laminations for LF transformers, electronic differential current switches, lowdistortion transformers in modems, as well as stamped parts for relays, stepped motors, sensors and shielding cases (Figures 29, 30, 33, 34, 37 and 38).
Figure 29: Stamped core sheets in Magnifer 7904 for low-distortion transmitters in modems.
Material Magnifer 7904 1) 80 % Ni, 5 % Mo, bal. Fe
Characteristic properties
Magnetic properties Bs = 0.74 T 4 > 240,0002) Hc < 1 A/m solid material
Applications
Magnifer 7904 MP 240 1) Highest permeability Magnifer 7904 MP H1
Toroidal strip wound cores for integrating current transformers for residual current circuit breakers, transducers, laminations for LF transformers, electronic differential current switches, low-distortion transformers in modems, as well as stamped parts for relays, stepped motors, sensors and shielding
Magnifer 7904 F 25 1)
Flat loop
Bstat > 200 mT for Toroidal strip wound cores Hstat = 15 mA/cm2) for residual current circuit
breakers with pulsed current sensitivity 4 > 100,000 (DC) Bs = 0.7 T Stamped parts and shielding cases for magnetic heads
Magnifer 8105
Negative magnetostriction
1) 2)
For further quality grades see appropriate material data sheets and/or tables. Measured at 50Hz on toroidal strip cores of 0.065 mm thickness.
Table 4: Alloys with approx. 80 % nickel. Further information is contained in the Magnifer 7904, Magnifer 8105 data sheets and in the appropriate material tables.
23
10 000
1 000
100
Magnifer d/mm 7904 MP 0.06 75 ME 0.10 53 MG 0.10
B in mT
10
50 RG 0.10 36 W 0.10 Figure 30: Toroidal strip cores in Magnifer alloys.
1 1 10 100 1 000
H in mA/cm
Figure 31: Magnetic flux density/Magnetic field strength curves for nickel-iron alloys.
Magnifer 7904 F 25 TK Strip thickness 0.065 mm 1000
Bsin
Bstat Bdyn
B, B in mT
A transverse field annealing permits a flat hysteresis loop with a very high unipolar flux density swing to be generated for both alloys (Tables 4 and 5, Figure 32). The indices "stat" and "dyn" stand for excitation via half-wave and full wave rectified current respectively. The main application of these alloys is in the manufacture of integrating current transformers for residual current circuit breakers with pulsed current sensitivity. By means of an annealing treatment all these variants can be produced in a grade with improved temperature coefficient between -25 C and 80 C (TC materials). An increase of approximately 1 % in the nickel content of an 80 % nickel alloy produces a nickel-iron alloy with negative saturation magnetostriction Magnifer 8105. The negative magnetostriction increases this alloy's resistance to mechanical loads, e.g. when sealing it in synthetic resins. It is therefore mainly used in the manufacture of shielding cases and pole pieces for magnetic heads in audio equipment (Table 4).
100
10 1
10
100
H, H in mA/cm
Figure 32: Magnetic flux density/Magnetic field strength curves for Magnifer 7904 F25 TK (80 % Ni, 5 % Mo, bal. Fe).
24
By alloying Magnifer 77 Ti Nb with niobium and titanium, the usually very soft and therefore not particularly wear-resistant nickel-iron alloys are improved in terms of their mechanical properties. In addition to relatively high initial permeabilities of 4 40,000 and a coercive force of HC 2 A/m, high hardness and wear resistance are achieved as well as good corrosion behaviour in cyclic climate conditions as per DIN VDE 664. This is due to the precipitation of fine inclusions containing titanium and niobium, which are responsible for the rise in mechanical hardness. The most important applications for this alloy include magnet armatures and legs for release relays in residual current circuit breakers (Figure 37) as well as magnetic heads in audio and video equipment.
Figure 33: Integrating current transformers made of Magnifer alloys for residual current circuit breakers.
Figure 34: Shielding made of Magnifer alloys.
Material Magnifer 751) 76 % Ni, 2 % Cr, 5 % Cu, bal. Fe Magnifer 75 ME 81)
Magnetic properties BS = 0.8 T
Applications
High permeability, increased ductility
Magnifer 75 MH 2 Magnifer 75 F Magnifer 77 TiNb So 77 % Ni, 5 % Cu, 1 % Ti 2 % Nb, bal. Fe Flat loop Precipitationhardening: HV = 150 - 200 finish annealed, fully aged, good corrosion behaviour
4 >150,000 (50Hz) (0.065 mm Bd.) 4 > 80,000 (50Hz) (0.20 mm strip) HC < 2 A/m solid material Bstat 200 mT for Hstat = 20 mA/cm2) 4 > 40,000 (DC) HC 2 A/m BS = 0.7 T
Toroidal strip wound cores for transducers, laminations for LF transformers, shielding Toroidal strip wound cores Stamped parts for relays, magnetic heads
1)
For further quality grades see appropriate material data sheets and/or tables.
Table 5: Alloys with 75 % nickel. Further information is contained in the Magnifer 75 data sheet and in the material tables.
Ni-Fe alloy types. Ni-Fe alloys with a medium nickel content.
25
Magnifer 53 with approximately 55 % Ni has a saturation polarization of 1.5 T. The alloy is used exclusively for toroidal strip wound cores (see section "Annealing under a longitudinal magnetic field") and is manufactured in a number of variants (Table 6). Magnifer 53 MG 60, for example, owes its high permeability of 4 = 60,000 (Figure 31) to longitudinal field annealing. This alloy is used for transducer cores and integrating current transformers in residual current circuit breakers (Figures 30 and 33). The Magnifer 53 F variant has a flat hysteresis loop and thus a high unipolar flux density swing. This alloy is used for integrating current transformers in residual current circuit breakers with pulsed current sensitivity (Figures 33 and 35). In the case of the Magnifer 54 F variant, transverse field annealing generates a particularly flat hysteresis loop and thus high pulse permeability. This alloy is mainly used for magnetic cores in pulse transformers and thyristor choke coils (Figure 36). At 1.55 T, the saturation polarization of Magnifer 50 with 48 % Ni is the highest achievable within the nickel-iron alloy system. The alloy is produced in several variants (Table 7). These are distinguished by their varying microstructures, which are adjusted by means of targeted rolling and annealing processes (see section on "Textures of medium-nickel alloys"). After final annealing, variant RG forms an isotropic, relatively fine-grained microstructure with initial permeabilities of 4 8,000 and coercive
Material Magnifer 53 1) 55 % Ni, bal. Fe Magnifer 53 MG 60 1) Characteristic properties Magnetic properties
Magnifer 53 F Strip thickness 0.10 mm 10 000
1 000
Bsin Bstat
Bdyn
B, B in mT
100 10 1 10 100
1000
H, H in mA/cm
Figure 35: Magnetic flux density Magnetic field strength curves for Magnifer 53 F (55 % Ni, bal. Fe).
