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CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr.

Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 1
Introduction
Structures respond dynamically when the applied loading is time dependent [ ( ) p t ], as
distinct from the static response due to constant loads (or at least loads which vary
slowly with respect to time). Typical dynamic loading of large scale civil and building
structures would include:
- Earthquake Loading
- Wind Loading (particularly high rise buildings)
- Wave loading (on offshore structures)
- Blast loading
- Other dynamic sources (large vibrating mechanical plant supported within a
structure)
Hence, if any of the above loading conditions exists, then it may be necessary to
consider the response of structures to dynamic loading. Broadly speaking, there are two
primary structural dynamic responses: the response of the structure to free vibration and
the response of the structure to forced vibration.
Free vibration
Free vibration occurs when the structure is initially displaced from equilibrium, and is
then let vibrate with no external forcing. Figure 1 shows a typical response for a simple
cantilever type structure. This concept is important since the response is dependent on
parameters such as the natural period (or frequency) of vibration, stiffness of the
structure and damping. Free vibration may be used to determine experimentally the
natural frequency and damping coefficient of real structures.


m
0
t
v
v
v
0
v
v
0
0

Figure 1: (a) Vertical column with concentrated mass at top. (b) Structure initially
displaced and then released. (c) Typical displacement response at top of column over
time of a real system.

Forced vibration
As the name suggests, forced vibration is the response of a structure to an external time
varying force. A typical example is the response of a structure to earthquake
accelerations or ground movements.

This section is divided intowill introduce basic dynamic concepts and consider the free
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 2
vibration of simple SDOF structural systems. It will then look at forced vibration of
SDOF sand the associated responses.

SDOF Dynamic Systems
Figure 2 shows an idealised mass-dashpot-spring (m-c-k) dynamic system, acted on by
a force p, which varies in the time domain

Mass m
Spring: k
Damper: c
Frictionless
Rollers
Force: p(t)
v (-ve) v (+ve)


Figure 2: Idealised SDOF dynamic system

Using Newton's 2
nd
Law of Motion, the governing basic equation of motion for a SDOF
system is the following 2
nd
order equation:

2
2
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) + + =
d v t dv t
m c kv t p t
dt dt
(1)
Free vibration ( 0 p = )
Using the standard dot notation for differentiation with respect to time, t, we get
0 + + = mv cv kv (2)
Solution must have the general form =
st
v Ae and substituting this into (2) to get

2
[ ] 0 + + =
st
Ae ms cs k (3)
Since 0 =
st
Ae , then
2
0 + + = ms cs k which results in the roots s
1
and s
2
:

2
1,2
2 2
c c k
s
m m m

| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
(4)
and the general solution to (2) becomes

1 2
s t s t
v Ae Be = + (5)

Case 1 - Undamped vibration ( 0 c = )
For 0 c = , (4) results in
1,2
s i k m = and substituting these into (5) to get


( )
i k m t i k m t
v t Ae Be

= + (6a)
or (using Euler's equation):
( ) sin cos v t A k m t B k m t = + (6b)
It is easily observed from (6) that ( ) v t is a periodic function of circular frequency
n
k m e = where
n
e is the natural frequency of vibration of the system with no
damping. This is simple harmonic motion (SHM). The roots of (4), for this undamped
case, may now be defined as
1,2 n
s ie = . The natural frequency and period of natural
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Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 3
vibration the of a system may be defined as

n
1 2
and T
2
n
n
n n
f
f
e t
t e
= = = (7)
This is the period at which the undamped system will vibrate, when undergoing free
vibration. Equation (6b) may now be written in terms of e
n
to get
( ) sin cos
n n
v t A t B t e e = + (8a)
or ( ) sin( )
n
v t C t e | = + (8b)
where
2 2
C A B = + , (the maximum amplitude of vibration) and
1
tan ( ) B A |

= .
Clearly A and B depend on initial conditions.

t
C
C
C sin |
n
T
v(t)

Figure 3: Response of a SDOF with no damping present

Case 2 - Damped vibration ( 0 c = )
The SHM system described above will continue to vibrate ad infinitum, with no change
in the amplitude of vibration. However real systems will dissipate energy and this is
referred to as damping.
Damping is a property that is difficult to assess and model in a real system. However a
good approach is to consider the damping resistance as proportional to the velocity of
the system: viscous damping. It is related to the velocity of the system and is described
by a property called the damping coefficient, c. Obviously, little damping will result in
an oscillatory motion that will come to rest eventually where as much damping will
prevent any oscillation of the system. Therefore it is clear that there exists a value for c,
which is the critical point between an oscillation of the system and none. This is
referred to as the critical damping coefficient, c
c
. Considering equation (4), it is clear as
c is increased from 0 (no damping) to a large value, then the roots
1,2
s will go from
imagiary complex root to real roots. Consequently equation (5) will have an oscillatory
component when the roots are imaginary and will be purely exponential when the roots
are real. The changeover from imaginary to real roots (i.e. from oscillatory to non-
oscillatory motion) occurs when the radical in (4) is zero, resulting in

2
2
c
c k
m m
| |
=
|
\ .
(9)
Using the fact that
2
n
k m e =
2 2
c n
c m km e = = (10)
Defining the damping ratio
c
c c = and noting that 2 2
c n
c m c m e = = , (4) may be
written in the form
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 4

1,2 2
1
n
s
i
e
= (11)
For: 1 < the roots are complex conjugate pair, resulting in an oscillatory response
1 > the roots are real, resulting in an non-oscillatory (aperiodic) response
Figure 4 shows the relationship between the roots
1,2
s and the damping ratio .

s
1
e
n
2
e
n
s
=1
Real
I
m
a
g

Figure 4: Relationship between roots
1,2
s and damping ratio .

