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Nation-State: In specific reference to Chapter One, the complex societies of the Aztec, Mayan and possibly the Iroquois

Confederation, but in a broader sense of the term, nation-states are societies formed around a central and vastly important capital city Middlemen: Different traders that carry and supply other traders further down the road with desired goods, they each often extract a percent increase on the goods, which, compounded over several middlemen, can raise quite high. These were part of the reason for the eminent need for a direct route to Asia. Conquistador: A Spanish conqueror, commonly thought of as those that sought God, Gold and Glory in the New World. They brought many diseases that decimated populations, but provided invaluable rudimentary mapping of the places they explored. Matrilineal: A form of hierarchy in which power is past down the maternally (by mother) through generations. The opposite is patriarchal, which was accepted in Europe. The differences possibly arose from the different jobs each occupied, due to the fact that Native Americans relied heavily on hunting and less, overall, on agriculture. Caravel: A new type of ship invented by the Portuguese, who were foremost in navigation and maritime technology in Europe, that had the ability to proceed at steeper angles to the wind, thus reducing the amount of time lost veering deeply off into the uncharted sea. Capitalism: A system of economic policy that is self-governing and prefers little to no government intervention. In relation to Chapter One, the hyper-inflation from excessive amounts of unrefined gold and silver from the New World colonies is purported as a cause of the rise of capitalism.

Confederacy: A loose organization of governments ranging from simple, like chiefdoms or Big Man Government rule to that over highly complex systems, such as entire countries. The Iroquois confederation was an example of the former , consisting of many individual tribes, forming an overall oligarchy. Plantation: A large farm focusing not of self-sustenance, but cash-crops, in an effort to cash in on the demand for certain agricultural goods. In Chapter One, the most important plantation crop was sugar cane, due to the insatiable lust for sugar in Europe. Encomienda: A policy that allows governments to, in essence, enslaves a group of people to another for the purpose of converting them. This system was apparent in Central America, most notably, with many prospective Spaniards using aborigines as free labor in exchange for converting them. A process they reasoned with themselves as saving the pagans from an eternity of damnation for the simple debt of a lifetime of servitude. Primeval: Reference in chapter one to show that the North American continent had yet to be ravaged by what would become that industrial giant Europe. Forests still covered vast tracts of land that was easily accessible, such as by rivers, mineral deposits were untapped, and game was abundant. Ecosystem: The interconnected ties of all flora and fauna in a set region. Mestizo: A person of both aboriginal North American and European lineage. These were crucial in the development of cultural assimilation for both Europeans and Native Americans. Saga: A story with often whimsical, daring and adventurous aspects rooted in northern cultures, particularly the Norse. Similar to an epic, however they were usually verbal, and more

susceptible to reinterpretations. They are some of the only evidence that outsiders arrived on North America before Europeans. Demographic: A set of data used to describe a population. The biggest demographic discussed in this chapter was that of the staggering population loss. Province: An area of authority set up by a ruling government.

1. The geographic setting of North America is possibly the single most important aspect that affected the history of the continent. In its most basic form, geography is the location of a set region in comparison to others. In this aspect, North America was situated in such a way as to prevent exploration until explorers had sufficiently advanced maritime technologies, and with that, other technological adaptations that allowed Europeans to have a significant edge over North American peoples. Also, due to its isolation, and the fact that the overall axis of North/South America is north to south, trade and communication was inhibited by the lack of abilty for any one traveler to traverse long swatches of distance, mostly because of the rapidly changing environment humid and rainy rainforests in central America, searing deserts in the American Southwest, great plains in central present-day United States of America and woodlands of the eastern coast. Geography refers to more than the simple location of a region though; it encompasses natural resources, natural incline towards life and other issues dealing with the land itself. Natural resources were the primary goal for European explorers, at first seeking silk, spice, ivory etc. of the Far East, and eventually that of the luxurious metal we call gold. Soon after contact, however, many realized that North America was better

situated than all previous known land to grow many crops that yielded huge profit, notably sugar cane, and eventually tobacco, which was indigenous to North America. Combined, the technological ineptitude of the native inhabitants of North America and the hunger for money and expansion by Europeans lead to the inevitable end that we now know the crushing of local populations to sustain more efficient and wide scale utilization of resources by the great European powers.