force of HC 5 A/m. Typical applications include rotor and stator plates, toroidal strip cores for LF transformers, choke coils and transformer cores for residual current circuit breakers and shielding (Table 7, Figures 30, 33, 34). With variant TG, the final anneal produces an anisotropic microstructure with coarser grains and (210) [001] texture. This gives the alloy very good permeabilities in the rolling direction, with 4 14 000 (Table 7). A special variant (RG S) which lie between the RG and TG can be produced by taking account of the conditions of downstream processing requirements.
Applications
For toroidal strip wound BS = 1.5 T cores only, annealed under a magnetic field Highest permeability Flat loop 4 > 60,000 (50 Hz) Transducers, integrating (0.10 mm strip) current transformers for residual current circuit breakers
Magnifer 53 F
Bstat 200 mT for integrating current transHstat = 50 mA/cm2) formers for residual current
circuit breakers with pulsed current sensitivity p > 4,000 bei tp = 50 s Pulse transformers, thyristor choke coils
Magnifer 54 F
1)
High pulse permeability
26
Material Magnifer 50 48 % Ni, bal. Fe Magnifer 50 RG 1)
Applications
Rotor grade, fine-grained isotropic microstructure Special variant between 50 RG and 50 TG
4 > 8,000 (50 Hz) (0.20 mm strip) HC < 5 A/m
Toroidal strip wound cores, laminations for LF transformers, storage chokes, integrating current transformers for residual current circuit breakers Rotor, stator plates, shielding
Magnifer 50 RG S
Properties improved over 50 RG
Figure 36: Chokes and transformers.
Magnifer 50 TG 1)
Transformer grade, 4 10,000 ( 14,000) Laminations, toroidal strip anisotropic (50 Hz, 0.20 mm strip) wound cores for LF transformers, microstructure transducers, integrating current transformers Cubic texture, Remanence ratio rectangular hyste- BR/BM > 0.95 ris loop (0.10 mm strip) Solid material HC < 8 A/m (< 5 A/m) 4 >100,000 (DC) HC < 2 A/m max < 160,000 (DC) corrosion resistant in cyclic climate conditions warm, humid/ dry cold Toroidal strip wound cores for chokes, memory cores, pulse transformers Stamped parts for relays, clocks and watches, stepped motors, inductive rotary sensors and electrovalves
Magnifer 50 T
Magnifer 50 MH 1)
Magnifer 50 B So 1
1)
Table 7: Alloys with 48 % nickel. Further information is contained in the Magnifer 50 datasheet and in the material tables.
Material Magnifer 4008 48 % Ni, 8 % Cr bal. Fe
Characteristic properties High resistivity of 0.96 mm2/m
Magnetic properties BS = 0.8 T HC < 5 A/m max > 100,000 (DC)
Applications Stamped parts for relays, clocks and watches, stepped motors, shieldings
Table 8: Alloys with 40 % nickel.
Figure 37: Relay parts in Magnifer alloys.
27
In variant T the final anneal produces a marked cubic texture which, in turn, leads to rectangular hysteresis loop. The ratio of the remanence to the saturation flux density is greater than 0.95 (Table 7). Variant MH is manufactured as a solid material. It is used in the watches and clocks industry, for armatures and magnetic yokes in relays as well as for stepped motors in photo cameras, inductive rotary sensors for the automotive industry (ABS) and in electrovalves (Figures 37 and 38). Variant B So1 features improved corrosion resistance in a climate cycling test with alternating warm and humid / cold and dry phases [21, 22]. Magnifer 4008 with approx. 40 % Ni and approx. 8 % Cr (Table 8, Figures 37 and 38) is another alloy that is produced as a solid material. It is used for stamped parts for relays, clocks and watches, and stepped motors. At 0.8 T, its saturation flux density is comparable to that of highnickel alloys, although its magnetic properties are somewhat reduced. On the other hand, Magnifer 4008 is much more favourably priced than a high-nickel alloy. Alloy Magnifer 36 with 36 % nickel has a saturation polarization of 1.3 T and a high resistivity of = 0,75 . It is available in two variants (Table 9).
1)
Figure 38: Stepped motors in analog quartz watches. The yoke and armature are made from nickel-iron alloys.
Material Magnifer 36 36 % Ni, bal. Fe
Characteristic properties high resistivity 75 mm2/m
Applications
Magnifer36 K 1) Small permeability increase
16 = 2,300 200 (50 Hz) Laminations, toroidal strip small permeability wound cores for LF transforincrease between mers, chokes H = 4 to 80 mA/cm 4 5,000 (50 Hz, 0.35 mm Bd.) HC < 15 A/m Laminations, toroidal strip wound cores for LF transformers, solid components for relays, pole shoes, shielding transducer cores
Magnifer36 W 1) higher permeability
With the first variant, the increase in permeability in the magnetic field strength range of H = 4 mA/cm to H = 80 mA/cm is very small. Typical applications are laminations for LF transformers, and chokes. The second variant has higher permeabilities and lower coercive forces (Figure 31). Major applications include solid components for relays, pole shoes, as well as strip and sheet for shielding, e.g. for speedometers. In addition the alloy is used for manufacturing transducer cores.
28
Alloy production, processing and final annealing.
Material (bal. Fe) Magnifer 36 36 % Ni Magnifer 50 48 % Ni
Tensile strength Yield strength Rm in N/mm2 RP0,2 in N/mm2 630 750 600 700 800 900
Elongation A5 in % 5 4 5 4
Hardness HV5 200 200 270 350
Magnifer 75 860 76 % Ni, 5 % Cu, 2 % Cr Magnifer 7904 80 % Ni, 5 % Mo 1 000
Table 10: Mechanical properties (approximate values) of Ni-Fe alloys. Condition: hard rolled with strain 50 %.
The alloys are melted in air or under vacuum conditions and then continuously cast into billets. These are hot rolled to approximately 4 mm thick strip which is pickled and then surface ground if required. Following this, the hot strip is cold rolled. Depending on the final strip thickness and final strain, intermediate annealing may be necessary. The strip can be rolled down to foil thicknesses as small as 20 m. The strip serves as starting material for the production of toroidel strip wound cores, laminations, relay components and shielding. All forming processes including turning, drilling, milling, bending, punching and deep drawing are possible. The mechanical properties of Ni-Fe alloys are listed in Tables 10 to 12. The best welding process is usually resistance spot welding, although in principle other processes are also applicable.
29
Material (bal. Fe) Magnifer 36 36 % Ni Magnifer 50 48 % Ni Magnifer 75 76 % Ni, 5 % Cu, 2 % Cr Magnifer 7904 80 % Ni, 5 % Mo
Tensile strength Yield strength Rm in N/mm2 RP0,2 in N/mm2 440 530 600 750 290 280 290 310
Hardness HV5 130-150 120-130 140-160 140-160
