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CHAPTER 4
POLAR
COORDINATES
-2
-1
0
1
2
-2 -1 1 2
-
2
-
1 0 1 2
1
2
3
4
2
Objectives:
At the end of the chapter, you should
be able to
1. plot polar points,
2. find the polar coordinates of a
cartesian point and vice-versa,
3. sketch polar curves and
4. find the area of a polar region.

3
OUTLINE
4.1 The polar coordinate system
4.2 Graphs of Polar Equations
4.3 Area of a polar region

4
A polar coordinate
system consists of a
horizontal ray called
the polar axis (0-axis,
2t axis).

The initial point of
the polar axis is called
the pole (O).
4.1 The polar coordinate system
O
pole
5
where r is the distance of the point from
the pole,
A point P on a polar plane has coordinates
(r,u )
u
r
and u is the measure of the angle which
the ray OP makes with the polar axis.
( ) u , r P
O
6
How do we plot a polar point (r,u)?
1. We first locate the u-axis.

2. a. If r > 0, the point is plotted
along the u-axis.

b. If r < 0, the point is plotted on
the opposite side of the u-axis.

2
7
Example 4.1.1 Plot the following polar
points.
( ) /4 3, t . a ( ) /4 5, - t . b ( ) /4 3,- t . c ( ) /4 3.5,- - t . d
t/4
-a
5t/4
-b
-t/4
-c
3t/4
-d
Solution:
t/4
t/4
8
How are the cartesian coordinates
(x,y) and polar coordinates (r,u) of a
point related?
u
r
( ) u , r
O
x
y
(x,y)
r
x
cos = u
r
y
sin = u
u cos r x =
u sin r y =
2 2 2
r y x = +
0 = = x ,
x
y
tanu
9
Example 4.1.2 Find the cartesian
coordinates of the given polar point.
( ) /4 6, t . a
Solution:
u cos r x =
( ) /4 6, t . a
6 =
4
t
cos 6 =
2
2
2 3 =
u sin r y = 6 =
4
t
sin 6 =
2
2
2 3 =
( ) 2 3 2 3 Answer. ,
( ) /3 4,2 t . b
10
u cos r x = 4 =
3
2t
cos
4 =
2
1

2 =
u sin r y =
4 =
3
2t
sin 4 =
2
3
3 2 =
( ) 3 2 2 Answer. ,
( ) /3 4,2 t . b
11
While the cartesian coordinates of any
point are unique, the polar coordinates of any
point are not unique.

t/4
5t/4
( ) /4 3, t
-
( ) /4 3,5 - , t
( ) etc. /4 3,-3 - , t
( ) /4 3,-7 t
Consider the point with polar coordinates

The same point has
polar coordinates

-7t/4
-3t/4
12
Example 4.1.3 Find a set of polar coordinates
(r,u) of the cartesian point (-3,3) such that
-2t s u s 2t and
a. r > 0 and u > 0 c. r < 0 and u > 0
b. r > 0 and u < 0 d. r < 0 and u < 0
Solution:
2 2 2
r y x = +
2 2
y x r + = 2 3 18 = =
x
y
tan = u
1
3
3
=

= u tan
4
3t
u = (since (-3,3) e QII)
3
13
3t/4
-
a. r > 0 and u > 0
b. r > 0 and u < 0
c. r < 0 and u > 0
d. r < 0 and u < 0
Answers:
|
.
|

\
|
4
3
2 3 a.
t
,
|
.
|

\
|
4
5
2 3 b.
t
,
-t/4
|
.
|

\
|

4
7
2 3 c.
t
,
|
.
|

\
|

4
2 3 d.
t
,
-5t/4
7t/4
14
Example 4.1.4 Find a set of polar coordinates
(r,u) of the cartesian point (-1,-2) such that
-2t s u s 2t and
a. r > 0 and u > 0 c. r < 0 and u > 0
b. r > 0 and u < 0 d. r < 0 and u < 0
Solution:
2 2
y x r + = 5 =
x
y
tan = u 2
1
2
=

