PHYSICS OF TABLET COMPRESSION Introduction to Tablets :

According to IP tablets are solid dosage forms each containing a unit dose of one or more ingredients Ninety percentage of the drugs thar are administered to produce systemic effect are through oral dosage forms. The advantage of the tablets and the capsules over liquid dosage forms includes elixirs, syrups,solutions is that the exact dose of the drug can be given to the patient. William Brockedon got the first patent for tablet press and showed a route for the future development. The main aim in using a tablet is to provide required amount and to dispense a unit dose of drug to patient. By the time it reaches the target action organ, the drug should not change chemically. And the amount of active ingredient varies a lot. E.g. L-thyroxine has 25ug of active ingredient whereas amoxicillin has about 1g of active ingredient. The weight of the active ingredient ranges from 0.1 to 90% of the total weight of the drug. Tablets should be both physically and chemically stable. They should have capability to withstand the stress during packaging and transport. Physical stability is more important as its effects the bioavailability of the tablet. In the tablet the drug should not undergo any chemical change and the effect of dug on the body must be an expected one. And the drugs have different physical and chemical properties like water solubility, crystalline nature etc. MANUFACTURE: There are three well known methods for the preparation of granules. I) Direct compression method: It is useful for the moderate dosage drugs. The diluents used should be inert. It should be compressed easily and it should loose this quality when drug and other excepients are added. Some of the materials for which this method is used are KCl, NaCl, NaBr But this is not used for most of the drugs because, the drug do not attain attraction forces on compression or the molecules will be covered by a layer of air. Advantages: Very less number of steps are involved. Disadvantages: The variations in particle size and density when compared to diluents leads to the formation of layers. This is problematic especially in case of low potet drugs. Most of the large dosage form

drugs are need in large quantities of binder which increase both bulk and cost of the tablet. -Drug may react with diluents in some cases. e.g. Amine drugs with spray dried lactose. II) Dry granulation method: In compression granulation the powder is compressed in dies having large capacity. This will form slug and the process s known as slugging. Then these masses are passed through the screen and again compressed to form tablets. This greatly increases the strength of bonds between the particle within a tablet. Advantages: -There is no wetting and drying -Less space and equipment is enough E.g. Aspirin tablets. III) Wet granulation method: Here binders in the formof solution or suspension are added. It is of +binder+solvent Method 2: If large amount of solvent is allowed, then powder +binder solution and then mixing is performed. After mixing, wet screening should be done. In this process, the powder mass is passed into the hammer mill and then through the large perforated screens. This increases the surface area of the powdered mass and so the rate of drying increases. In the drying process, the damp mass is dried in order to remove excess solvent. Now screening is performed and then finally compressed. Advantages of tablets: -Through tablets, the exact dose of the drug can be administered to the patient. -Transportation is cheap and easy -Microbial contamination chances will be less -Large scale production can be easily achieved. two methods. Method 1: When only small amount of solvent is allowed in formulation, then powder

Introduction
Compactibility is the ability of a powder bed to form a mechanically strong tablet; whereas the compressibility is the ability of a powder bed to be compressed and consequently be reduced in volume. The characterisation of powder compression and compaction plays an important role in the manufacturing of tablets and granules, in the filling of hard-shell gelatin capsules and in powder handling in general. Compaction as applicable to a pharmaceutical powder consists of the simultaneous processes of compression and consolidation of a two-phase (particulate solid-gas) system due to an applied force (1,2). Compaction of powders is generally used to describe the situation in which these materials are subjected to some level of mechanical force. In the

pharmaceutical industry, the effects of such forces are particularly important in the manufacture of tablets. Compression: Compression of a powder means reduction in the bulk volume of a material as a result of displacement of the gaseous phase under pressure.

Compaction: Compaction of a powder is a general term used to describe a situation in which powdered material is subjected to some level of mechanical force. Tablet compression is the event of
squeezing powders together and driving the air from between the particles, resulting in a compressed tablet.