After processing, Ni-Fe alloys require a (final) recrystallization anneal. Depending on the intended application, this is carried out at temperatures between 750 to 1300 C in cracked ammonia or pure hydrogen with a dewpoint < -40 C or better < -60 C. Subsequently, a magnetic field annealing may be necessary. After the final annealing, stresses leading to plastic deformation must be avoided since this would lead to a considerable loss in magnetic properties. Lattice defects should be kept to an absolute minimum throughout all manufacturing and processing steps. To reduce the number of dislocations and grain boundaries, a high annealing temperature should be chosen (grain growth) and the greatest possible care should be applied during the cooling phase and when handling the finalannealed material, e.g. by placing the parts in a protective container (avoidance of deformation and internal stresses). Non-magnetic inclusions such as slag particles and oxides must be avoided at all cost, i.e. elements such as O, C, S, Al, Mg should be limited to the smallest possible amounts. Metallurgical measures such as deoxidation, stirring with argon and degassing under vacuum allow a high degree of purity to be achieved in the material at melt stage.
Table 11: Mechanical properties (aproximate values) of Ni-Fe alloys. Condition: deep-drawable and bendable.
Material (bal. Fe) Magnifer 36 36 % Ni Magnifer 50 48 % Ni Magnifer 75 76 % Ni, 5 % Cu, 2 % Cr Magnifer 7904 80 % Ni, 5 % Mo
Tensile strength Yield strength RP0,2 in N/mm2 Rm in N/mm2 200 530 580 580 220 220 250
Hardness HV5 90-110 100-120 110-130 110-130
Table 12: Mechanical properties (aproximate values) of Ni-Fe alloys. Condition: finish-annealed.
30
Applications. Residual current circuit breakers.
A residual current circuit breaker protects people and equipment in electrical installations. It consists of an integrating current transformer for recording leakage currents, a release relay, and a latch (Figure 39) [24].
S R W T
L R C T
Latch release relay Integrating current transformer Test key
All the currents from all the current-carrying lines in the electrical installations are passed through the integrating current transformer. Under normal, trouble-free operating conditions, the sum of all incoming and outgoing currents is equal to zero. Any current that leaks into the earth due to an insulation defect is missing in the integrating current transformer, which is then magnetized accordingly. As a result, voltage is induced in the secondary winding, and the release relay connected up to the secondary circuit activates the latch. Since a current integrating transformer should react not only to sinus-shaped currents but also to pulsed currents, it requires a core with a flat hysteresis loop (see section "Flat hysteresis loop"). In addition, low temperature dependence between -25 C and 80 C is important. The energy needed for activating the release relay is provided directly by the leakage current. The inductive impedance of the release relay and the integrating current transformer is therefore compensated with the aid of a condenser, to get optimal sensitivity. Depending on the sensitivity of the residual current circuit breaker, various materials can be used for the core of the integrating current transformer. Circuit breakers with 300 mA or 500 mA rated leakage current, for example, are made from Magnifer 53 or Magnifer 50, depending on the release circuit design. Magnifer 7904 is used for rated leakage currents of 30 mA and 10 mA due to its high permeability.
Figure 39: Design of a residual current circuit breaker (according to [24]).
Applications. Relays for residual current circuit breakers.
31 1
A relay is an electromechanical switch that changes a low release current into mechanical movement. For many applications, relays are made of pure iron or Fe with 3 % Si for economic reasons. However, components such as residual current circuit breakers operating independently of the mains voltage require a relay with very low release current (e.g. approx. 0.1 to 0.2 mW). Here, nickel-iron alloys are used. Polarized relays are used [4, 25, 26] in most cases. A polarized relay consists of a soft-magnetic circuit formed by an armature and a yoke. This circuit is premagnetized by a permanent magnet so that the armature is kept in position on the yoke. A coil current Ia weakens the magnetic flux in the permanent magnet so that the armature and thus the relay is released. The electric energy input is increased by a factor through the spring's energy storage (Figure 40). With the armature pulled in, the relay is in state 1 as shown in Figure 41. The coil current Ia reduces the magnetic field strength down to H U (state 2), the armatures is released (state 3), the current and thus the leakage current is interrupted (state 4). To cause the relay to open, the magnetic holding force FM must be smaller than the holding force FF of the spring [26]. FM = B AFe/20
2
Pin
Klappanker armature
Coil current Ia Coil
Yoke
Spring
Nebenschluss
Permanent magnet
Figure 40: Schematic illustration of a polarized relay.
Pulled-in armature
B
1 Hysteresis loop
Released armature 4 3
H P D. C. field generated by permanent magnet HU resultant field with release current
HU
HP
AFe cross sectional area 0 magnetic field constant
Figure 41: B(H) curve of the soft magnetic circuit of a relay.
At the same time, FM - FF must be big enough to avoid the relay being susceptible to vibrations and external fields. In other words, the magnetic flux density B and the difference B to the current-carrying state should be as big as possible. In addition, a low releasing sensitivity is required, which means a small release current I a ~ H P H U, i.e. a large B must be generated with an appropriately small HP HU (Figure 41). It follows that the magnetic circuit must have the highest possible effective permeability *. B = o*H 1/* = 1/ + d/l Fe
need not pass through it. This also serves to obviate the risk of demagnetizing or remagnetizing the permanent magnet. The armature and the yoke require a material with high permeability, low coercive force and high saturation flux density. The material must maintain stable properties for an extended period of time. In addition, it must be mechanically hard enough to ensure that the pole surfaces are not deformed during switching. Another essential prerequisite is that such a material must be sufficiently resistant to corrosion in cyclic climate conditions as per DIN VDE 664. Table 13 below lists the alloys used for this application.
d = Total air gap I Fe = Length of the magnetic circuit = Permeability of the material This means very small air gaps in the range of approx. 1 m and high permeabilities for the armature and yoke material. The permanent magnet (low permeability) is therefore by passed via a shunt, and so the release magnetic flux
Material Magnifer 50 MH or B So 1 Magnifer 7904 Magnifer 77 TiNb So