Case 2a - Under-damped vibration ( or 1
c
c c < < )
t
C sin |
C
e
e t
n
T
d
v(t)


Figure 5: Response of a SDOF with damping present which is less than critical
damping

From (11),
2
1,2
( 1 )
n
s i e = and substitution into (5) gives

2 2
( 1 ) ( 1 )
( )
n n
i t i t
v t Ae Be
e e +
= + (12a)
or
2 2
( ) sin( 1 ) cos( 1 )
n
t
n n
v t e A t B t
e
e e

(
= +

(12b)
(12) is a periodic function of circular frequency
2
1
d n
e e = , which exponentially
decays. Equation 12 may be re-written as:
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Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 5

| |
( ) sin( )
n
t
d
v t Ce t
e
e |

= + (12c)

This is the frequency at which the under-damped system will vibrate, during free
vibration. It is worth noting that for 0.2 < that 0.98
d n n
e e e = ~ (see Figure 6). For
structures, typically 20% < .
Damping Ratio -
e
d
/
e
n

Figure 6: Typically for structures 20% < so that e e ~
d n


Case 2b - Critical damping ( or 1
c
c c = = )
From (11), there is one real root e =
n
s and substitution into (5) gives

e
= ( )
n
t
v t Ae (13)
Therefore the response of the system is a non oscillatory as in Figure 7.


e
Ae
nt
t
v(t)

Figure 7: Response of a SDOF with damping present which is less than critical
damping

Case 2c - Over-damped vibration ( or 1
c
c c > > )
From (11), e =
2
1,2
( 1)
n
s and substitution into (5) gives

2 2
( 1) ( 1)
( )
n n
t t
v t Ae Be
e e +
= + (14)
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 6
This is an aperiodic function, which is similar to that in Figure 7.


Logarithmic Decrement

Referring to case 2a ( 1 < ), Equation 12c and the response diagram in figure 8.
v(t)
t
P
Q
R
S
d
T

Figure 8: Logarithmic decrement
At the points P, Q, R, S, the amplitude of the points are , , , ,
P Q R S
v v v v and since
sin( ) 1
d
t e | + = so that we may write:
exp
2
Q
P R
Q R S
v
v v ct
v v v m
'
(
= = = =
(

(15a)
where t' is the time interval between adjacent points. Since
2
d
t
t
e
' = then
exp
Q
P R
Q R S d
v
v v c
v v v m
t
e
(
= = = =
(

(15b)
Defining logarithmic decrement as
( )
ln
P Q
v v o then
d
c m o t e = . Substituting for
and
d
c e gives

2
2 1 o t = (16)
For structures, typically 0.2 < which means
2
1 1 ~ and (16) may be written as:
2 o t = (17)

This is a useful equation for estimating the damping ratio of real structures. If the
structure can be given an initial disturbance and the resulting displacement response is
recorded, then equation (17) may be used to find a viscous damping ratio. An estimate
of the natural frequency may also be found.

Forced vibration ( ( ) p p t = )
In this section the response of a damped SDOF system to a cyclic load is considered.
Only the case where the applied cyclic load is a harmonic disturbing force is considered:

0
( ) cos( ) p t P t = O (18)
so that the equation of motion becomes

2
0
2
( ) ( )
( ) cos( )
d v t dv t
m c kv t P t
dt dt
+ + = O (19)
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 7
The solution of this equation consists of two parts:
The complementary solution i.e. the solution of the homogeneous case where the RHS
of equation (19) is equal to zero. This solution has already been considered in the
previous section and for 1 < was periodic with exponential decay.
The particular solution this entails the particular forcing function
0
cos( ) P t O .
Ths response is then, simply, the sum of the particular (steady state response) and
complementary (starting transient response) solutions.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Freq. ratio: = O/e
D
y
n
a
m
i
c

M
a
g
n
i
f
i
c
a
t
i
o
n

F
a
c
t
o
r
)
= 0
= 0.1
= 0.2
= 0.3
= 0.4
= 0.5

max
d
(at e )

Figure 8: Response to Harmonic Forced Vibration

For the particular integral (steady state response) a solution of the form
cos( ) sin( ) A t B t O + O is used and after some algebra the solution of equation (19) may
be found to be:

0
1 2
2 2 2
cos( )
( )
( )
P t
v t
k m c
O
=
( O + O

(20)
with
2
tan
( )
c
k m

O
=
O
as the pahse angle.
Equation (20) may be recast as ( ) cos( ) v t V t = O where V is amplitude of the steady
state vibrations. Define
0 st
V P k as the static displacement. Then using
c
c c = and
2
c n
c k e = and defining
The frequency ratio -
n
e O
The gain factor -
st
G V V = (or Dynamic Magnification Factor)
then
2 2 2 1 2
1
[(1 ) (2 ) ]
G

=
+
(21)
This relationship is plotted in Figure 9.

The value of at which G is a maximum is found from
2 2
1 2 =
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 8

0 max occurs at 1
2 max occurs at 0.96
G
G


= =
= =


When 0 and 1 = = then RESONANCE occurs.