2. Though there was no formal tradition between the majority of Indian cultures in the new world, but their similar roots and relative youthfulness as a population (compared to societies of the Middle East, China and Africa) lead to some close bound similarities. All of the societies were heavily religious, probably due to their dependence on the earth for their lifestyle, and their general inability to significantly change the environment to make up for periods of shortage in certain aspects e.g. rainfall, overall warmth etc. Another important aspect is that lack of any large mammalian species capable for domestication, such as species of bovine, horses and pig. The largest and most efficient animal to harvest for labor is the South American llama, which are fickle in nature, have weak physiological backgrounds, and are not exceptionally strong, especially when compared to animals such as water buffalo and horses. These are critical to feeding large populations because of their overall size, and to cultivation of land due to their strength. Differences between populations varied heavily according to the resources surrounding them. The Indians of the Great Plains were more nomadic, by nature of the roving buffalo herds. Those in the American South West were based on agriculture because of the lack

of large game, such as boar, deer and bison. Due to its diverse habitat, societies in Central America flourished as trading empires

3. The fundamental factors that drew European explorers to the New World were those motivated by the craving for more power, and thus, money. The initial push towards nautical technology came from the Portuguese, though the Chinese had invented much of the technology prior, to reach the East Indies without the astronomical cost of trekking across deserts, mountains and other hazardous terrain, and to reap profits that were not watered down by the scores of traders that handled each good that passed by the Silk Road. Eventually, the technology spread, but the Portuguese had established a monopoly on the route, heavily fortifying the African coast, forcing other rival powers to look for another route to the lucrative trove of luxuries that China, Indonesia and Japan offered. Christopher Columbus was the initial hero of this push, landing in the Caribbean and finding a plethora of both religiously unguided people and an excellent place to grow rewarding crops. Eventually, word spread and more explorers came, this time in the form of conquistadors, who looked for wealth and fame over mapping out routes. The stories of Aztec wealth only further drove the hordes of men looking for glory and soon enough, colonies exploiting the mineral reserves popped up. Many realized that minerals were not the only kind of easily exploitable aspect of the New World however. Plantations based on the huge population of easily enslaved Indians and demanded commodities sprang up and began to reap huge profits.

4. After the contact made from one another to each other, Africa, Europe and the Americas history were to be forever intertwined. Europeans, the most socially and technologically advanced of the three, began the dominating force, spreading its customs with often an iron fist and a steel blade. Europeans also enslaved much of the local populations it encountered, a practice that dated back to antiquity past the Roman Empire. This was coupled with the fact of the availability of slaves from Africa, due to the preexisting culture of slave trade. The idea was then brought over to the New World, where both imported and local talent was utilized to create labor-centric economies. With the smashing together of cultures, not all effects were bad. Previous to European exploration, Africa and Europe did not have many of the crops that were part of the Colombian Exchange, including the potato. To Europe, one of the biggest effects was the rapid growth of the population, and extreme inflation caused by the easy access to huge reserves of gold and silver in the Americas. The Americas, however, found a different type of population growth, one that mimicked the trajectory of a rock dropped off a building. 5. Although the decimation of any culture for the replacement of another can never be considered fully positive, maintaining the status quo while still having interaction between two such different civilizations would have been nearly impossible and beneficial aspects did materialize in North America. The most obvious negative effect of the European expansion in North America was the obliteration of the population both by steel and sickness. India populations were not accustomed to the diseases that spread like wildfire among the populations, and had no defenses against them, both learned and biologically. Another was the loss of culture that came with the destruction of temples,