The physics of compaction may be simply stated as the compression & consolidation of two phase [particulate solid & gas] systems due to the applied force. Compressibility: Ability of a powder to decrease in volume under pressure.

Compression of powdered solids

Compression refers to a reduction in the bulk volume of materials as a result of displacement of the gaseous phase. Stages involved in the bulk reduction of powdered solids are shown in Fig. 1. At the onset of the compression process, when the powder is filled into the die cavity, and prior to the entrance of the upper punch into the die cavity, the only forces that exist between the particles are those that are related to the packing characteristics of the particles, the density of the particles and the total mass of the material that is filled into the die (Fig. 1. I). The packing characteristics of the powder mass will be determined by the packing characteristics of the individual particles (1,2). When external mechanical forces are applied to a powder mass, there is usually a reduction in volume due to closer packing of the powder particles, and in most cases, this is the main mechanism of initial volume reduction (Fig. 1. II). However, as the load increases, rearrangement of particles becomes more difficult and further compression leads to some type of particle deformation (Fig. 1. III). If on removal of the load, the deformation is to a large extent reversible, i. e. it behaves like rubber, then the deformation is said to be elastic. All solids undergo elastic deformation when subjected to external forces. With several pharmaceutical materials such as

acetylsalicylic acid, elastic deformation becomes the predominant mechanism of compression within the range of maximum force encountered in practice. In other groups of powdered solids, an elastic limit is reached, and loads above this level result in deformation not immediately reversible on the removal of the applied force. Bulk volume reduction in these cases results from plastic deformation and/or viscous flow of particles, which are squeezed into the remaining void spaces, resembling the behaviour of modelling clay. This mechanism predominates in materials in which the shear strength is less than the tensile or breaking strength. Plastic deformation is believed to create the greatest number of clean surfaces. Because plastic deformation is a time dependent process (2,7,8) higher rate of force application should lead to the formation of less new clean surfaces and thus resulting in weaker tablets. Furthermore, since tablet formation is dependent on the formation of new clean surfaces, high concentration or over mixing of materials that form weak bonds result in weak tablets.

The events that occur in the process of compression are [a] Transitional repacking. [b] Deformation at point of contact. [c] Fragmentation &/or deformation. [d] Bonding. [e] Deformation of the solid body. [f] Decompression. [g] Ejection. Transitional repacking: The particle size distribution of the granulation & the shape of the granules determine the initial packing [bulk density] as the granulation movement occurs at lower pressure. The granules flow with respect to each other with the finer particles entering the void between the larger particles & the bulk density of the granulation is increased. Spherical particles undergo less particle rearrangement then irregular particles, as the spherical particles tend to assume a close packing arrangement initially.

Deformation at the point of contact: When the particles of the granulation are so closely packed that no further filling of the void can occur, a further increase of compression force causes deformation at the point of contact. *Elastic deformation: if the deformation is disappear completely [returns to the original shape] upon release of stress, it is an elastic deformation. *Plastic deformation: a deformation that doesnt completely recover after release of the stress is known as a plastic deformation. *Yield stress: the force required to initiate a plastic deformation is known as yield stress.
Fragmentation & Deformation: At higher pressure, fracture occurs when the stress within the

particle become great enough to propagate cracks. Fragmentation cause furthers densification with the infiltration of the smaller fragments into the void space. With some materials fragmentation doesnt occur because the stresses are released by plastic deformation. Plastic deformation may be thought of a change in particle shape & as the sliding of groups of particles in an attempt to release the stress [visco-elastic flow].

Bonding:

Several mechanism of bonding in the compression process has been conceived but they

have not been substantiated by experimentation & have not been useful in the prediction of the compressional properties of the materials. Three theories are * The mechanical theory. * The intermolecular theory. * The liquid surface film theory.