Examples of Free Undamped Vibrations - SDOF
Note in the examples that increasing mass means decreasing frequency.
Example 1
m
m
k
x
EI
Neglect mass of column
v


8 = L m
6 2
60 10 = EI Nm 1, 000 = m kg
Circular Frequency: e =
n
k
m

For a cantilever:
6
3 3
3 3(60 10 )
351, 562.5 /
8
EI
k N m
L

= = =

351, 562.5
18.75 /
1, 000
e = =
n
rad s
Natural Frequency:
1
2.98 0.335
2
e
t
= = = =
n
n n
n
f Hz T sec/cycle
f



CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 9
Example 2
m
2EI
6
m
1
0
m
EI
m
k
x
A
B C
D
Neglect mass of columns
Rigid Beam
v


6 2
60 10 = EI Nm 2, 000 = m kg
Stiffnesses (sway condition):
3 3
12 12
6 18
= = =
AB
EI EI EI
k
L


3 3
12 12(2 ) 3
10 125
= = =
CD
EI EI EI
k
L

6 6
1 3
60 10 4.77 10 /
18 125
| |
= + = + =
|
\ .
AB CD
k k k N m
6
4.77 10
48.85 /
2, 000
e

= =
n
rad s
1
7.76 0.129
2
e
t
= = = =
n
n n
n
f Hz T sec/cycle
f


Example 3
L
M = oAL
m
k
x
Flexural Stiffness = EI
Ignore Mass of BEam
For a SS beam:
3
48
=
EI
k
L

2
3
48 1
e
o
| |
= =
|
\ .
n
k EI
m L AL

Define
2
4
1
|

| |
|
\ .

EI
A L

2 2
48
n
e |
o
| |
=
|
\ .

CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 10
Multi-degree of freedom dynamic systems
In this section we will look at multi-DOF dynamic systems, but to avoid complexity, the
DOF is considered unidirectional. As an introduction, the 2-DOF system shown below
is considered.
Example 4 (A discrete 2-DOF system)
Consider the two masses, springs and dashpots connected in series as shown below.

c
k
Mass m
Frictionless Rollers
1
1
1
Mass m
2
2
1
c
2
c
3
p (t)
k k
1
p (t)
2
v v
2 3


The dynamic response is completely defined if, over time t ,
1
v and
2
v are known.
Hence the solution variable ( )
1
2
( )
( )
v t
t
v t

=
`
)
v . Applying equilibium to the 2 DOF
dynamic system above, we can write the following equations:

1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 2
2 2 2 2 3 2 2 1 2 3 2 2 1
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
m v p t c c v c v k k v k v
m v p t c c v c v k k v k v
= + + + +
= + + + +



Rearranging and writing in matrix form:


1 2 2 1 2 2 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2
0 ( )
0 ( )
c c c k k k m v v v p t
c c c k k k m v v v p t
+ + ( ( (
+ + =
` ` ` `
( ( (
+ +
) ) ) )




or in more compact form:
+ = Mv +C Kv f v

where
is the mass matrix
is the damping matrix
is the stiffness matrix
is the time dependent force matrix
M
C
K
f

A few points to note:
M is a diagonal matrix with all off-diagonal terms being zero each mass is lumped at a
DOF and does not influence the force at any other DOF. In other words the mass
matrix is uncoupled. This is known as a lumped mass system, i.e. the
K is the structural stiffness matrix i.e. that which is used for the static analysis.
C is equivalent in form to the stiffness matrix.

CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 11
This is a set of two coupled differential equations and the solution is outside the scope
of this course. Suffice to say there are analytical closed form solutions available for
special cases and numerical approaches would be employed for more general
applications.

Discrete n-DOF system
The system of equations governing the dynamic response of a discrete system is easily
extended form the special 2-DOF system described above.
Mass m
i
Mass m
I+1
c
p (t)
k
i
i+1
I+1
v v
i
p (t)

Consider two individual masses,
i
m &
1 i
m
+
, and the associated DOF, ( )
i
v t &
1
( )
i
v t
+
.
The masses are connected by a spring with stiffness, k, and a dashpot with damping, c.
Both masses are subject to forces ( )
i
p t &
1
( )
i
p t
+
. Writing a force equation for each
mass:

1 1
1 1 1 1 1
( )
( )
i i i i i i i
i i i i i i i
m v p t cv cv kv kv
m v p t cv cv kv kv
+ +
+ + + + +
= + +
= + +





1 1 1 1 1
0 ( )
0 ( )
i i i i i
i i i i i
m v v v p t c c k k
m v v v p t c c k k
+ + + + +
( ( (
+ + =
` ` ` `
( ( (

) ) ) )




or
e e e e
+ = M v +C v K v f (A)

This equation may be written for each pair of masses, connected by a spring and/or a
viscous damper (dashpot). The similarity between these sets of equations and the
element stiffness matrices developed in an earlier section of this course should be noted.
In fact the subsystem above is essentially an unidirectional linear dynamic element.
Hence the assembly procedure for the damping and stiffness matrices is essentially the
same. Therefore the final set of equations in matrix form would be the same as equation
(A) above:
+ = Mv +Cv Kv f (B)

CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 12
Example 5 (Structural Analogy)
M
EI
EI
EI
M
M
EI
EI
EI
3 Storey Sway Frame (Rigid Floors) and
it's equivalent dynamic model
C
C
C
h
h
h
x
3
x
2
x
1
c
k
M
1
c
p (t)
k
1
p (t)
3
p (t)
2
p (t)
1
M
2
c
p (t)
k
1 M
3
Element 1 Element 2 Element 3
v v v

1
1 2 3 2
3
0 0
0 0
0 0
m v
m m m m m v
m v
(

(
= = = =
`
(

(
)
Mv



0 1
3
1
0 1 1
24
1 1
Elem
v Support
EI
v h
= (
=
`
(

)
K x
1 2
3
2
1 1
24
1 1
Elem
v
EI
v h
(
=
`
(

)
K x
2 3
3
3
1 1
24
1 1
Elem
v
EI
v h
(
=
`
(

)
K x

1
2
3
3
2 1 0
24
1 2 1
0 1 1
v
EI
v
h
v
(

(
=
`
(

(
)
Kx

0 1
1
0 1 1
1 1
Elem
v Support
C
v
= (
=
`
(

)
C x


1 2
2
1 1
1 1
Elem
v
C
v
(
=
`
(

)
C x


2 3
3
1 1
1 1
Elem
v
C
v
(
=
`
(

)
C x



1
2
3
2 1 0
1 2 1
0 1 1
v
C v
v
(

(
=
`
(

(
)
Cx



Therefore the final set of three differential equations is:

1 1 1 1
2 2 2 2
3
3 3 3 3
0 0 2 1 0 2 1 0 ( )
24
0 0 1 2 1 1 2 1 ( )
0 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 ( )
m v v v p t
EI
m v C v v p t
h
m v v v p t
( ( (

( ( (
+ + =
` ` ` `
( ( (

( ( (
) ) ) )





CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 13
Natural (Free) vibration frequencies and modes
Each SDOF system has a natural frequency, which depends on the stiffness of the
spring and the mass. This quantity is associated with the free vibration of the system,
i.e. when there is no damping and no external force. It will become apparent that in a
MDOF system, there will be n natural frequencies (one per degree of freedom) and an
associated mode shape with each natural frequency. To derive these for a MDOF
system, damping is ignored and no external forcing is applied. Therefore equation (B)
reduces to:
= Mv +Kv 0 (C)

For a harmonic response (free vibration), solutions of these equations must be of the
form:
( ) ( )
i
t q t =
i
v a
where { }
1 2
T
n
i
a a a =
i
a is a set of nodal displacements describing the
deflected shape of the system during vibration and
does not vary with time.
( ) sin( )
i i i i
q t A t e | = + is the simple harmonic function describing the
variation of the displacements with time where
i
A and
i
| are constants depending on initial conditions.

Hence
2
( )
i i
q t e =
i
v a
Substituting these into Equation (C) and simplifying gives:


2
( ) 0
i i
q t e ( =

i i
Ka Ma
Since ( ) 0
i
q t = (trivial solution), then the natural frequency
i
e and the mode shape
i
a
must satisfy the following equation:

2
i
e =
i i
Ka Ma or
2
0
i
e ( =

i
K M a
This is a matrix eigenvalue problem, since for a non-trivial solution the determinant of
the matrix must be zero, i.e.

2
0 e = K M .
This is an n degree polynomial equation known as the characteristic or frequency
equation. It has n real roots,
i
e since M and K are both symmetric and positive
definite.

Once a natural frequency is known then an associated eigen vector
i
a can be chosen
which represents the mode shape of the vibration. This is not an absolute amplitude of
vibration only the relative values of the nodal displacements.

The solution of the eigen value problem is not trivial, but there are well known and
robust algorithms available to solve it.


Example 4 revisited.
Letting = C 0 and = f 0 for free vibration and substituting for M and K into equation
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 14
(B) results in:

1 2 2 1 1 1 2
2 2 3 2 2 2
0
0
k k k a m a
k k k a m a
e
+ ( (
=
` `
( (
+
) )



Expanding
2
0 e = K M gives
2
1 2 1 2
2
2 2 3 2
0
k k m k
k k k m
e
e
+
=
+


4 2
1 2 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 3 2 3
[ ( ) ( )] 0 mm m k k m k k k k k k k k e e + + + + + + =
The solution of this equation gives two values for
2
i
e ,

2
2 1 2 1 2 3 2 1 2 1 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 2
1 2
( ) ( ) [ ( ) ( )] 4 ( )
2
i
m k k m k k m k k m k k mm k k k k k k
mm
e
+ + + + + + + +
=

which corresponds to two natural frequencies for the system,
1 2
e e > .
For example if
1 2
m m m = = and
1 2 3
k k k k = = =
2 2 2 2 2
2
2 2
4 (4 ) 12 4 4 2
2 2
mk mk m k mk m k k k
m m m
e

= = =
Hence
2 2
1 2
3
and
k k
m m
e e = =


Example 5
2,000kg
6m
5m
EI
5m
1,200kg
EI
EI EI
x
k
1
k
x
2
Element 1 Element 2
1
,
2
0
0
k
g
2
,
0
0
0
k
g
k
1 2
3

For the above structure, calculate the two natural frequencies and sketch the mode
shapes. Take
6 2
60 10 = EI Nm .


1 2 2 1
1 2 2 3 1 2
0 0
0 0
i i
i i
v k k k v m
v k k k v m
+ +
+ ( (
+ =
` ` `
( (
+
) ) )



CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 15
6
6
1
3 3
12 24(60 10 )
2 11.52 10
5
EI
k N m
h

= = =
6
6
2
3 3
12 12(60 10 )
5.76 10
5
EI
k N m
h

= = =
6
6
2
3 3
12 12(60 10 )
3.33 10
6
EI
k N m
h

= = =

1, 200 0
0 2, 000
kg
(
=
(

M
6
17.28 5.76
10
5.76 9.09
N m
(
=
(


K

Characteristic equation

2 6 2
17.28 5.76 1, 200 0
0 10 0
5.76 9.09 0 2, 000
e e
( (
= =
( (


K M


6 2 6
6 6 2
17.28 10 1, 200 5.76 10
0
5.76 10 9.09 10 2000
e
e

=




6 4 9 2 12
2.4 10 45.47 10 123.89 10 0 e e + =


9 9 2 6 12
2
6
45.47 10 (45.47 10 ) 4(2.4 10 )(123.89 10 )
2(2.4 10 )
9472.9 6173.8
e

=

=


1
2
57
rad/sec
125
e
e

=
` `
) )





Mode Shapes (Eigen vectors)

2 2 2
1
3299.1 / rad s e =
1 2 6
2
13.32 5.76 0
0 10
5.76 2.49 0
a
a
e
(
( = =
` `
(