Table 13: Relay materials.

BS in T 1.5 0.74 0.7
HC in A/m <5 <1 <2
max (DC, 1mm) 100,000 350,000 250,000
32
Applications. Transducers.
I1 n1 I2 n2
Transducers are required for converting currents or voltages in energy distribution systems into values that can be measured by LF measuring equipment [27]. For the ideal transducer, the current ratio is in inverse proportion to the turns ratio. n2/n1 = I1/I2 (see Figure 42)
n2 n1
I1 I2
Figure 42: Design of a transducer.
In reality, the ratio will be smaller because account has to be taken of scattering, losses and the actual load. The required accuracy must be ensured in the conversion of the values to be measured. For the magnetic material used, this means that the dependence of the permeability on the flux density should be reasonably constant in order to achieve linear conversion behaviour and thus high accuracy. High permeability and high saturation flux density make a compact design possible. Scattering can be reduced through the use of toroidal strip wound cores. For this application, Magnifer 75 and Magnifer 53 have proved most successful. Magnifer 75 is frequently also used in combination with Fe 3 % Si. In this case, Ni-Fe cores ensure the highest permeability at small signals while Fe 3 % Si cores ensures high signals. Transducers of the type shown in Figure 42 can only measure alternating currents. In modern converter connections of the type used, for example, in drive technology and electric heating systems, mixed currents occur which comprise both DC and AC components. Such currents are measured using current measuring modules (Figure 44) [28, 29] which incorporate a Hall probe (Figure 43). In a magnetized Hall probe, a voltage is excited that is proportional to the magnetic field within the probe. This Hall voltage is used for triggering an electronic amplifier which feeds a current I2 to an additional winding on the core. The magnetic field generated by this current is then compensated to zero by the amplifier. As a result, I2 = n1 I1/n2 is fulfilled. Since the flux density is compensated to zero, the core operates close to the coercive force level that causes an offset. High-permeability toroids in high-nickel Ni-Fe alloys are therefore particularly well-suited to this application.
Current-measuring module
RM
Submodule
IH R
3 6 4 5
+U B
_ +
I1
1
- UB
I2
Figure 43: Current measuring module with Hall probe and compensation winding.
Figure 44: Current-measuring module.
Applications. Pulse transformers.
33
Thyristors in power electronics are triggered by pulse transformers (Figure 45). They transform the trigger voltage pulses to the required level while ensuring potential separation between the control and power components [28, 29]. Normally unipolar square wave voltage pulses have to be transformed. In the magnetic core magnetic flux density swing B starts from the remanent flux density. The following holds [27]: - n2 AFe B(t) = U dt where n2 = U = AFe = t = Number of turns in the secondary winding Secondary voltage Cross sectional area Time
With a given voltage-time integral, a large flux density swing permits the use of cores with a small cross section and/or a small number of turns and this ensures compact design. At the same time, very low coupling capacity and leakage inductance are also achieved - an indispensable condition if the gate trigger current is to rise steeply. The main inductance LH of the transformer is then calculated as: LH = n2 0 P AFe / lFe where P = Pulse permeability lFe = Length of magnetic circuit The number of turns n2 in the secondary winding for the specified voltage-time integral must be large enough to permit the main inductance to be set to a minimum value. For this purpose, high pulse permeability is advantageous. Materials for pulse transformers must have a large usable magnetic flux density swing and high pulse permeability, such as Magnifer 54 F with a very flat hysteresis loop.
2
Figure 45: Circuit board with pulse transformers in Magnifer alloys.
34
Applications. Low-distortion transformer in modems.
0 - 20 - 40 - 60 - 80 - 100
A modem allows computers to communicate over ordinary analogue telephone lines. However, the limited frequency range of the analogue network means transmission rates higher than 2400 Baud can only be achieved with special coding techniques. This calls for special lowdistortion transformers. Low-distortion in this context means, that a sinus signal to be transformed should have a very low harmonic content. The total harmonic distortion (THD) of a signal is the logarithm of the sum of the powers of all harmonics frequencies above the fundamental frequency to the power of the fundamental frequency. THD= 10 log (P harmonics/ P fundamental waves)
Total harmonic distortion (dB)
- 120
10
100
1 000 Frequency (Hz)
10 000
100 000
Figure 46: Typical curve of "Total Harmonic Distortion" as a function of frequency for Magnifer 7904, measured on a transformer core package ED-8 (strip thickness 0.20 mm).
Low-distortion transformers are made from highnickel alloys. Signal distortion can be reduced by measures such as the use of small strip thicknesses and low magnetic flux densities. Figure 46 shows a typical curve of total harmonic distortion as a function of the frequency for Magnifer 7904. For modems with transmission rates of 56 kBaud, for example THD values smaller than -80 dB at 200 Hz are required.
Applications. Shielding.
35
Ha
Hi
Ha
Hi
Figure 47: Field lines for a cylindrical shield in the case of high frequencies.
Figure 48: Field lines for a cylindrical shield in the case of a DC field.
Material Magnifer 36 Magnifer 50 Magnifer 7904
Chemical composition 36 % Ni, bal. Fe 60 48 % Ni, bal. Fe 150 80 % Ni, 5 % Mo, bal. Fe
S 60 150 1 000
Tabelle 14: Shielding factor S of some soft magnetic materials, measured in the transverse field at 200 A/m on cylinders (length 300 mm, diameter 80 mm) with a wall thickness of 0.35 mm.
At high frequencies, the shielding effect is based on the eddy currents induced by the interference field; they displace the interference field from within the shield. In this case, good electric conductivity is essential for the shield, which is why copper or aluminium are used for shielding highfrequency fields. b) Frequency f 0 (or d << ), and >> 1 Now S can be described by approximation as: S = 1 + 1/2 d/R The field lines are shown in Figure 48. The shielding effect is based on the magnetic flux flowing via the highly permeable and thus magnetically conductive material. Because >> 1 the outer field lines run almost vertically into the shielding cylinder. Inside the cylinder they run almost parallel to the cylinder surface. Inside, H i is homogeneous and parallel to the interference field H a, without a shield present. The shielding effect increases along with the permeability. In cases like this, highly permeable materials are used, especially nickel-iron alloys. Shielding factors for Magnifer 36, Magnifer 50 and Magnifer 7904 are set out in Table 14. The measurements were taken on cylinders with a wall thickness of 0.35 mm. Typical applications for shielding in nickel-iron alloys include sound recording heads, microphones, sensors and electron beam tubes. The materials are also used for cladding complete examination rooms in hospitals where highly sensitive measuring equipment is used.