Deformation of the solid body: As the applied pressure is further increased the bonded solid is consolidated toward a limiting density by plastic &/or elastic deformation of the tablet within the die

Decomposition: The success or failure to produce an intact tablet depends on the stresses induced by elastic rebound & the associated deformation processes during decompression & ejection. As the upper punch is withdraw from the die cavity the tablet is confined in the die by a radial pressure. Consequently any dimensional change during decompression must occur in the axial direction. Ejection: As lower punch rises & pushes the tablet upward there is a continued residual die wall friction. As the tablet is removed from the die the lateral pressure is relived & the tablet undergoes elastic recovery with an increased [2-10 %] in the volume of that portion of the tablet removed from the die.

Jones (13) has divided the compression event into a series of time periods, and from this, proposed a number of useful definitions. These are: (i) Consolidation time: time to reach maximum force. (ii) Dwell time: time at maximum force. (iii) Contact time: time for compression and decompression excluding ejection time. (iv) Ejection time: time during which ejection occurs. (v) Residence time: time during which the formed compact is within the die.

BONDING IN TABLET: 1. The Mechanical Theory The mechanical theory proposes that under pressure the individual particles undergo elastic/plastic or & brittle deformation & that the edges of the particles intermesh deforming a mechanical bond. If only the mechanical bond exists, the total energy of compression is equal to the sum of the energy of deformation, heat & energy absorb for each constituent. Mechanical interlocking is not a major mechanism of bonding in pharmaceutical tablet. 2. Intermolecular Theory The molecules [or ions] at the surface of solid have unsatisfied forces [surface free energy] which interact with the other particles in true contact.

 Under pressure the molecules in true contact between new clean surfaces of the granules are close enough so that vender-walls forces interact to consolidate the particles. Materials containing plenty OH groups may also create hydrogen bonds between molecules. 3. Liquid Surface Film Theory The liquid-surface film theory attributes bonding to the presence of a thin liquid film which may be the consequence of fusion or solution at the surface of the particle induced by the energy of compression.

Force transmission through a powder bed

The process of tabletting involves the application of massive compressive forces, which induce considerable deformation in the solid particles (Fig. 3). During normal tablet operations, consolidation is accentuated in those regions adjacent to the die wall, owing to the intense shear to which the material is subjected to, as it is compressed axially and pushed along the wall surface.

Fig. 3: Diagram of a cross section of a typical single punch and die assembly used for compaction studies.

The resistance to differential movement of particles caused by their inherent cohesiveness results in the applied force not being transmitted uniformly throughout the entire mass. In the case of single-station press, the force exerted by the upper punch diminishes exponentially at increasing depths below it. Thus, the relationship between upper punch force, F A , and lower punch force, F L , may be expressed in the form: F L = F A . e - kH/D where k is an experimentally determined material-dependent constant that includes a term for the average die-wall frictional component. H and D are the height and diameter of the tablet respectively. The discrepancy between the two punch forces should be minimized in pharmaceutical tabletting operations, so that there is no significant difference in the amount of compression and consolidation between one region of the tablet and another. The effect of die wall friction can be reduced by having smaller tablet-to-diameter ratios and by adding lubricants The distribution of force in an isolated punch and die set is shown in Fig. 4, with force being applied to the top of a cylindrical powder mass. Since there must be an axial (vertical) balance of forces: FA = FL + FD

where F A is the force applied to the upper punch, F L is that proportion of it transmitted to the lower punch, and F D is the reaction of the die wall due to the friction at this surface. Because of this inherent difference between the force applied at the upper punch and that affecting material close to the lower punch, a mean compaction force, F M , has been proposed, where: F M = (F A + F L ) / 2 F
M

offers a practical friction-independent measure of compaction load, which is generally more

A

relevant than F

(1). In single-station presses, where the applied force transmission decays

exponentially as in equation 6, a more appropriate geometric mean force, F G , might be: FG = ( F A . F L ) 0.5