) )
K M a
Let
1
1.0 a = and then
2
2.3125 a = , Normalising gives
1
2
0.43
1.0
a
a

=
` `
) )

2 2 2
1
15646.7 / rad s e =
1 2 6
2
1.50 5.76 0
0 10
5.76 22.20 0
a
a
e
(
( = =
` `
(


) )
K M a
Let
1
1.0 a = and then
2
0.260 a = , giving
1
2
1.0
0.260
a
a

=
` `

) )


CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 16
2,000kg
1,200kg
1.0 1.0
0.43 0.43
2,000kg
1,200kg
1.0
0.26 0.26
Mode 1 - mode shape Mode 2 - mode shape

1
1
1
57
57
9.07
2
1
0.11
9.07
rad/sec
f Hz
T s
e
t
=
= =
= =

2
2
2
125
125
19.9
2
1
0.05
19.9
rad/sec
f Hz
T s
e
t
=
= =
= =


CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 17
Continuous Systems: Flexure of Beams
Here we will consider only the free undamped case: concentrate on natural frequencies
of vibration (SHM). Only slender beams are considered for which shear defoemation
and rotary inertia are negligible. Also axial force effects are neglected and vibration is
considered about a principal plane.

z
v(x,t)
y
x

Figure 9: Simple continuous beam undergoing free vibration (a) Deflected shape at
time, t. (b) Axis definition.
Figure 9 shows a simple continuous beam which is vibrating and for which the
deformed shape at any instant is ( , ) v x t measured from the static equilibrium position
(gravity effects are also neglected). From simple beam theory

2 2
2 2
( , ) ( , ) EI v x t q x t
x x
c c
=
c c
(22)
where ( , ) q x t is the distributed loading per unit length. Here

2
2
( , )
( , )
v x t
q x t A
t

c
=
c
(23)
where A is the cross-sectional area so that for constant EI

4
4
0 EI v Av
x

c
+ =
c
(24)
For free vibrations ( , ) v x t is a harmonic function of time so that
( , ) ( ) sin( ) v x t V x t e = + (25)
Substituting Equation 25 into 24 results in

4
4
4
( )
( ) 0
d V x
V x
dx
+ = (26)
where
2
4
A
EI
e
= (27)
This 4
th
order equation has the general solution of the form

1 2 3 4
( ) sin cos sinh cosh V x A x A x A x A x = + + + (28)
For specific beam configurations the end conditions may be used to determine the 4
constants
i
A using:

( )
( )
( )
1 2 3 4
2
1 2 3 4
3
1 2 3 4
cos sin cosh sinh
sin cos sinh cosh
cos sin cosh sinh
V A x A x A x A x
V A x A x A x A x
V A x A x A x A x



' = + +
'' = + +
''' = + + +
(29)

CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 18
Example (i): Simply supported beam

L
udm = A Flexural Stiffness = EI

Bending moment and deflection are zero at both ends
i.e.
(0) 0 ( ) 0
(0) 0 ( ) 0
V V L
EIV EIV L
= =
'' '' = =
where
2
2
d V
V
dx
'' =
For end 0 x =
2 4
2 4
2 4
(0) 0 0
0
(0) 0 0
V A A
A A
V A A
= = +
= =
`
'' = = +
)

For end x L =
1 3
1 3
( ) 0 0 sin sinh
( ) 0 0 sin sinh
V L A L A L
V L A L A L


= = +
'' = = +

The only nontrival solution is
3
0 A = and sin 0 L = leading to:
1, 2, 3, L m m t = =
Hence ( )
4
2 2
m
m e t | = where
2
4
1
|

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Mode 5
Mode 1
1 2
1
9.87 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

2
2
1
39.48 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

3 2
1
88.83 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

4
2
1
157.91 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

5 2
1
246.74 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

The mode shapes are therefore defined as sin 1, 2, 3,
m m
m
V A x m
L
t
| |
= =
|
\ .
so that
( , ) sin sin( )
m m m m
m
v x t A x t
L
t
e |
| |
= +
|
\ .
(30)
and
1
( , ) sin sin( )
m m m
m
m
v x t A x t
L
t
e |

=
| |
= +
|
\ .

(31)
where &
m m
A | are determined by the initial conditions of the system
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 19

Example (ii): Cantilever beam

L
udm = A Flexural Stiffness = EI

Bending moment and shear are zero at free end. At the encastre end the deflection and
slope are zero
i.e.
(0) 0 ( ) 0
(0) 0 ( ) 0
V EIV L
V EIV L
'' = =
' ''' = =


For end 0 x =
3 1
4 2
0 ; 0

0 ; 0
A A x V
A A x V
= = =
`
' = = =
)


Hence
1 2
( ) (sin sinh ) (cos cosh ) V x A x x A x x = + (32)

For end x L = we get:

1
2
; 0 sin sinh cos cosh 0

; 0 cos cosh sin sinh 0
A x L V L L L L
A x L V L L L L


'' = = (
=
` ` `
(
''' = =
) ) )
(33)

The only non-trivial solution to these equations is when the determinant is zero, hence
cos cosh 1 0 L L = (34)

There is no closed form solution to this equation, but it may be solved numerically.
Mode 1 2 3 4 5
( )
m
L
1.875 4.694 7.855 10.996 14.137

Using Equation 33, it is possible to rewrite Equation 32 as:


1
sin sinh
( ) sin sinh (cos cosh )
cos cosh
L L
V x A x x x x
L L



| + | | |
=
| |
+
\ . \ .