Equipment that generates or is susceptible to interference signals must be shielded. The shielding property is described by the shielding factor S [32]. S = | Ha / Hi | Hi = Field in the interior of the shield Ha = Interference field before the shield
(In [32] the reciprocal Q or aS = -ln |Q| is used.) The function of a magnetic shield is explained in the following using an (ideally, infinitely long) round cylinder with the radius R and wall thickness d (Figures 47 and 48). The interference field Ha runs vertical to the cylinder axis (transverse field). Two borderline cases will be described: a) Frequency f (or d >> ) S can be described by approximation as: S= 1 . R . d exp ( ) 2 2 8
2 2nf0
= electric conductivity
is the skin depth of the field into the shield. Figure 47 shows the field lines.
36
Summary.
There are two main groups of soft magnetic nickel-iron alloys: The first group comprises medium-nickel alloys whose most important representatives are Magnifer 50 with 48 % nickel, balance iron and Magnifer 53 with approximately 55 % nickel, balance iron. The second group is made up of high-nickel alloys, and their most important representatives are Magnifer 7904 with 80 % nickel, approximately 5 % molybdenum and the balance iron, and Magnifer 75 with 76 % nickel, 2 % chromium, 5 % copper and the balance iron. They are used for: - toroidal strip wound cores in integrating current transformers in residual current circuit breakers, transducers - laminations for LF transformers, electronic differential current switches, low-distortion transformers in modems - stamped and bent parts for relays, stepped motors, electrovalves, inductive rotary sensors, rotor sheets, stator sheets, magnetic heads - shielding, storage chokes, and thyristor choke coils.
List of variables and units used.
37
Variable Concentration
Unit %
Note Unless otherwise specified, data given in percent indicate the percentage per mass
a A A5 B BS BM BO BR B Bsin B Bstat Bdyn d E Ek Eu E F f H H sin H Hstat Hdyn HV5 HC Hi Ha I I1 I2 IA J
Lattice constant Cross sectional area Elongation Magnetic flux density or induction Saturation flux density < Magnetic flux density BS Magnetic flux density in vacuum Remanent magnetic flux density Peak value of magnetic flux density Peak value of magnetic flux density in a sinus-shaped field Flux density swing in a pulsed magnetic field Flux density swing in a half-wave rectified sinus-shaped field Flux density swing in a full-wave rectified sinus-shaped field Air gap or wall thickness Energy Crystal anisotropy energy Uniaxial anisotropy energy Stress anisotropy energy Force Frequency Magnetic field strength H = n1 I1 /lFe Peak value of magnetic field strength Peak value of magnetic field strength in a sinus-shaped field Magnetic field strength swing of a half-wave rectified sinus-shaped field Magnetic field strength swing of a full-wave rectified sinus-shaped field Vickers hardness at 49 N test force Coercive force Field in a shielding's interior Interference field before shielding Electric current Primary current Secondary current Exchange integral Magnetic polarization (induction)
m metre m2 % T tesla mT T T T T T T T T T m J joule J J J N newton Hz hertz A/m, mA/cm A/m A/m A/m A/m
weight 1 T = Vs/m2 1mT = 0.001 T
1 Hz = 1/s 1 A/m = 10 mA/cm
A/m A/m A/m A ampere A ampere A ampere J T tesla
1 T = Vs/m2
38
Variable Saturation polarization JS k Bolzmann's constant K Anisotropy constant, single or total K1, K2 Crystal anisotropy constants KU l Uniaxial anisotropy constant(s) Length
l l0 lFe L n n1 n2 P Q r R Rm Rp0,2% S S t tP T TC TE TM THD U V wA i
Change in length Initial length Length of magnetic circuit Inductivity L = n2 0 AFe /lFe Number of winding turns Number of turns in primary winding Number of turns in secondary winding Power Reciprocal of shielding factor S Degree of purity (reciprocal of the volume in % taken up by inclusions) Radius Tensile strength 0.2 % Proof stress Spin quantum number Shielding factor S = | Ha / Hi | Time Pulse duration Temperature Curie temperature Withdrawal temperature Measuring temperature Total harmonic distortion THD = 10 log ( Pharmonics/Pfundamental waves) Electric voltage Unit volume Exchange energy Cosine of the angle enclosed between the magnetizing direction and the cube edges Bloch wall thickness or depth of penetration Conductivity
Unit T tesla J/C J/m3 Ws/cm3 J/m3 Ws/cm3 J/m3 m metre cm centimetre mm millimetre m micrometre m m m H henry W watt -
Note 1 T = Vs/m2 1.38054 10-23 J/C 1 J/m3 = 106 Ws/cm3 1 J/m3 = 106 Ws/cm3
1 cm = 0.01m 1 mm = 10-3 m 1 m = 10-6 m
1 H = 1 Tm2/A = 1 Vs/A
1W = 1 VA = 1 J/s
according to JIS G 0555 m N/mm2 MPa megapascal MPa megapascal h hour s second s second s C C C C V volt m3 cubic metre J 1 MPa = 106N/m2
1 h = 3,600 s 1 s = 0.001s
m, m 1/m
39
Variable Magnetostriction constant 100 Magnetostriction constant in the cube edge directions Magnetostriction constants in the direction 111 of body diagonals Mean magnetostriction constant S Relative permeability Magnetic field constant 0 Amplitude permeability = B/0 H a Initial permeability = amplitude permeability i for H 0 Amplitude permeability at 4 mA/cm 4 * Effective permeability of magnetic circuit (incl. air gaps) Maximum permeability max Pulse permeability = B/0H for an HP pulse of the duration tP, pulse interval >>tP Permeability differential = dB/0dH Angle between two neighbouring magnetic moments or angle between the preferred direction and the magnetizing direction Resistivity Tensile stress
Unit Tm/A -
Note
1.25710-6 Tm/A
1/* = 1/ + d/lFe
mm2/m N/m2
40
Literature.
1) S. Chikazumi, Physics of Magnetism., Krieger-Verlag, Malabar, Florida 2) E. Kneller, Ferromagnetismus, Springer Verlag, Berlin/Gttingen/Heidelberg (1962) 3) IEC 404-6 oder DIN IEC 68(CO) 39 (1984), Verfahren zur Messung der magnetischen Eigenschaften von isotropen weichmagnetischen Nickel-Eisen-Legierungen der Typen E1, E3, E4 4) C. Heck, Magnetische Werkstoffe und ihre Anwendung, Htig Verlag, (1967) 5) F. Hegg, Arch. Sci. phys. nat. 29 (1910), p. 592 ff; 30 (1910), p. 15 et seq. 6) K.E. Volk, Nickel- und Nickel-Legierungen, Springer Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New York (1970) p. 55 et seq. 7) R.M. Bozorth, J.G. Walker, Phys. Rev. 89 (1953), p. 624 et seq. 8) I.M. Puzei, Fizika Metallov. i. Metallovedenie 11 (1961), p. 686 et seq. 9) R.C. Hall, J. Appl. Phys. 30 (1959), p. 816 et seq.