Fig. 4. Force distribution through a powder bed The use of these parameters is probably more appropriate than the use of F A when determining the relationships between compressional force and such properties as tablet strength. As the compressional force is increased and the repacking of the tabletting mass is completed, the material may be regarded as a single solid body. Then, the compressive force applied in one direction (e.g. vertical) results in a decrease, DH, in the height, i.e. a compressive stress. In the case of an unconfined solid body, this would be accompanied by an expansion in the horizontal direction of DD. The ratio of these two dimensional changes are known as the Poisson ratio (l) of the material, defined as: l = DD / DH

The Poisson ratio is a characteristic constant for each solid material and may influence the tabletting processes. Under the conditions illustrated in Fig 4, the material is not free to expand in the horizontal plane because it is confined in the die. Consequently, a radial die-wall force F higher values of F
R

develops perpendicularly to the die-wall surface, materials with larger Poisson ratios giving rise to
R

. Classical friction theory can be applied to deduce that the axial frictional

force F D is related to F R by the expression: FD where m

W

= mW . FR

is the coefficient of die-wall friction. F R is reduced when materials of small Poisson

ratios are used, and in such cases, axial force transmission is optimum.

The frictional effects represented by m

arise from the shearing of adhesions that occurs as the

particles slide along the die-wall. Hence, its magnitude is related to the shear strength, S, of the particles (or the die-wall-particle adhesions if these are weaker) and the total effective area of contact, A e , between the two surfaces. Therefore, optimal force transmission is also realized when F D values are reduced to a minimum, which is achieved by ensuring adequate lubrication at the die wall (lower S) and maintaining a minimum tablet height (reducing A e ). A common method of comparing degrees of lubrication has been to measure the applied and transmitted axial forces and determine the ratio F
L

/ F

. This is called the coefficient of

lubrication, or R value (1). The ratio approaches unity for perfect lubrication (no wall friction), and in practice, values as high as 0.98 may be realized. Values of R should be considered as relating only to the specific system from which they are obtained, because they are affected by other variables, such as compressional force and tablet H/D (height / diameter) ratio. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT PROFILES The relationship between upper punch force and upper punch displacement during compression, often referred to as force-displacement profile, has been used as a means to derive information on the compression behaviour of a powder and to make predictions on its tablet-forming ability. The area under a force-displacement curve represents the work or energy involved in the compression process. Different procedures have been used to analyse the curves. One suggested approach is based on the division of the force-displacement curve into different regions (denoted El, E2 and E3 in Fig. 27.26). It has been suggested that the areas of El and E3 should be as small as possible if the powder will perform well in a tabletting operation and give tablets of a high mechanical strength. An alternative proposed approach is based on mathematical analysis of the force-displacement curve from the compression phase, e.g. in terms of a hyperbolic function. Force-displacement curves have some use in pharmaceutical development as an indicator of the tablet-forming ability of powders, including the assessment of the elastic properties of materials from the decompression curve.

Fig: The relationship between upper punch force and upper punch displacement during compression and decompression of a powder. It can also be used as a means to monitor the compression behaviour of a substance in order to document and evaluate reproducibility between batches. However, the interpretation of the forcedisplacement relationship in terms of mechanisms of particle compression, or compression mechanics, is not clarified, which limits the use of force-displacement curves in fundamental compression studies. Force-displacement measurements have also been used in fundamental studies on the energy conditions during compaction of powders, i.e. a thermodynamic analysis of the process of compact formation. The energy applied to the powder can be calculated from the area under the forcedisplacement curve. This compaction energy is used to overcome friction between particles, to deform particles both permanently and reversibly, and to create new particle surfaces by fragmentation. The thermal energy released during compaction can be assessed by calorimetry, i.e. the die is constructed as a calorimeter.

The heat released during compression is the result of particle deformation - i.e. energy is consumed during deformation and thereafter partly released when the deformation is completed and the result of the formation of interparticulate bonds. Data have been reported indicating that the net effect of a compaction process is exothermal, i.e. more thermal energy is released during compaction than is applied to the powder in terms of mechanical energy. The main explanation for this is released bonding energy in the form of heat due to the formation of bonds between particles.