The term in brackets represents the mode shape of vibration and substituting the roots of
Equation 34 (i.e. values of ( )
m
L , where m is the mode of vibration) will give the mode
shape corresponding to the particular frequency. As before we may write


2 4 2
m m
e | =

CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 20
Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Mode 5
Mode 1

1
= S.S2 _
EI
pA
_
1
I
2
]

2
= 22.uS _
EI
pA
_
1
I
2
]

3
= 61.7u _
EI
pA
_
1
I
2
]

4
= 12u.9u_
EI
pA
_
1
I
2
]

5
= 199.86 _
EI
pA
_
1
I
2
]

Example (iii): Sway beam

L
udm = A Flexural Stiffness = EI


Consider the sway beam above, with flexural stiffness, EI, and UDM, A. At the
encastre edn, the deflection and slore are zero and at the sway (roller) end the slope and
shear are zero:
i.e.
(0) 0 ( ) 0
(0) 0 ( ) 0
V EIV L
V EIV L
' = =
' ''' = =


For end 0 x =
2 4
1 3

0 ; 0
0 ; 0
A A
A A
V x
V x
=
=
)
`

= ' =
= =

Substituting for A
3
and A
4
, and applying two more boundary conditions


1 2
( ) (sin sinh ) (cos cosh ) V x A x x A x x = + (35)
For end x L =
1
2
; 0 cos cosh sin sinh 0

; 0 cos cosh sin sinh 0
A x L V L L L L
A x L V L L L L


' = = (
=
` ` `
(
''' = =
) ) )
(36)

The only non-trivial solution to these equations (36) is when the determinant is zero,
hence
cos sinh sin cosh 0 L L L L + = (37)
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 21

There is no closed form solution to this equation, but it may be solved numerically.

Mode 1 2 3 4 5
( )
m
L 2.365 5.498 8.639 11.781 14.923

Using (37), it is possible to rewrite (35) as

1
cos cosh
cos cosh (sin sinh )
sin sinh
L L
V A x x x x
L L



| | | |
= +
| |
+
\ . \ .

The term in brackets represents the mode shape of vibration and substituting the roots of
(37) (i.e. values of ( )
m
L , where m is the mode of vibration) will give the mode shape
corresponding to the particular frequency. As before we may write

2 4 2
m m
e | =
Expressions for the first five natural frequencies of free vibration are given in the table.
The corresponding mode shapes are also shown.


Mode 2
Mode 3
Mode 4
Mode 5
Mode 1

1 2
1
5.59 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

2 2
1
30.23 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

3 2
1
74.64 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L

4 2
1
138.79 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L
5
2
1
222.68 e

| |
=
|
\ .
EI
A L


CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 22
Approximate methods for Continuous Systems
As seen from the previous section, it is difficult to solve the governing differential
equations except for the simplest of cases. Therefore other methods, which allow the
calculation of natural frequencies of continuous systems are desirable. Energy methods
are one approach to this problem and Rayleighs method will be considered here.
Rayleighs Method
For a conservative system, the total energy is constant. Thus for free un-damped
vibration where the energy is partially kinetic and partially strain energy, it holds that
constant E T U = + =
where: E, T & U denote the Total Energy, Kinetic Energy and Strain Energy of the
system respectively.
M
i-1
M
i
K
j-1
K
j
x
x
x
i-1
i
j-1
xj
Flexural Stiffness = EI(x)
Distributed Mass = A(x)


Figure 10: Typical beam system with concentrated masses and supporting springs.

Now consider a beam system with concentrated masses
i
M at locations
i
x and with
discrete support springs
j
K at locations
j
x . For such a beam undergoing free harmonic
vibration, the displacement may be written as (from equation 25):

( , ) ( )sin( ) v x t V x t e | = +
(38)
where ( ) V x is the mode shape. It follows that the velocity is
( , ) ( ) cos( ) v x t V x t e e | = + (39)
Clearly: when the displacement is a maximum, then the velocity is zero;
when the displacement is zero, then the velocity is a maximum.
Therefore
max max
0 0 E T U T U = + = + = +
So that
max max
T U = (40)
For the beam system the strain energy is:

2 2
1 1
[ ]
2 2
Beam Springs j j
U U U EI v dx K v '' = + = +

}


2 2
max
1 1
[ ( )] [ ( )]
2 2
j j
U EI V x dx K V x '' = +

}
(41)
The corresponding kinetic energy is:

2 2
1 1
2 2
Beam Masses i i
T T T Av dx M v = + = +

}


2 2
2 2
max
[ ( )] [ ( )]
2 2
i i
T A V x dx M V x
e e
= +

}
(42)
Hence from Equation 40 it follows that:
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 23

2 2
2
2 2
[ ( )] [ ( )]
[ ( )] [ ( )]
j j
i i
EI V x dx K V x
A V x dx M V x
e

'' +
=
+

}
(Rayleighs Quotient) (43)
where ( ) V x is the mode shape and e is the natural frequency for this mode. It is
noteworthy that the for any kinematically admissable function ( ) V x , Rayleighs method
gives an upperbound estimate of the frequency.

Example (vii)
Simply supported beam of span L with central concentrated mass M AL o = . Negect
the mass of the beam and take ( ) ( ) sin V x x L t = (kinematically admissable)
Hence
2
( ) sin
x
V x
L L
t t | | | |
'' =
| |
\ . \ .