= u tan 2 tan Arc + = t u


(since (-1,-2) e QIII)
2 2 2
r y x = +
15
a. r > 0 and u > 0
b. r > 0 and u < 0
c. r < 0 and u > 0
d. r < 0 and u < 0
Answers:
( ) t + 2 5 a. tan Arc ,
2 tan Arc
t + 2 tan Arc
( ) t 2 5 b. tan Arc ,
( ) 2 5 c. tan Arc ,
( ) t 2 2 5 d. tan Arc ,
-
16
Example 4.1.5 Find a polar equation of a curve
whose cartesian equation is given by

9 a.
2 2
= + y x
x y 3 b. =
Solution:
9 a.
2 2
= + y x
( ) ( ) 9
2 2
= + u u sin r cos r
9
2 2 2 2
= + u u sin r cos r
( ) 9
2 2 2
= + u u sin cos r
9
2
= r
3 = r
17
9
2 2
= + y x
3 = r
The same graph is given by
. r 3 or =
( ) R , , e u u 3
( ) R , , e u u 3
18
x y 3 b. =
u u cos r sin r = 3
0 3 = u u cos r sin r
( ) 0 3 = u u cos sin r
0 = r 0 3 or = u u cos sin
0 = r 3 or = tan
0 = r
3
4
or
3
or
t t
= =
4
19
x y 3 =
The same graph is given by
.
3
4
or
3
t t
= =
t/3
4t/3
20
4.2 Graphs of polar equations
The graph of a cartesian
equation consists of all points (x,y)
that satisfies the given equation.
The graph of a polar equation
consists of all points (r,u) that
satisfies the given equation.

21
A. Circles centered at the pole
0 where = = a , a r
Illustration:
4 = r
. r 4 by given is circle same The =
22
B. Circles tangent to the pole
0 where = = a , cos a r u
0 where = = a , sin a r u
23
u cos a r =
If
2 2
2 2
y x
x
a y x
+
= +
ax y x = +
2 2
0
2 2
= + y ax x
2
2
2
2 2
|
.
|

\
|
= + |
.
|

\
|

a
y
a
x
2
0
2
a
r , ,
a
C = |
.
|

\
|
an equation of
a circle
24
u cos r 4 =
a = 4
Illustrations:
( ) 2 0 2 = r , , C
-
u cos r 4 =
a = -4
( ) 2 0 2 = r , , C
-
5
25
u sin a r =
If
2 2
2 2
y x
y
a y x
+
= +
ay y x = +
2 2
0
2 2
= + ay y x
2 2
2
2 2
|
.
|

\
|
= |
.
|

\
|
+
a a
y x
2 2
0
a
r ,
a
, C = |
.
|

\
|
equation of a
circle
26
u sin r 4 =
a = 4
Illustrations:
( ) 2 2 0 = r , , C
-
u sin r 4 =
a = -4
( ) 2 2 0 = r , , C
-
27
C.i. Lines through the pole
R a , a e = u
Illustrations:
6
t
u =
6
7t
u =
28
C.ii. Vertical lines
R a , a cos r e = u
R a , a x e =
Illustrations:
4 = u cos r
2 = u cos r
29
C.iii. horizontal lines
R a , a sin r e = u
R a , a y e =
Illustrations:
4 = u sin r
2 = u sin r
30
Symmetry of a polar curve
a. The graph of a polar equation is
symmetric with respect to the x-axis
when an equivalent polar equation is
obtained when (r,u) is replaced by
either
(r,-u) or (-r,t - u).
6
31
Illustration:
a. The graph of
is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.

u cos r 5 5+ =
( ) u + = cos r 5 5
. cos r u 5 5+ =
When (r,u) is replaced by (r,-u), the
equation becomes
32
u cos r 5 5+ =
u
-(r,u)
-(r,-u)
u
33 33
b. The graph of a polar equation is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis
when an equivalent polar equation is
obtained when (r,u) is replaced by
either
(-r,-u) or (r,t - u).
34
Illustration:
b. The graph of
is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.