Tablet volume-applied pressure profiles

In both engineering and pharmaceutical sciences, the relationship between volume and applied pressure during compression is the main approach to deriving a mathematical representation of the compression process. A large number of tablet volume-applied pressure relationships exist. In addition to tablet volume and applied pressure parameters, such expressions include some constants which often are denned in physical terms. However, only for a few equations has the physical significance of the constants been generally accepted. Among these, the most recognized expression in both engineering and pharmaceutical science is the tablet porosity-applied pressure function according to Heckel.

Heckel Equation: Tablet porosity can be measured either on an ejected tablet or on a powder
column under load, i.e. in die. The latter approach is more common as it can be performed rapidly with a limited amount of powder. A problem might be that the compression time is different at each pressure, which could affect the profile for materials having pronounced time-dependent compression behaviour. The compression of a powder can be described in terms of a first-order reaction where the pores are the reactant and the densification the product. Based on this assumption, the following expression was derived.

where E is the tablet porosity, P the applied pressure, A a constant suggested to reflect particle rearrangement and fragmentation, and K the slope of the linear part of the relationship which is suggested to reflect the deformation of particles during compression. The reciprocal of the slope value K is often calculated and considered to represent the yield stress or yield pressure (Py) for the particles, i.e.

The yield stress is defined as the stress at which particle plastic deformation is initiated. To be able to use the Heckel yield pressure parameter to compare different substances, it is important to standardize the experimental conditions, such as tablet dimensions and speed of compaction. Figure 27.27 shows a typical Heckel profile. This often shows an initial curvature (phase I) which has been suggested to reflect particle fragmentation and repositioning. Thereafter, the relationship is often linear over a substantial range of applied pressures (phase II), and thus obeys the expression. From the gradient of this linear part the yield pressure can be calculated, which is thus a measure of the particle plasticity. Finally, during decompression an expansion in tablet height is represented by increased tablet porosity (phase III). From this decompression phase a measure of the particle elasticity can be calculated as the relative change in tablet porosity or height.

Fig. 27.27 A typical example of a Heckel profile duringcompression and decompression of a powder.

The particular value of Heckel plots arises from their ability to identify the predominant form of deformation in a material. They have been used: (i) t odistinguish between substances that consolidate by fragmentation and those thatconsolidate by plastic deformation.

(ii) as a means of assessing plasticity. Materials that are comparatively soft readily undergo plastic deformation. Conversely, materials with higher mean yield pressure values usually undergo compression by fragmentation first, to provide a denser packing. Hard, brittle materials are generally more difficult to compress than soft ones. Hersey & Rees and York & Pilpel classified powders into three types A, B and C. The

classification is based on Heckel plots and the compaction behavior of the material. With type A materials, a linear relationship is observed, with the plots remaining parallel as the applied pressure is increased indicating deformation apparently only by plastic deformation (Fig. A). An example of materials that exhibit type A behavior is sodium chloride. Type A materials are usually comparatively soft and readily undergo plastic deformation retaining different degrees of porosity depending on the initial packing of the powder in the die. This is in turn influenced by the size distribution, shape, e. t. c., of the original particles. For type B materials, there is an initial curved region followed by a straight line (Fig. B). This indicates that the particles are fragmenting at the early stages of the compression process i. e. brittle fracture precedes plastic flow. Type B Heckel plots usually occur with harder materials with higher yield pressures which usually undergo compression by fragmentation first, to provide a denser packing. Lactose is a typical example of such materials. For type C materials, there is an initial steep linear region which become superimposed and flatten out as the applied pressure is increased York and Pilpel ascribed this behavior to the absence of a rearrangement stage and densification is due to plastic deformation and asperity melting. Type A Heckel plots usually exhibit a higher final slope than type B which implies that the former materials have a lower yield pressure. This is so because fragmentation with subsequent percolation of fragments is less efficient than void filling by plastic deformation. In fact, as the porosity approaches zero, plastic deformation may be the predominant mechanism for all materials.