4
2
4 4
0
2 2 2 2
2 4
sin
1 48.7
2 2
sin
2
L
UPPER BOUND
x
EI dx
EI L L
A L
AL
t t
t t
e | e |
o o o
t
o
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
= = = =
| |
|
\ .
}

Compare this solution with the exact solution from Example (iii):
2 2
48
EXACT
e |
o
=
Example (viii)
As Example (vii) but include the mass of the beam.
4
2
4
0
2 2 2
2
2
0
sin
(1 2 )
sin sin
2
L
L
x
EI dx
L L
x
A dx AL
L
t t
t
e e |
o
t t
o
| | | |
| |
\ . \ .
= = =
+
| | | |
+
| |
\ . \ .
}
}

Example (ix)
As example (viii), except the concentrated mass 0 M AL o = = i.e. 0 o = . Therefore

2 4 2
e t | =
This is the exact solution since the assumed mode shape ( ) ( ) sin V x x L t = is the true
mode shape for this case.
Example (x)

L
udm = A Flexural Stiffness = EI

Assume
2 3
( ) 3 2
x x
V x
L L
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .
(kinetmatically admissable)
2
1
( ) 6 12
x
V x
L L
(
'' =
(




2
2
max 2 3
0
1 1 6
[ ( )] 6 12
2 2
L
EI x EI
U EI V x dx dx
L L L
(
'' = = =
(

} }

CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 24

2
2 3
2 2
2 2
max
0
13
[ ( )] 3 2
2 2 70
L
x x
T A V x dx A dx AL
L L
e e
e
(
| | | |
= = =
(
| |
\ . \ .
(

} }

For a conservative system
max max
T U = which leads to:

2 2 2
3 4
13 6 420 1
32.3
70 13
EI EI
AL
L A L
e e |

= = =
5.68 e | = or
4
0.905 0.905
2
EI
f f
AL
e
|
t
= = =
Note:
Compare above with Example (vi) [analytical solution]

1
5.59
ANALYTICAL
e | = or
1
0.877
ANALYTICAL
f | = (3.5 % error)
This indicates that the assumed mode shape is a good approximation to the actual mode
shape corresponding to the first mode of free vibration.

Dunkerlys Equation for Multi Degree of Freedom (MDOF) Systems
A MDOF system, of degree n, will have associated with it n natural fequencies, each of
which will have a corersponding mode shape. Dunkerleys equation is:

2 2 2 2 2 2
1 2 11 22
1 1 1 1 1 1
n nn
e e e e e e
+ + + = + + + (44)
or for a contimuous system

2 2 2 2
1 2 11 22
1 1 1 1
e e e e
+ + = + + (45)
where:
i
e is the
th
i natural frequency of the system and,

ii ii ii
k M e = is the natural frequency of the system with only
ii
M present.
Neglecting modes 2 onwards, then a lower bound to the first natural frequency is given
by
2 2 2 2
1 11 22 33
1 1 1 1
e e e e
~ + + + (46)
This lower bound method complements Rayleighs method, which is upper bound.

Example (xi)
L
Flexural Stiffness = EI
Distributed Mass = A
M = oAL

M = oAL
A = 0
Subsystem (i)
4
2 2
11
2
t
e |
o
~ - example (vii)
A
Subsystem (ii)
2 2 4
22
e | t ~ - example (ix)
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 25
Combining using Dunkerleys equation:

2 2 2 4 2 4 2 4 2
1 11 22
1 1 1 2 1 (2 1) o o
e e e t | t | t |
+
~ + = + =

4
2 2
1
(2 1)
t
e |
o
=
+

Note:
The combined solution here using Dunkereleys equation is exactly the same as that
from example (viii) using Rayleighs method.


Example (xii)
h
h
2M
A
EI
A
EI
h
A
EI
2M
2M
A
EI
A
EI
A
EI
A
A
A
M
M
M M
M
M
A
A
A
V
V
A
B
V
C V
C
3 Storey Sway
Frame (Rigid
Floors)
Dynamic Model
with approximate
mode shape
(1st Nat. Freq.)
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
Sub-systems


This problem consists of a 3 storey frame with rigid floors. The assumed mode shape
for a single storey is to be taken as

2 3 2
2
6
( ) 3 2 ( )
6
( ) 1 2
(
| | | | | |
' = =
(
| | |
\ . \ . \ .
(

( | |
'' =
| (
\ .
x x x x
V x V x
h h h h h
x
V x
h h

A piecewise combination of the above mode shape will give the assumed shape for 2
and 3 storeys. Take the storey mass as a factor of the column self-weight, i.e.
o = M AL and define:

2
4
1
|

| |
|
\ .

EI
A h


CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 26
Subsystem Mode Shapes
Subsystem (i)
( ) | |
2 2
0
( )
( )
=
'' = ''
} }
A
h
A
V x
V x
V
V


Subsystem (ii)
( ) ( ) | | | |
2 2 2 2
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) 2 ( )
= + = +
'' '' = + = '' ''
} } } }
B A
h h
B A
h V x V h V x
V x V x
V V
V V


Subsystem (iii) & (iv)
( ) ( ) | | | |
2 2 2 2
0 0
( ) ( ) ( ) 2 ( ) ( )
( ) 3 ( )
= + + = +
'' '' = + = '' ''
} } } }
C A B
h h
C B
h h V x V h V x
V x V x
V V V
V V



Apply Rayleigh Method to each Subsystem
Subsystem (i)

( ) ( )
2
2
max
3
0 0
1 1 6
dx ( ) dx
2 2
'' = = = ''
} }
h h
A
EI
U EI EI V x
h
V [see Example (x)]
( )
2 2 2
2
sub(i) sub(i) sub(i) 2
max
( ) ( )(1)
2 2 2
e e e
o o = = =
A
T m h Ah Ah V

2
sub(i) 2 2
max max sub(i)
3
6 12
2
e
o e |
o
= = =
EI
U T Ah
h

Subsystem (ii)

( ) ( )
2 2
max 3
0 0
1 1 12
dx 2 ( ) dx
2 2
'' = = = ''
} }
h h
B
EI
U EI EI V x
h
V
( )
2 2
2
sub(ii) sub(ii) 2 2
max sub(ii)
( ) ( )(1 1) 2
2 2
e e
o e o = = + =
B
T m h Ah Ah V

