Rings and elds

Sergei Silvestrov Spring term 2011, Lecture 2

Contents of the lecture

 Congruence modulo n, modular arithmetic (Repetition)  Rings and elds.  Integral domains.

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Chapter 2. Congruence modulo n

OBS! to be repeated as the start of Lecture 2 on rings and elds Denition 1. a b modn n b a b a nk for some k . Theorem 1. (Th 2.1, p.25) Congruence of integers is an equivalence relation, which means that 1. a 2. a 3. a Proof.

a modn (Reexivity) b modn b modn

1. n a

b b a

a modn (Symmetry) c modn 0 b a c modn (Transitivity)

2. n b 3. n b

na b

a n c

n c

Denition 2. (p. 26) Congruence classes

:b modn

a modn

Lemma 1. a nq r 0 r n a r Theorem 2. (Th 2.3, Cor 2.4, 2.5, p.27-28)

1. a 2. a 3. a

b modn nq nq r r 0 0

a r r n n

b a a b 0 /
in the union of the disjoint sets.

r modn r

4. Either a 5.
0 a n

b or a

a is a partition of

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Chapter 2.2 Modular arithmetic

OBS! to be repeated as the start of Lecture 2 on rings and elds
n is an important example and also a useful tool when we will soon look at homomorphisms

of rings, factor rings and elds and also later in the second half of the course when we will study groups, and then at the end in cryptography and coding theory, especially RSA algorithm

Denition 3. n Example 1. In 5 :

0 1

3 3
In
6:

4 4 2 c

7 12 6 ac

2 2 0 c a c

3 a

Denition 4. a

These operations (OBS! on subsets) are well-dened:

ac

bd

Check by yourself or see the book. OBS! For ring properties of and see Theorem 2.7 (p 34) which follow by the fact that they are valid in . This is because n is obtained from by a ring homomorphism a a . Ring homomorphisms are to be discussed later in this lecture.

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures OBS! to be repeated as the start of Lecture 2 on rings and elds

p when

p is a prime number

OBS! Next theorem states that p is a eld when p is a prime number. Fields will be discussed later in this lecture and then again in connection to polynomials and their roots. Theorem 3. (Th 2.8, p.37) For p the following are equivalent: 1. p prime 2. ax=1 has solution in 3. ab
p,

0 0 in
p

0 in

0 or b

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

The denition of a ring

Denition of a ring is obtained by choosing some essential properties common for , polynomials, matrices and linear operators, continuous functions with values in n or and more ..... Denition 5. (p. 42) A ring R is a set with two binary operations, addition and multiplication , such that 1.

is an abelian group (more on groups in second half of the course):

R contains 0R such that x

0R

0R

x for all x

R (existence of zero = "unity" under x x x 0R

operation ) For any x R the set R contains the element x such that x ((existence of inverse under operation ) x y z x y z (assotiative under operation ) x y y x (abelian under operation ) 2. Multiplication is associative, i.e., for every a, b, c

R, a b c b c

a b c. a b a c and the right

3. For every a, b, c R, the left distributive law, a distributive law a b c a c b c hold. It is customary to use ab instead of a b.

This term was probably coined by D. Hilbert, in 1897, when he wrote Zahlring. One of the meanings of the word ring, in German as in English, is collection, as in the phrase a ring of thieves."

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Examples of rings
Example 2. The structure , , and is a ring. The structure 2 are rings. The n n matrices over is a ring. The structures (or , or ) form a ring.

Example 3. For each positive integer n the set cation modulo n is a ring.

n of integers modulo

n with addition and multipli-

Example 4. Let A be an abelian group and let Hom A be the set of all homomorphisms : A A. Dene addition in Hom A by a a a . This makes Hom A an abelian group. Let multiplication in Hom A be given by composition of functions. Then Hom A with addition and multiplication is a ring.

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Elementary properties of rings

The additive identity element of a ring is called the zero element and denoted 0. If R is a ring, a R and n , then n a has its usual meaning for abelian groups. For example, n a a a a (n summands) when n 0. Theorem 4. (Th 3.5, p. 57) Let R be a ring. Then

 0 a     ab a

a 0 a b

0 for all a b

R; R;
and all a, b

ab for all a, b R; n ab for all n

ab for all a, b an b m 1 b j j

n ab n 1 a j i

R; R.

n 1 m 1 ai b j for all ai , b j i j

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Rings having special properties

Denition 6. If ab

ba for all a, b in a ring R, then R is said to be a commutative ring.

, 2 of n , n matrices over , , and (or the set Mn are commutative. If , or the set Mn ) form a

Example 5. The rings n 2, then the set Mn non-commutative ring.

Denition 7. (p 43) (Obs! We use the word unity instead of used in the book word identity) If a ring R contains an element 1 such that 1a a1 a for all a R, then R is said to be a ring with unity or unital ring. Terminological note: terminology "ring with identity" is also used in literature. But it is really bad one since it clashes directly with the name for important class of rings with identity where the word identity in a ring has completely different and widely used (!) meaning of it an equality depending on one or more variables valid for any elements, of the ring or more generally any algebraic structure, when those elements are substituted on the place of the variables in the identity) Obs! Easy exercise for you! Prove that 1) In any ring 0 and 1 (if any) are unique. 2) If 1 0 in a unital ring R, then R 0 Example 6. The rings with unity. The structure 2 , , , is a ring without unity. , Mn , Mn , and Mn are rings

Denition 8. (p. 60) An element a in a ring R with unity 1 0 is said to be invertible or to be a unit in R if there exist an element a 1 R such that a 1 a aa 1 1. The element a 1 is called a multiplicative inverse of a. The set of units in a ring R with unity 1

0 forms a group under multiplication.