17) G.W. Rathenau, J.F.H. Custers, Philips Res. Rep 4 (1949), p. 241 et seq. 18) E. Adler, H.G. Baer, Berichte der AG Magnetismus (1959) (AG Magnetismus, Dsseldorf 1960), p. 190 et seq. 19) F. Pfeifer, Z. Metallkunde 57 (1966), p. 240 et seq. 20) H. Hattendorf, B. Erpenbeck, Relation between texture and magnetic annealing of a 55 % Ni-Fe alloy, JMMM 112 (1992), p. 29 et seq. 21) B. Gehrmann, H. Hattendorf, A. Kolb-Telieps, W. Kramer, W. Mttgen, Corrosion behaviour of soft magnetic iron-nickel alloys, Materials and Corrosion 48 (1997), p. 535 et seq. 22) H. Hattendorf, A 48 % Ni-Fe alloy of low coercivity and improved corrosion resistance in a cyclic damp heat test, JMMM 231 (2001), p. L29 et seq. 23) E.T. Ferguson, J. Appl. Phys. 29 (1958), p. 252 et seq. 24) G. Morgenthaler, L. Schreyer, R. Solleder, FehlerstromSchutzschalter fr eine zukunftssichere Schutztechnik, etc Elektronische Zeitung 113 (1992), pp. 10 17 25) A. Heitbrink, Dissertation, Universitt Duisburg, (1993)
10) I.M. Puzei, B.V. Molotilov, Izvestijie Akademie Nauk SSR., Ser. Fiz. 22 (1958), p. 1244 et seq. 11) F. Pfeifer, C. Radeloff, JMMM 19 (1980), p. 190 et seq. 12) F. Pfeifer, Z. Metallkunde 57 (1966), p. 295 et seq. 13) F. Pfeifer, H. Wegerle in Berichte der Arbeitsgemeinschaft, Magnetismus Vol. 1, Verlag Stahleisen Dsseldorf (1983), p. 120 et seq. 14) G.E.R. Schulze, Metallphysik, Akademie Verlag Berlin (1974).
26) H. Sauer, Relaisteil-Lexikon, Htig Verlag, Heidelberg (1985) 27) K. Kpfmller, Einfhrung in die theoretische Elektrotechnik, Springer Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York, (1984) 28) W. Kramer, Weichmagnetische Nickel-Eisen-Werkstoffe in induktiven Bauelementen fr die Leistungselektronik, Seminar on Soft magnetic materials, TAW 1996 29) Datenblatt Strommessmodul, ThyssenKrupp VDM 30) Datenblatt Impulsbertrager, ThyssenKrupp VDM
15) G. Gottstein, Rekristallisation metallischer Werkstoffe, Deutsche Gesellschaft fr Metallkunde (1984). 16) B. Erpenbeck, Thesis, FH - Dortmund (1990)
31) Datenblatt Speicherdrosseln, ThyssenKrupp VDM 32) H. Kaden, Wirbelstrme und Schirmung in der Nachrichtentechnik, Springer-Verlag, Berlin Gttingen Heidelberg, (1959)
Material tables. Soft magnetic alloys.
41
ThyssenKrupp VDM alloy Specification D Material No. DIN designation DIN standard UNS / ASTM
Magnifer 361)
Magnifer 501)
USA
1.3910 Ni 36 17445 A 753
1.3911 RNi 24 17405/17445
1.3922 1.3926 1.3927 Ni 48 RNi 12 RNi 8 E 31 17745 17405 17405 DIN IEC 740-2 K94840 / A 753
(F3) (41301)
Chemical composition in % Nickel Chromium Iron Carbon Manganese Silicon Aluminium Other elements Mechanical values (N/mm2, %) Rp 0.2 600 290 Rm 630 440 A50 5 30 HV 200 140 Rp 0.2 700 280 Rm 750 530 A50 4 30 HV 200 125 35.0 37.0 bal. max. 0.05 max. 1.0 max. 0.3 max. 0.02 Mg max. 0.01 47.0 48.5 bal. max. 0.05 max. 0.3 0.5 max. 0.3 max. 0.02 Mg max. 0.01
50% cold worked deep-drawing Magnetic properties 2)
Quality class MD 1 MD 1a MD 3 MD 5
Permeability (min.) 16 max 2000200 2300200 2900 4 5000 20000 25000
Coercivity 16 12
Saturation induction Curie temperature Saturation magnetostriction
(T) (C) (10-6)
Strip thickness 0.3 mm 1.3 250 + 20
Quality Permeability (min.) Coercivity class 4 max MF 6 6000 70000 8 MF 8 8000 70000 8 MF 10 10000 80000 5 MH 12 12 MH 8 8 MG 6 6000 70000 MG 10 10000 80000 Strip thickness ~ 0.2 mm MT strip thickness 0.1 mm with cubic texture 1.55 470 + 25
Physical properties at room temperature Density (g/cm3) Specific heat (J/kgK) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Resistivity ( cm) Modulus of electricity (kN/mm2) Expansion coefficient from 20C to (10-6/K) Processing Melting point (C) Max. working temperature (C) Formability Weldability Material characteristics High resistivity, good permeability with low hysteresis losses at high frequencies. Typical applications
1)
8.1 515 12.5 75 140 100 1.2
200 2.2
300 5.5
400 8.2
500 10.0
8.25 500 15 45 164 100 9.8
200 9.2
300 8.8
400 8.7
500 9.1
1450 good good
1440 good good
Low coercive force, good permeability with low hysteresis losses. High saturation induction.
For further DIN material numbers see special material data sheet. 2) AC values after optimum heat treatment. DC values on request.
Transformer, transducers, residual current circuit breakers, relay and shielding components.
Transformer, transducers, residual current circuit breakers, relay and shielding components, memory cores, pulse transformers, magnetic switches, toroidal strip cores, laminations, stepped motors.
42
Magnifer 531)
Magnifer 751)
2.4420 NiFe 44 17745
USA
2.4501 (2.4591) (2.4592) 2.4595 2.4596 NiFe16CuCr (E3) (E4) RNi 2 RNi 5 E 11 17745 (41301) (41301) 17405 17405 DINIEC740-2 (E DIN40006) N14076 / A 753
Chemical composition in % Nickel Chromium Iron Carbon Manganese Silicon Aluminium Other elements Mechanical values (N/mm2, %) Rp 0.2 Rm A50 HV Rp 0.2 800 290 Rm 860 600 A50 5 40 HV 270 150 54.0 56.0 bal. 0.05 0.5 0.3 0.005 bal. 1.5 2.5 15.0 17.0 max. 0.05 max. 1.0 max. 0.3 Cu 4.0 6.0
max. max. max. max.
Quality class MG 40 MG 60
Permeability (min.) 4 max 40000 100000 60000 130000
Coercivity 2 1.2
Quality class ME 4 ME 6 ME 8 MH 2
Permeability (min.) 4 max 40000 115000 60000 140000 80000 175000
Coercivity 2
(T) (C) (10-6)
Strip thickness 0.1 mm 1.5 530 + 25
Strip thickness 0.8 400 +1
Physical properties at room temperature Density (g/cm3) Specific heat (J/kgK) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Resistivity ( cm) Modulus of electricity (kN/mm2) Expansion coefficient from 20C to (10-6/K) Processing Melting point (C) Max. working temperature (C) Formability Weldability Material characteristics High permeability, high saturation induction. Typical applications
1)
8.3 500 16.5 45 100 10.6
200 10.6
300 10.7
400 10.7
500 10.8
8.6 460 17 55 100 12.5
1445 good
~ 1450 good good
High permeability, low coercive force.
Transducers, transformer, residual current circuit breakers, toroidal strip wound cores for special applications.
Transducers, transformer, residual current circuit breakers, relay and shielding components, toroidal strip wound cores.
43
Magnifer 77 TiNb
Magnifer 79041)
USA
Chemical composition in % Nickel Chromium Iron Carbon Manganese Silicon Aluminium Other elements Mechanical values (N/mm2, %)
77.0 78.5 bal. max. 0.05 max. 0.5 Cu 4.0 5.0; Mo max. 0.2; Ti 0.5 1.0; Nb 1.0 2.0
2.4545 NiFe 15 Mo 17745 N14080 / A 753
79.5 81.0 bal. max. 0.05 max. 0.8 max. 0.5 Mo 4.0 6.0
50% cold worked 80% cold worked deep-drawing Magnetic properties 2)
Rp 0.2 1030 1210 250
Rm 1050 1240 640
A50 3 1 40
HV 300 350 140
Rp 0.2 900 310
Rm 1000 750
A50 4 40
HV 350 150
Quality class
Permeability (min.) 16 max 65 000 250 000
Coercivity 1.5
Quality class MP 130 MP 160 MP 200 MP 240 MP 280
Permeability (min.) 4 max 130000 275000 160000 300000 200000 350000 240000 400000 280000 420000
Coercivity
(T) (C) (10-6)
Physical properties at room temperature Density (g/cm3) Specific heat (J/kgK) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Resistivity ( cm) Modulus of electricity (kN/mm2) Expansion coefficient from 20C to (10-6/K) Processing Melting point (C) Max. working temperature (C) Formability Weldability Material characteristics
Strip thickness 1.0 mm 8.7 25 40 100 12.7 200 300 400 500
Strip thickness 0.06 mm 0.8 410 +1
8.7 460 17 55 100 12.0
200 12.8
300 13.0
400 13.6
500 14.3
~ 1440 good good
Precipitation-hardenable alloy with good corrosion behaviour. Typical applications