the burning of codices and other cultural decimation. Benefits too, were to be had, and considering the present day conditions, are still in effect, though it is debatable how positive they were. With the introduction of European animals travel and food became substantially easier, especially when combined with strong metals. Although controversial whether the native inhabitants knew of the benefits of the wheel (some evidence points that childrens toys had wheels, but since no animals that could utilize them existed, the idea was never pursued to the length it was in Europe) after exploration by European powers, they certainly gained the ability to fully utilize them. Also beneficial was the idea of central government which allowed less tribal fighting, though inevitably countries had disputes and people were still killed. Raw knowledge too passed from the Europeans, and when realized that germ theory and cartographical documents would probably not have been developed in the Americas for some time, many of the benefits are obvious. The current population may serve testament to the undoubted success of European expansion, and the Roman Catholic Church would certainly accredit the Spanish with saving the souls of many, but overall, much of the Americas are poverty stricken, sick from the tyranny of repressive governments still controlled by descendents of the Spanish, modern day Mestizos, and the overall well being may not have found its way much higher up the ladder.

Nationalism: The belief in the preservation and spread of a certain countries unique heritage and culture.

Primogeniture: The passing down of a families entire wealth solely to the firstborn son. Partly responsible for the influx of aristocratic sons born after the first in the English colonies.

Joint-stock companies: The beginnings of corporations, these were economic ventures in which investors held stakes in the success of the company. Allowed people to pool assets.

Charter: A document passed by the Crown to allow a new settlement to be set up in the New World. It presented the colonies the same rights that they could expect in England.

Census: A survey of demographic data

Feudal: Referring to the feudal system in which a lower caste group of people worked on a large estate of a wealthy and often noble individual. This is much like the large plantations that employed indentured servants.

Indentured Servant: A laborer that had their way to the new world paid for by another. They were indebted to their owner for a set number of years, and were free labor during the time.

Toleration: In relation to Chapter Two, the primarily Catholic colony of Maryland tried to become tolerant of all Christian faiths in an effort to avoid persecution themselves.

Squatter: A term describing the owners of small North Carolina farms that had no legal rights to the land.

Buffer: An area that allows for friction to occur without excessive damage. The colony of Georgia was a buffer to French Louisiana and Spanish Florida.

Melting Pot: An area in which different cultures and peoples are accepted and begin to assimilate into one common identity, while still retaining their own differences. Georgia was a melting pot, due to the fact that is bordered by many cultures, and that it had been set up by the philanthropists in an effort to provide a tolerant atmosphere.

1. Although the first colony, Virginia, was created with the intent of profiting, later colonies had a plethora of goals, though many of them changed from the initial aims. The settlement in Virginia first were created with the hopes of finding gold, but soon transformed into survival, as they focused too much on wealth and not on sustaining themselves. Eventually, tobacco became green gold due to its green color, and immense value. Maryland, to the north, came from a different background, that of creating a haven for Catholics, but realized itself in the same fashion of Virginia, a tobacco fueled state. The Carolinas, created at first with the hopes of fueling a burgeoning West Indies sugar trade, found that the relationship was fruitful, and continued it, but also began to export slaves in the form of the Native Americans. North Carolina came not from any official reason, but because of the differences between the northern and southern sections of Carolina. The north had not been focused on trade,

more so the farming of cash crops, like northern neighbor Virginia, but in small farms, miniscule in scale to the far reaching plantations of Virginia. Combined with the dense forests that separated them, The North Carolinians soon became a hermetic society of sorts, vastly different than the north and southbound states that they bordered. Until now, colonies discussed were all focused on becoming self sufficient, some solely for the reason of profit. Georgia, on the other hand, was not created as a fanciful idea, but as a strategic necessity against the bordering countries, France and Spain, who controlled territories close by. It was the only one to receive aid directly from the crown in its beginning stages, probably because of the immense protection it provided to the cash flow streaming from the colonies to Britain. Eventually though, a culture became from nothing and a sort of utopian society in which all sorts of European people or Christian descent lived in harmony (with the exception of the banned Catholics).