Example 7. The set of units in the ring is the multiplicative group 1 . The set of units in the ring (or , or ) is the multiplicative group (or , or ). The set of units in the ring Mn (or Mn , or Mn ) is the multiplicative group GL n (or GL n , or GL n ). Denition 9. A ring D (non necessarily commutative) with unity 1 element is invertible is called a division ring, or skew eld.

0 in which every nonzero

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Denition 10. (p 47) A eld is a commutative division ring, which means that a eld is a commutative ring with unity 1R 0R in which every non-zero element is invertible (for each a 0R the equation ax 1R has a solution in R). The derivation of the mathematical usage of the English term eld (rst used by E. H. Moore in 1893 in his article classifying the nite elds) as well as the German term Krper and the French term corps is as follows. Each word denotes a realm" or a collection of things". The word domain abbreviates the usual English translation integral domain of the German word Integrettsbereich, a collection of integers. Example 8. The structures rings Mn , Mn , and Mn , , and are not division rings. are both division rings and elds. The

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Subrings and subelds

Denition 11. (p. 49) Let R be a ring and S a nonempty subset of R that is closed under the operations of addition and multiplication in R. If S is itself a ring under these operations then S is called a subring of R. We denote this as S R. We write S R if S R and S R. Example 9. 2 . If 1 .

n, then Mm

Mn

, Mm

Mn

, and

Mm

Mn

Denition 12. (p. 49) Let E be a eld and F a nonempty subset of E that is closed under the operations of addition and multiplication in E . If F is itself a eld under these operations then F is called a subeld of E . We denote this as E F . We write E F if E F and E F . Example 10. .

Typeset by FoilTEX

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Divisors of 0 and cancellation

Denition 13. (p. 62) Two elements a and b of a ring R are called divisors of 0 if a

0, b

0, but ab

0.

Example 11. The rings , , , and do not have the divisors of 0. In the ring n , the divisors of 0 are precisely those nonzero elements that are not relatively prime to n. Theorem 5. A ring R has no zero divisors if and only if both the right cancellation law

ab
and the left cancellation law

ac

ba
hold in R.

ca

Typeset by FoilTEX

10

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Integral domains
Denition 14. (p. 46) A commutative ring R with unity 1 integral domain.

0 and no zero divisors is called an

Every eld F is an integral domain since ab 0 and a 0 imply that b 1b a 1a b a 1 ab a 1 0 0. The converse is not true. For example, the integral domain is not a eld. However, for any prime p the integral domain p is a eld. It follows from the following result. Theorem 6. (Th. 3.11, p. 61) Every nite integral domain D is a eld. Proof. Let 0, 1, a1 , . . . , an be all the elements in D. For any a D 0 , consider the elements a1, aa1 , . . . , aan . If aai aa j , then ai a j by the left cancellation law, therefore all these elements are distinct. None of these elements is 0, because D has no 0 divisors. It follows that a1, aa1 , . . . , aan are elements 1, a1 , . . . , an in some order, so that either a1 1, that is, a 1, or aai 1 for some i. Thus, a has a multiplicative inverse.

Typeset by FoilTEX

11

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

The characteristic of a ring

Denition 15. Let R be a ring. If there is a least positive integer n such that n a 0 for all a then R is said to have characteristic n. If no such n exists R is said to have characteristic 0. The next theorem claims that if the ring has unity, it sufces to examine only a Theorem 7. Let R be a ring with unity and characteristic n. If n integer such that n 1 0. Proof. If k is the least positive integer such that k 1 k 1 a 0a 0.

R,

1.

0, then n is the least positive

0, then for all a

R: k a

1a

Typeset by FoilTEX

12

Algebra course FMA190/FMA190F

2011, Spring term 2011, Sergei Silvestrov lectures

Homomorphisms and isomorphisms (sec. 3.3)

Denition 16. (p. 71) Let R and S be rings. A function : R b R,

S is a homomorphism of rings provided that for all a, b

and

ab

a b

Denition 17. (p. 69) Invertible (=one-to-one=bijective = injective and surjective) homomorphism is called an isomorphism of rings. When the context is clear then we shall frequently write homomorphism" in place of homomorphism of rings". A homomorphism of rings is, in particular, a homomorphism of the underlying abelian groups. Consequently the same terminology is used: an isomorphism of rings is a homomorphism of rings which is a one-to-one correspondence. The kernel of a homomorphism of rings : R Ker 1 0. The image of a homomorphism of rings : R

S is its kernel as a map of abelian groups, that is,

S is the subset of S R r :r R

Im

S: s

r for some r

Theorem 8. (Cor. 3.13, p.73) If : R S is a homomorphism of rings, then the image Im of is a subring of S. Proof. See p. 73 in the book. Example 12. The canonical map morphism of rings. Check this as an exercise!
m that maps

to its remainder modulo m is a homo-

Typeset by FoilTEX

13