2 2 2
max max sub(ii) sub(ii)
3
12 6
2e o e |
o
= = =
EI
U T Ah
h

Subsystem (iii)

( ) ( )
2
2
max
3
0 0
1 1 18
dx 3 ( ) dx
2 2
'' = = = ''
} }
h h
C
EI
U EI EI V x
h
V
( )
2 2
2
sub(iii) sub(iii) 2 2
max sub(iii)
9
( ) ( )(2 1)
2 2 2
e e
o e o = = + =
C
T m h Ah Ah V

2 2 2
max max sub(iii) sub(iii) 3
18 9 4
2
e o e |
o
= = =
EI
U T Ah
h

Subsystem (vi)

( ) ( )
2 2
max 3
0 0
1 1 18
dx 3 ( ) dx
2 2
'' = = = ''
} }
h h
C
EI
U EI EI V x
h
V ( as subsystem (iii))
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 27

( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
2
2 2 2
sub(iv)
max
2
2 2 2
sub(iv)
0
dx dx dx
2
2 ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) dx
2
e

e
(
= + +

(
= + + + +

} } }
}
C B A
h
T A A A
A
V x V x V x
V V V


Expand and arrange to get:

2
sub(iv) 2
max
0
2
sub(iv) 2
sub(iv)
3 ( ) 6 ( ) 5 dx
2
13 1 319
3 6 5
2 35 2 70
e
e
e
( = + +

(
= + + =
(

}
h A
T V x V x
A
h Ah


2 2 2
max max sub(iv) sub(iv)
3
18 319 1260
70 319
e o e | = = =
EI
U T Ah
h

Apply Dunkerleys Equation to combine subsystems

2 2 2 2 2
1 sub(i) sub(ii) sub(iii) sub(iv)
1 1 1 1 1
e e e e e
~ + + +


2 2 2
1
1 1 1 1 1 319 1 319
12 6 4 1260 2 1260
o
o
e | |
( | | (
~ + + + = +
| ( (
\ .


2 2
1
1
(0.5 .2531746)
e |
o
=
+

Comparison with Exact
This approach is compared with a numerical model based on a lumped mass system,
using the values given. The "exact" value, shown on the table, is computed using
DRAIN-2DX software (developed at the University of California, Berkeley).


152 152 23kg UC
11 4 -5 4 -3 2
2.0 10 / 1.25 10 2.92 10
23 / 3.6 65.428
xx
E N m I m A m
A kg m h m r mm
= = =
= = =

2 2
647.15s | =

e
n
f
n
T
n
T
n
Exact
o cycles / s /s s s
0 50.56 8.047 0.124 0.136
10 11.10 1.766 0.566 0.524
20 7.94 1.264 0.791 0.729
30 6.51 1.037 0.965 0.888
40 5.65 0.900 1.112 1.022
50 5.06 0.806 1.241 1.141
60 4.63 0.736 1.359 1.248
70 4.28 0.682 1.466 1.347
80 4.01 0.638 1.567 1.439
90 3.78 0.602 1.662 1.526
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 28
100 3.59 0.571 1.751 1.608
First four normal mode shapes for case with o=50.



Problem Excercises

Using Rayleighs method combined with Dunkerleys equation, estimate the first natural
frequency of the two frames below. For both problems take m Ah o = and express
n
T
as a function of o. If you wish, calculate
n
T for a range of values of o and plot them
against the Exact values, given on the attached plots.

0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T
n
(
s
e
c
s
)
o
Natural Period of Vibration - Example (ii)
Approx Exact
0.0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 1
0.0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 2
0.0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 3
0.0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 4
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 29
Problem (i)
2M
2M
2M
h
h
A
EI
A
EI
h
A
EI
A
EI
A
EI
A
EI
A
A
A
M
M
M
3 Storey Sway
Frame
Dynamic Model
with approximate
mode shape
(1st Mode of
Vibration)
Structural Model
x
Kinematically
Admissable
Mode
Shape
V(x)
2 3
( ) 3 2
3 3
x x
V x
h h
| | | |
=
| |
\ . \ .



Problem (ii)
2M
2M
2M
h
h
A
EI
A
EI
h
A
EI
A
EI
A
EI
A
EI
A
A
A
M
M
M
3 Storey Sway
Frame
Dynamic Model
with approximate
mode shape
(1st Mode of
Vibration)
Structural Model
x
Kinematically
Admissable
Mode
Shape
V(x)
( ) 1 cos
6
x
V x
h
t | |
=
|
\ .


CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 30
Problem Data and Results
11 4 -5 4 -3 2
2.0 10 / 1.25 10 2.92 10
23 / 3.6 65.428
xx
E N m I m A m
A kg m h m r mm
= = =
= = =


T
n
values (secs)
Prob. (i) Prob. (ii)
o Exact Approx Exact Approx
0 0.3974 0.6323
10 1.5522 2.7437
20 2.1589 3.8287
30 2.6292 4.6679
40 3.0273 5.3778
50 3.3788 6.0043
60 3.6970 6.5714
70 3.9900 7.0932
80 4.2628 7.5793
90 4.5192 8.0359
100 4.7618 8.4680

CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 31



First four normal mode shapes for case with o=50.










Natural Period of Vibration - Problem (i)
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
o
T
n

(
s
e
c
s
)
0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 1
0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 2
0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 3
0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 4
CE4006 - Structural Engineering Dr. Denis Kelliher



Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, UCC 32


First four normal mode shapes for case with o=50.


0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
9.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
T
n
(
s
e
c
s
)
o
Natural Period of Vibration - Problem (ii)
0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 1
0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 2
0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 3
0
3.6
7.2
10.8
Mode 4

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