u sin r 3 3+ =
( ) u t + = sin r 3 3
When (r,u) is replaced by (r, t - u), the
equation becomes
u t u t sin cos cos sin 3 3 + = r
0 -1
u sin r 3 3+ =
35
u sin r 3 3+ =
-(r,u) -(r, t -u)
36
D. Limacons
, sin b a r or cos b a r u u = =
where a = 0 and b = 0.
Types of Limacons
1 <
b
a
1 =
b
a
2 1 < <
b
a
2 >
b
a
3. Limacon with a dent
4. Convex Limacon
1. Limacon with a loop
2. Cardioid
7
37

3 2 = = b , a
. cos r u 3 2+ =
Illustration. Sketch the graph of
Solution:
1
3
2
0
3
2
< < =
b
a
The graph is a limacon with a loop which
is symmetric with respect to the x-axis.
38
u 0 t/6 t/4 t/3 t/2 2t/3 3t/4 5t/6 t
cosu
3cosu
2+ 3cosu
u cos r 3 2+ =
1 2 3 / 2 2 / 2 1/ 0 2 1/ 2 2 / 2 3 / -1
3 2 3 3 / 2 2 3 / 2 3 / 0 2 3/ 2 2 3 / 2 3 3 / -3
5 4.6 4.1 3.5 2 .5 .12 -.6 -1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
u cos r 3 2+ =
u
u
sin
d
dr
3 =
( ) t u
u
0, when 0 e <
d
dr
39
u cos r 3 2+ =
0 3 2 = + u cos
3
2
= u cos
|
.
|

\
|
=
3
2
cos Arc u
|
.
|

\
|
3
2
cos Arc
40

3 3 = = b , a
. sin r u 3 3+ =
Illustration. Sketch the graph of
Solution:
1
3
3
= =
b
a
The graph is a cardioid which is symmetric
with respect to the y-axis.
41

2 3 = = b , a
. sin r u 2 3+ =
Illustration. Sketch the graph of
Solution:
2 1
2
3
< < =
b
a
b
a
The graph is a limacon with a dent which
is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
42

4 8 = = b , a
. sin r u 4 8+ =
Illustration. Sketch the graph of
Solution:
2
4
8
= =
b
a
The graph is a convex limacon which is
symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
8
43
E. Roses
1. If n is odd, then the rose has
n congruent leaves.
2. If n is even, then the rose has
2n congruent leaves.
( ) ( ) u u n sin a r or n cos a r = =
. n 2 where >
44

2 2 = = n , a
Solution:
The graph is a
rose with 4 leaves
and which is
symmetric with
respect to the x-
axis and y-axis.
Illustration. Sketch the graph of
. cos r u 2 2 =
45
1 2 = u cos
... , , 2 0 2 t u =
... , , 0 t u =
u 2 2cos r =
0 2 = u cos
... , ,
2
3
2
2
t t
u =
... , ,
4
3
4
t t
u =

90
2 4
2
= =
t t
46
4
t
Half a leaf can be generated by considering
the interval . ,
(

4
0
t
47

3 3 = = n , a
Solution:
The graph is a
rose with 3 leaves
and which is
symmetric with
respect to the x-
axis.
Illustration. Sketch the graph of
. cos r u 3 3 =
48
1 3 = u cos
... , , 2 0 3 t u =
... , ,
3
2
0
t
u =
u 3 3cos r =
0 3 = u cos
... , ,
2
3
2
3
t t
u =
... , ,
2 6
t t
u =

120
3
2
=
t
9
49
u 3 3cos r =
6
t
Half a leaf can be generated by considering
the interval . ,
(

6
0
t
50
F. Lemniscates
( ) ( ) u u 2 2
2 2
cos a r or sin a r = =
. a 0 where =
The graph of a lemniscate is a figure
8.
51
( ) u 2
2
sin a r =
( ) u 2 sin a r =
0 If > a
( ) 0 2 > u sin
t u s s 2 0
2
0
t
u s s
0 If < a
( ) 0 2 s u sin
t u t 2 2 s s
t u
t
s s
2
52
( ) u 2
2
cos a r =
( ) u 2 cos a r =
0 If > a
( ) 0 2 > u cos
2
2
2
t
u
t
s s