2. All of the southern colonies were created with monetary interests, and were in general not accepting of Catholics. They also all dealt with difficulties with the Native American population. Differences were in abundance within the similarities though. In Virginia, tobacco ruled as the crop planted plantation style, to which a few made tremendous profits from. In North Carolina, the green gold was planted, but less for the immense profiting like plantations, but for a more simple of lifestyle that came with a small farm (though this could have been because they had no legal right to do so, and any significantly profiting entity would have been quickly absorbed by the crown). In South Carolina, agriculture took its rightful place at the head, but in a different form. Rather than the tobacco that made Virginia rich, South Carolina flourished off the sugar industry

of the West Indies by providing the settlements there with the necessary ingredients to sustain production, and then serving as a trade hub. Unlike its northern relatives, Georgia was not created with the intent to create money directly. Instead, it was created to protect the coffer laden colonies deemed more valuable, and in such way, increases their efficiency. Because this type of defensive maneuver is not profitable to anyone other than the crown, who was becoming rich from taxing commodities that flowed freely, it was the only state to receive aid from the government in its initial phases. Soon though, aid was no longer needed as it became settled and thus defended by the people who inhabited it. They protected it not for the sake of their fortunes, but for their lives and lifestyles.

3. For the English settlers, the local Indian populations posed very little benefits, as once the plantation lifestyle came about, most of the Native American population was gone, and could not be enslaved. In the early stages, Indian raids posed serious threats to the young colonies, which although well equipped, were suffering from lack of knowledge about the land and were often starving.

4. Because of the poor resiliency to malaria, which was rampant in the swampy marshes that rice grows in, the native American population was relatively useless as viable slaves to South Carolina, however, imported African slaves became immensely valued, as they knew how to both cultivate rice, and had a slight immunity to malaria. Indians too began to become enslaved, and then shipped to climates where they would be more productive, such as Caribbean isles or New England. The transformation from the initial resistance by the Lords Proprietors to a fully fledged slave export center was a dramatic change for the simple Carolina colony.

5. The growing countries of Spain, England and Portugal all had the similar goal of expanding their fortunes through the acquisition of new lands, or at least, lying claim to new swaths of land. The differences lie in how they each utilized their new found lands. Portugal established its role as a trader of exotics early on, and because of the immense amount of land that provided the good they wanted, never needed to colonize and create plantations to increase production (though, it would have been nearly impossible, with Portugal being half way around the world). The relations between the Portuguese and natives never became overly strained then, since both sides continuously benefitted (though unequally).With the head start it gained from its intense research into nautical navigation (due in no small part to Henry the Navigator, and the school he established) Portugal locked off a huge portion of the world, forcing but Spain and England to look west. Spain, desperate not to be left behind, financed Christopher Columbus and his voyage to the new world, which proved to become one of the most fruitful ventures, in the long term, ever. Soon, conquistadors were scrambling to head over to the newly discovered land in seek of the gold that was locked away in Central and South America. Conflicts immediately came to light, first with the slaughter of Indians for their built up gold, and then once they began to enslave them to extract more from the earth. The English found their way to the Americas seeking the same initial goal gold. Soon though, after finding none, but a land wealthy in resources, and suitable for classic European farming (compared to the Caribbean, African or jungle climate) settlers came to exploit the land for its agriculture, and some came with the hopes of new lives, free from the engrained institutions of England. Because of the desire for land, and not labor, many of the Indians were driven off or killed instead of being enslaved, though some

were. All in all, the countries motives were to play catch-up to one another as each struck it rich.

Predestination: A Calvinist idea that all souls were decided the moment they were born to either go to heaven or hell.

Elect: A member of Calvinism that was determined to be set to go to heaven.