1)
High initial permeability and maximum permeability with minimum hysteresis losses.
Stamped parts for relays, magnetic heads.
Transducers, transformers, residual current circuit breakers, memory cores, pulse transformer, chokes, stepped motors, toroidal strip wound cores, laminations.
44
ThyssenKrupp VDM alloy Specification D Material No. DIN designation DIN standard ASTM
Magnifer 8105
USA
Chemical composition in % Nickel Chromium Iron Carbon Manganese Silicon Aluminium Other elements Mechanical values (N/mm2, %) Rp 0.2 1250 310 Rm 1250 700 A50 3 30 HV 350 140 180 80.0 82.0 bal. max. 0.8 Mo 5.0 6.0
Quality class
Permeabilitt (min.) 4 max 100000 200000
Coercivity 1
(T) (C) (10-6)
Strip thickness 0.55 mm 0.72 420 -1
Physical properties at room temperature Density (g/cm3) Specific heat (J/kgK) Thermal conductivity (W/mK) Resistivity ( cm) Modulus of electricity (kN/mm2) Expansion coefficient from 20C to (10-6/K) Processing Melting point (C) Max. working temperature (C) Formability Weldability Material characteristics Negative magnetostriction. ~ 1450 good good 8.7 17 60 100 12.0 200 300 400 500
Typical applications Stamped parts and housings for magnetic heads.
Forms supplied.
45
Availability Soft magnetic NiFe base alloys are available in the following standard product forms: Rod & bar Conditions: forged, rolled, drawn, thermally treated, descaled or pickled, machined, peeled or ground
Product Rod (O. D.) Bar, square (a) Bar, flat (a x b) Forged1) mm 600 40 600 (40 80) x (200 600) 40 80 inches Rod (O. D.) Bar, square (a) Bar, flat (a x b) 24 15/8 24 (15/8 31/8) x (8 24) Bar, hexagonal (s)
1)
Strip1) Conditions: cold rolled, thermally treated and pickled or bright annealed 2)
Thickness mm > 0.02 0.10 > 0.10 0.20 > 0.20 0.25 Width mm 14 200 3) 14 350 3) 14 750 4) 16 750 4) 18 750 4) 15 750
4)
Coil I. D. mm 300 300 400 400 400 400 400 400 400 500 500 500 500 500 500 600 600 600 600 600
Rolled1) mm 8 100 15 280 (5 20) x (120 600) 13 41 inches