4 4
t
u
t
s s

0 If < a
( ) 0 2 s u cos
2
3
2
2
t
u
t
s s
4
3
4
t
u
t
s s
53
Illustrations:
u 2 4
2
sin r = u 2 4
2
cos r =
54
u 2 3
2
cos r = u 2 16
2
sin r =
4
t
4
5t
10
55
4
3t
4
7t
u 2 2
2
sin r =
56
G. Spirals
Spiral of Archimedes
Logarithmic spiral

Exponential spiral
0 > = u u , r
0 > = u u , log r
0 > = u
u
, e r
57
Illustrations:
0 1 > = u u , r .
u 0 t/6 t/4

t/3

t/2

2t/3

3t/4

5t/6

t

r 0 .52 .79 1.05 1.57 2.09 2.35 2.62 3.1
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
0 1> =
u d
dr
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
As u increases,
r increases.
58
0 > = u u , r
59 60
0
1
2 > = u
u
, r .
11
61
4.3 Area of polar regions
We recall
the area of a sector of a circle of radius r
and which subtends a central angle of o
radians is
r
o
. r o
2
2
1
62
Let R be the
region enclosed by the
graph of
r = f(u)
and the lines given by
u = o and u = | ,
where f is continuous
and non-negative on
the interval [o ,| ].

u = o
u = |
r = f(u)
63
u = o
u = |
r = f(u)
Subdivide the closed interval
into n sub-intervals by choosing
intermediate numbers ,
where

( ) 1 n
| | | o,
1 2 1 n
,..., , u u u
. ...
n n
| u u u u u o = < < < < < =
1 2 1 0
64
Denote the ith sub-
interval by I
i
so that
| |
1 0 1
u u , I =
| |
2 1 2
u u , I =
| |
3 2 3
u u , I =
| |
i i i
, I u u
1
=
| |
n n n
, I u u
1
=
For each ,
choose a number
n ,..., , i 2 1 =
. I
i i
e c
u = o
u = |
r = f(u)
i
c u =
Construct a sector of
radius
( ). f
i
c
u
i

65
The area of the ith sector is
o
2
2
1
r ( ) | | =
2
2
1
i
f c
u
i

The sum of areas of the n sectors is


( ) | | u c
i i
n
i
f
2
1
2
1

=
The area of the region is
( ) | | u c
i i
n
i
f
2
1
2
1
=

=
( ) | | u c
i i
n
i
n
f lim
2
1
2
1

=

( ) | | u u
|
d f

2

2
1
}
=
66
Illustration: Find the area of the region
enclosed by the graph of
Solution:
The graph is symmetric
with respect to the x-
axis.
We may consider the
area of the region above
or below the x-axis.

. cos r u 2 =
12
67
( )
(

=
}
u u
t
d cos A
/
2
2
0
2
2
1
2
( ) u u
t
d cos
/
2
2
0
2
}
= u u
t
d cos
/
2
2
0
4
}
=
u
u
t
d
cos
/
2
2 1
4
2
0
+
=
}
( ) u u
t
d cos
/
2 1 2
2
0
+ =
}
2
0
2
2
1
2
/
sin
t
u u
(

(
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+ = 0 2
2
1
0 2
2
2
2
1
2
2 sin sin
t t
0 0
t =
The area of the region is graph is square
units.
t
68
Illustration: Find the area of the region
enclosed by the graph of
. sin r u 3 3+ =
Solution:
The graph is symmetric
with respect to the y-axis.
We may consider the
area of the region to the
right or to the left of the
y-axis.

69
( )
(

+ =
}
u u
t
t
d sin A
2
2

2

3 3
2
1
2
( ) u u
t
t
d sin
2
2

2

3 3+ =
}
( ) u u u
t
t
d sin sin
2
2

2

18 9 + + =
}
u
u
u
t
t
d
cos
sin |
.
|

\
|
+ + =
}
2
2 1
18 9
2

2

u u u
t
t
d cos sin |
.
|

\
|
+ =
}
2
2
1
18
2
19
2

2

70
u u u
t
t
d cos sin |
.
|

\
|
+ =
}
2
2
1
18
2
19
2

2

2
2


2
4
1
18
2
19
t
t
u u u

(

(
= sin cos
|
.
|

\
|
=
2
2
4
1
2
18
2 2
19 t t t
sin cos
|
.
|

\
|


2
2
4
1
2
18
2 2
19 t t t
sin cos
t t t
2
19
4
19
4
19
= + =
The area of the region is graph is square units.
t
2
19
0
0
0 0
71
Solution:
The graph is symmetric
with respect to the x-
axis.
We may consider the
area of the region to the
above below the x-axis.