The 3 different types of Heckel plots.

Strain-rate sensitivity Another proposed use of yield pressure values from Heckel profiles is to
assess the time-dependent deformation properties of particles during compression by comparing yield pressure values derived under compression at different punch velocities. A term denoted the strain-rate sensitivity (SRS) has been proposed (Roberts and Rowe 1985) as a characteristic of the time dependency of a powder.

where Py' is the yield pressure derived at a high punch velocity and Py" is that derived at a low punch velocity. Py' is normally higher than Py" and the SRS is thus a positive value. The discussion on the use of Heckel profiles to derive a measure of the compression yield pressure is applicable to the compression of powders consisting of solid particles. It should be emphasized that the interpretation of 1/K in terms of a mean yield stress for the particles is under debate. Nevertheless, support has been presented that such an interpretation is valid for solid (non-porous) particles. For porous particles, i.e. granules and pellets, the Heckel procedure is inadequate for the derivation of a measure of deformability or granule strength. The problem of applying the Heckel approach to the compression of porous particles is related to the need to assess the porosity of the reactant pore system. The pore space of interest in relation to the Heckel equation is intergranular, and the problem of quantifying this is discussed above. Kawakita equation A promising means of assessing the compression mechanics of granules is to calculate a compression shear strength.

Kawakita equation. This was derived from the assumption that, during powder compression in a
confined space, the system is in equilibrium at all stages, so that the product of a pressure term and a volume term is constant. The equation can be written in the following linear form.

where P is applied pressure, C the degree of volume reduction and a and b are constants. The degree of volume reduction relates the initial height of the powder column (h0) to the height of the powder column (the compact) at an applied pressure P (hp) as follows:

The equation has been applied primarily to powders of solid particles. However, it has been suggested (Adams et al 1994) that the compression parameter lib corresponds to the strength of granules in terms of a compression strength. The procedure thus represents a possible means to characterize the mechanical property of granules from a compression experiment. Celik reported that the Kawakita equation appeared to be applicable to materials in powder form only. The equation can be adapted by substituting the initial compaction volume with an initial bulk volume in order to have a better fit to the Kawakita equation for granulated materials. Another limitation of the Kawakita equation as reported by Celik is that using this method, the compaction process can be described up to a certain pressure above which the equation is no longer linear. It is now generally accepted that the Kawakita equation is best used for low pressures and high porosities. The equation is applied frequently with some success to tapping and vibrational densification (i.e. the higher porosities). In these cases, the pressure term is replaced by the number of taps or time in the case of machine vibration. It has been shown that the Kawakita relationship may be employed to determine the tensile strength of agglomerates provided that the influence of the friction at the die wall of the compaction cell has been taken into account since it is well established that wall friction significantly increase resistance to deformation. Kawakita and Ludde stated that the equation holds best for soft fluffy pharmaceutical powders and stated that particular attention must be paid to the measurement of the initial volume, Vo, and that deviation from this equation is sometimes due to the measured value of Vo. The Kawakita equation however, has also been applied to granules which cannot be described as light and fluffy. Odeku and Itiola have shown that the pressure term, P k provides a measure of the total amount of plastic deformation occurring during compression. Recent studies carried out in our laboratory have shown that the tensile strength of paracetamol tablets containing pigeon pea, plantain and corn starches as binding agent, was inversely related to the values of P k values of the various formulations. This supports the assertion that as has been previously established that higher total plastic deformation would lead to more contact points for interparticulate bonding to produce stronger tablets. The Heckel and Kawakita plots have been employed to evaluate and describe the compressional characteristics of paracetamol formulations. Both plots have their limitations and are believed to