Headright: A system created to encourage immigration of indentured servants. Who ever paid the fare for the worker received fifty acres of land. Disfranchise: To remove one or more rights afforded by a governmental body, especially civil liberties. Civil war: A war fought with which sides are part of a single country. Tidewater: An area of land that is susceptible to tidal forces. Middle Passage: The voyage across the Atlantic Ocean for slaves. Fertility: The potential of something to produce. The ground in New England was relatively infertile and plagued by rocks, while the soil in Virginia was fertile and good growing conditions for tobacco. Menial: Degrading, lowly. Slave work is menial, and requires little finesse. Militia: A group of citizens who are only called upon in emergencies. Hierarchy: a system of determining rank within a society where stratified grades exist. Corporation: An entity set up by a group of persons that is legally binding. Jeremiad: A type of sermon Puritan leaders began using when they felt that members faith was waning. Lynching: The killing of a person in a specific set of individuals. It is not directed at the single person, but at the group as a whole.

Hinterland: An undeveloped, raw area. This was used to describe land located farther west, where little settling had been accomplished. Social Structure: The ways in which people are expected to interact and how their life should generally play out. Blue Blood: A person of high social rank.

1. The most basic of constructions in both the South and New England areas is their respectable climates. From the environment spawned disease, affecting both population and economics though the setting affected economics directly as well. In the South, the land was swampy, hot and wet, which lead to perfect conditions for malevolent bacteria, viruses and carries, such as mosquitoes. This in turn caused many people to die and for fresh blood coming from England to be a much larger player in keeping the southern colonies populated. Also, because slaves brought over from Africa had a slight resistance to malaria, they fared better and more survived, survival of the fittest was actually a major player in that regard. However, not all was negative from the wet ground. Its fertile nature, combined with the high heat and moisture provided a perfect cradle to the growing tobacco business in Virginia and Maryland, and to rice in South Carolina and Georgia. In New England, the climate was drastically different and being such, so were the effects it had on disease, population and the economy. New England is a bastion of well-being compared to its disease riddled neighbors. It has quick moving, cool rivers, cold winters and is overall less wet, all factors that contribute to a much lower count of harmful diseases. Having less disease, along with the lack of need for slave-driven farms

caused most of New Englands growth to come from internal sources, allowing for a more specific culture to arise; Puritanism. The climate also dictated the economic state of affairs, with farming being relatively lackluster in terms of large plantation style farms as seen in Virginia and South Carolina, so fishing and sustenance and farming became more common.

2. Because African slaves were uprooted so violently from their countries, with no regard for the preservation of their cultures, and then mixed indiscriminately with other slaves, much of their heritage became liquefied. Mores ran together easily and some of them drained off and were replaced by ideals of the masters. Christianity became the dominant religion for slaves, probably sue to the fact it was the only acceptable religion for them to have. However, it did not come in a pure form much of it was mixed with traditional folklore. Many of the incorporations of Christianity were also used to conceal other motive, such as methods for escape. The rich culture also lead to new forms of dance and music, most notably Jazz.

3. Women in both the southern colonies and of African descent were in scare supply in the early days of the colonies. In contrast, New England women were relatively equal in numbers as men. The lack of women in the South, both of whites and Africans can be attributed to the few number emigrating to the New World, by their own accord, or not. Most immigrants were men due to their ability to provide a higher output of physical labor, which was crucial to farm life and to slave holders. In New England, women that came over were able to start families and had significantly lower mortality rates, keeping

the population self-sufficient and balanced. Women in New England also enjoyed greater social mobility, mostly due to the fact that it Puritan customs allowed and encouraged it.

4. Because of the lack of any highly profitable crop, such as tobacco, the ideals of Puritanism were able to thrive, and highly structured towns became the norm. This allowed for the Yankee character to develop in each with minimal outside influences, which may have corrupted it.

5. The introduction of people into New England who were not as focused on Puritan ideals, and more centered on creating a better life based on the amassment of wealth, caused a schism between the two classes. The Salem Witch Trials brought to fruition the growing hostility between the two groups, who were vastly different from each other in principles. The new arrivals came with the idea of bettering their own standing, while the Puritans were based on creating societies.

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