5
Drawn1) mm 12 65 not standard (10 20) x (30 80) 50 inches

1
> 0.25 0.60 > 0.60 1.0 > 1.00 2.0 > 2.00 3.0 (3.5) 2)
25 750 4)
inches > 0.0008 0.004 > 0.0046 0.008 > 0.0086 0.010 > 0.0106 0.024 > 0.0246 0.040 > 0.0406 0.080 > 0.0806 0.120 2) 0.140 2)
1) 2)
inches 0.16 8
3)
inches 12 12 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 20 20 20 20 20 20 24 24 24 24 24
Bar, hexagonal (s)
0.16 14 3) 0.16 30 4) 0.20 30 4) 0.32 30 4) 0.60 30

4)
/16 4 /16 11
/2 2 /2
10
not standard (3/8 3/4) x (11/4 31/8) 2
(3/16 3/4) x (43/4 24)

1
1.00 30 4)
15/8 31/8
/2 15/8
other sizes and conditions subject to special enquiry
Cut-to-length available in lengths from 250 to 4000 mm (10 to 158 in.) Maximum thickness: bright annealed 3 mm (0.120 in.), cold rolled only 3.5 mm (0.140 in.) 3) Wider widths up to 730 mm (29 in.) subject to special enquiry 4) Wider widths subject to special enquiry
Wire Conditions: bright drawn, 1/4 hard to hard, bright annealed Dimensions: 0.01 12.0 mm (0.0004 0.47 in.) diameter, in coils, pay-off packs, on spools and spiders Welded tube and pipe Welded tubes and pipes are obtainable from qualified manufacturers using ThyssenKrupp VDM semi-fabricated products. Toroidal strip wound cores, relay parts, laminations and other stamped parts. Dimension on demand.
46
ThyssenKrupp VDM sales offices, subsidiaries and representations.
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47
Europe Romania ThyssenKrupp VDM Austria GmbH Str. Stanislas Cihoschi, Nr.10 Et.3, Ap. 10, Sector 1 RO-010593 Bukarest Tel. +40 (21) 6 10 77 05 Fax +40 (21) 2 11 99 44 E-Mail: kruppvdm@fx.ro Russian Federation ThyssenKrupp AG Reprsentanz in der Russischen Fderation Krasnopresnenskaja nab 12 Internationales Handelszentrum (CMT) Bro 1209 GUS-123610 Moskau Tel. +7 (502) 2 58 20 74 Fax +7 (502) 2 58 20 76 E-Mail: errmann@thyskrupp.wtt.ru Sweden ESMA AB Domnarvsgatan 8 P.O. Box 8027 S-16308 Spanga/Stockholm Tel. +46 (8) 4 74 42 00 Fax +46 (8) 4 74 42 60 E-Mail: angelika.andersson@ esma.se Switzerland ThyssenKrupp VDM (Schweiz) AG Lange Gasse 90 P.O. Box CH-4002 Basel Tel. +41 (61) 2 05 84 88 Fax +41 (61) 2 05 84 15 E-Mail: raoul.roth@ thyssenkruppvdm.ch Spain/Portugal ThyssenKrupp VDM Ibrica Calvet, 30-32, 2, 1.a E-08021 Barcelona Tel. +34 (93) 2 00 90 11 Fax +34 (93) 2 00 22 54 E-Mail: info@tks-vdmes. thyssenkrupp.com Turkey Akkurt A.S. Ahmediye Ky TR-34904 B. Cekmece-Istanbul Tel. +90 (212) 8 87 14 15 17 Fax +90 (212) 8 87 10 79 E-Mail: akkurt@ibm.net
North and Middle America Canada ThyssenKrupp VDM Canada Ltd. Suite 203 11 Allstate Parkway Markham, Ontario L3R 9T8 Tel. +1 (905) 477-2064 Fax +1 (905) 477-2817 E-Mail: hklein@thyssenkruppvdm.ca USA ThyssenKrupp VDM USA, Inc. 306 Columbia Turnpike Florham Park, N.J. 07932 Tel. +1 (973) 236-1664 Fax +1 (973) 236-1960 E-Mail: vdmtech@vdmt.com Mexico ThyssenKrupp VDM de Mxico S.A. de C.V. Bulevard Manuel Avila Camacho No. 80 PH-A Lomas de Sotelo Naucalpan Edo. de Mxico C.P. 53390 Mxico Tel. +52 (55) 57-14 71 Fax +52 (55) 57-14 76 E-Mail: kruppvdm@prodigy.net.mx
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48
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Asia Peoples Republic of China and Hongkong Fordley Development Ltd Rm 705-707, Yu Sung Boon Building 107-111 Des Voeux Road Central Hong Kong Tel. +852 25 41 00 00 Fax +852 28 54 19 42 E-Mail: desmond@fordley.com.hk Australia ThyssenKrupp VDM Australia Pty. Ltd. 724 Springvale Road P.O. Box 271 Mulgrave, Victoria 3170 Tel. +61 (3) 95 61 13 11 Fax +61 (3) 95 61 44 65 E-Mail: cnicola@vdm. thyssenkrupp.com.au
Imprint.
VDM Report No. 27 Soft magnetic Ni-Fe base alloys Published by: ThyssenKrupp VDM GmbH Plettenberger Strasse 2 58791 Werdohl P.O. Box 1820 58778 Werdohl Germany Phone: +49 (2392) 55-0 Fax: +49 (2392) 55-2217 Email: info@tks-vdm.thyssenkrupp.com www.thyssenkruppvdm.com The information and recommendations in this brochure are based on practical experience and our own research and development results at the time of going to press. They may be changed at any time in the interest of the ongoing improvement and further development of our materials. While every care has been taken to ensure that the technical information in this brochure is correct and up to date, we do not guarantee that it is accurate. Product deliveries and services are subject exclusively to our General Terms and Conditions. June 2004
ThyssenKrupp VDM GmbH Plettenberger Strasse 2 58791 Werdohl P.O. Box 18 20 58778 Werdohl Germany Phone: +49 (23 92) 55 - 0 Fax: +49 (23 92) 55 - 22 17 E-Mail: info@tks-vdm.thyssenkrupp.com www.thyssenkruppvdm.com
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Soft Magnetic Ni-Fe Base Alloys.: VDM Report No. 27

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Soft Magnetic Ni-Fe Base Alloys.: VDM Report No. 27

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VDM Report No. 27 Soft magnetic Ni-Fe base alloys.

A company of ThyssenKrupp Steel

VDM Report No. 27 Soft magnetic Ni-Fe base alloys.

Dr. Heike Hattendorf ThyssenKrupp VDM GmbH 58791 Werdohl

Physical basics. Magnetic variables.

Initial curve Commutation curve

B = Magnetic flux density H = Magnetic field strength BR = Remanence HC = Coercive force

Static hysteresis loop

Figure 3: Hysteresis loops for various frequencies (schematized).

Physical basics. Exchange integral.

(for small values)

Physical basics. Anisotropy constants.

Preferred magnetic directions: Edges Diagonals

Figure 5: A simple two-dimensional cubic lattice.

Examples: Fe, 50% Ni-Fe

Figure 6: Preferred magnetic directions for K1 > 0 and K1 < 0.

The Ni-Fe alloy system.

1.6 1.4 1.2

*) All units in % in the text denote % by mass.

Adjusting the properties. High permeabilities in high nickel alloys.

Table 1: Alloys with 111 0 and K1 0.

Magnifer 7904 1200 C - 4h - Cooling rate 0.9 C/min 500 000

100 000 440

480 Withdrawal temperature TE in C

Figure 10: 4 and max as a function of the withdrawal temperature TE.

Adjusting the properties. Permeability as a function of temperature.

Magnifer 7904 1200 C - 4h - Cooling rate 0.9 C/min 400 000

300 000 Permeability 4

200 000 460 C

0 -20 0 20 40 60 80 100 Measuring temperature C

Adjusting the properties. Effects on the shape of the hysteresis loop.

Figure 12: Hysteresis loop shapes.

Table 2: Hysteresis loop description by of BR/BM.

Magnetic field strength H

Sinus-shaped (50 Hz)

Irreversible Bloch wall movement

Reversible Bloch wall movement

Toroidal strip wound core

Later magnetic flux direction

Magnifer 7904 F 600

Adjusting the properties. Lattice defects.

Adjusting the properties. Textures of medium-nickel alloys.

Figure 21: Grains and grain boundaries in crystalline materials.

Figure 22: Explaining the term "texture" (schematic, two-dimensional).

Rolling direction Magnetic flux direction (210) [001] texture

Rolling direction Magnetic flux direction

Figure 23: Textures of NiFe alloys.

25 Initial grain diameter in m

Secondary recrystallization 900

Cubic texture BR/BM > 0.95 <1,000

Temperatur of intermediate annealing in C

-In (l/lo) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Temperatur of intermediate annealing in C

-In (l/lo) 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5

Adjusting the properties. Annealing under a longitudinal magnetic field.

Toroidal strip wound core

Magnifer 53 after longitudinal field anneal 100 000 75 000

50 000 25 000 0 800

Ni-Fe alloy types. Ni-Fe alloys with a high nickel content.

Material Magnifer 7904 1) 80 % Ni, 5 % Mo, bal. Fe

Magnetic properties Bs = 0.74 T 4 > 240,0002) Hc < 1 A/m solid material

Magnifer 7904 MP 240 1) Highest permeability Magnifer 7904 MP H1