generally exhibit linearity for materials at high and low pressures, respectively. Thus both plots have been used with the hope of obtaining more accurate information on the compressional characteristics of the paracetamol tablet formulations. Research has shown that the Heckel and Kawakita plots gave largely different indications for the plasticity of the formulations. The observed differences between P y and P k for the different binders are probably due to the fact that the P y values relate essentially to the onset of plastic deformation during compression while the P k values appear to relate to the amount of plastic deformation occurring during the compression process, especially with plastic deformation being a time-dependent phenomenon. Thus, the more the time allowed for plastic deformation to occur (i. e. increase in dwell time), the more the difference between the values of P y and P k would be, although it should be remembered that for every material, there would be a limiting dwell time after which no more plastic deformation would occur. Furthermore, it should be noted that differences between P by fragmentation (47). It should be possible, therefore, to obtain more information on the deformation profile of a material from the combined use of P k and P y . For example, to obtain optimum plasticity, there may not be much point in using a long dwell time for a material with a low P y but a high P k . On the other hand, it should be of significant benefit to use a long dwell time for a material with a high P y but low P k values. However, material with low P y and P k values should not give any appreciable problems on any type of tabletting machine, while materials with a combination of high P k and P y values would give compressional problems on virtually any type of tabletting machine, and reformulation or the addition of plastic materials may be necessary in such cases.
k

and P

would be

observable more for materials that deform mainly by plastic flow than for those that deform mainly

Adams Equation The Adams equation was derived in order to estimate the fracture strength of single granules from in-die compression data. It models the bed of granules in the die as a series of parallel load-bearing columns. The following equation was derived:
In P = In ( o / ) + + In (1 e (-) ) where P is the applied pressure and is the natural strain which is given by:

 = In (H o / H p ) where H o and H p are the initial and current height of the bed respectively. The quantity o is the apparent single agglomerate strength which is related to the actual strength, o , as follows: o= k 1 o where k 1 is a constant. The quantity is related to the pressure coefficient, of the agglomerate strength by the following expression: = k 2 where k 2 is a constant. At higher values of natural strain, the last term of the Adams equation becomes negligible and can be omitted, leaving a linear function. The intercept and slope of this linear part of the profile were used to calculate the compression parameter o . Nicklasson & Alderborn (56) have used the Adams and Kawakita equations to analyse the compression mechanics of pharmaceutical agglomerates. They found that both 1/ b (P k ) from Kawakita and o from Adams were related with agglomerates porosity and composition. The two parameters were related to the intergranular pore structures and tensile strength of the tablets formed from the agglomerates. They concluded that 1/ b and o may be interpreted as measure of agglomerate shear strength during uniaxial confined compression and as such may be used as indications of tabletting performance of the agglomerates. Cooper and Eaton Equation: Cooper and Eaton (1962) classified two broad processes that are involved in compaction, based on the assumption that compaction proceeds through particle rearrangement and deformation. The first process is the filling of voids of the same order as the size of the original particles, which may require elastic deformation or even slight fracturing or plastic flow of particles. The second process involves the filling of voids that are substantially smaller than the original particles. The process can be accomplished by plastic flow or fragmentation, in which the former is more efficient

because the material is always forced into the voids. Cooper and Eaton (1962) proposedto describe the
compaction behavior of ceramic powders.

Conclusion
The understanding of the principles involved in compressibility and compactibility are required to characterise the compaction profiles of pharmaceutical materials. Both phenomena are important in the tabletting of the materials. The importance of each will depend largely on the type of compact required i.e. whether soft or hard and on the brittle properties of the materials. Various mathematical equations have been used to describe the compaction process. The use of one single equation is unlikely to be adequate since different materials consolidate by different mechanism depending on their properties. Some progress has been made in this direction with prominence of some relevant parameters obtained from the more useful compression equations. The rate and extent of plastic deformation are now more completely characterized by the combined use of P y and P k from the Heckel and Kawakita equations respectively. There is also promise of additional indices from newer approaches to the study of the compression process. More work is however required. Reference:
1. Marshall, K., Compression and consolidation of powdered solids. In : The Theory and

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