Illustration: Find the area of the region
enclosed by the loop of the graph of
. cos r u 4 2+ =
72
0 4 2 = + = u cos r
2 4 = u cos
2
1
= u cos
3
2t
u =
2 4 2 = + = u cos r
4 4 = u cos
1 = u cos
t u =
13
73
( )
(

+ =
}
u u
t
t
d cos A
/
2
3 2
4 2
2
1
2
( ) u u
t
t
d cos
/
2
3 2
4 2 + =
}
( ) u u u
t
t
d cos cos
/
2
3 2
16 16 4 + + =
}
u
u
u
t
t
d
cos
cos
/
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
| +
+ + =
}
2
2 1
16 16 4
3 2
( ) ( ) u u u
t
t
d cos cos
/
2 1 8 16 4
3 2
+ + + =
}
( ) u u u
t
t
d cos cos
/
2 8 16 12
3 2
+ + =
}
74
( ) u u u
t
t
d cos cos
/
2 8 16 12
3 2
+ + =
}
|
t
t
u u u

3 2
2 4 16 12
/
sin sin + + =
( ) t t t 2 4 16 12 sin sin + + =
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ |
.
|

\
|
+
3
2
2 4
3
2
16
3
2
12
t t t
sin sin
0
0
2
3
4
2
3
16 8 12

= t t 3 4 4 = t
The area of the region enclosed by the loop
is square units.

( ) 3 4 4 t
75
Area between two polar curves
If R is the region enclosed by the
graphs of

on [o,|], where f and g are continuous and
non-negative and

for each u in [o,|], then the area of R is
given by
( ) ( ) u u g r f r = = and
( ) ( ) u u g f >
( ) ( ) | | . d g f A u u u
|
o

2
1
2 2

=
}
76
u = o
u = |
r = g(u)
r = f(u)
R
( ) | | u u
|
o
d f A
2
1
2

}
= ( ) | | u u
|
o
d g
2
1
2

}

( ) ( ) | | . d g f A u u u
|
o

2
1
2 2

=
}
77
Illustration. Find the area of the region
inside the graph of but
outside the graph of .

u cos r + =1
1 = r
Solution:
1 1 = + u cos
0 = u cos
2
3
2
t t
u , =
78
( ) ( )
(

+ =
}
u u
t
d cos A
/
2 2
2
0
1 1
2
1
2
( ) ( ) | | . d g f A u u u
|
o

2
1
2 2

=
}
( ) ( ) u u
t
d cos
/
2 2
2
0
1 1 + =
}
( ) u u u
t
d cos cos
/
2
2
0
2 + =
}
u
u
u
t
d
cos
cos
/
|
.
|

\
| +
+ =
}
2
2 1
2
2
0
u u u
t
d cos cos
/
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
}
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
0
14
79
2
0
2
4
1
2
1
2
/
sin sin
t
u u u
(

(
+ + =
|
.
|

\
|
+ + =
2
2
4
1
2 2
1
2
2
t t t
sin sin
0 2
4
1
0
2
1
0 2 + + sin sin
0
0 0
4
2
t
+ =
The area of the region is
square units.

|
.
|

\
|
+
4
2
t
80
Illustration. Find the area of the region
common to the regions enclosed by the
graphs of

. sin r u 2 and = 1 = r
Solution:
1 2 = u sin
2
1
= u sin
6
5
6
t t
u , =
6
t
6
5t
81
6
t
6
5t
2 1
A A A + =
( )
(

=
}
u u
t
d A
2
6 /
0
1
sin 2
2
1
2
(

=
}
u
t
t
d A
2
2 /
6 /
2
1
2
1
2
82
( ) 2sin 2.15
0 16
r u
u t
=
s s
The end !!!

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