TRAINING REPORT

BHARAT ELECTRONICS

SUBMITTED BY NAME: NISHIKANT SHARMA UPT NO.: UPT/546/B.TECH/2011 COLLEGE: H.R. INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, GHAZIABAD (U.P.) COURSE: B.TECH (ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION)

INDEX
CONTENTS PAGE NO.
CERTIFICATE.

3
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

4
PREFACE.

5
BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED:

6 AN OVERVIEW. MANUFACTURING UNITS. BEL PRODUCT RANGE.

BEL GHAZIABAD UNIT.

11
ROTATION PROGRAMME:

14 TEST EQUIPMENT AND AUTOMATION. PCB FABRICATION. Q.C WORKS. WORK ASSEMBLY.

 MAGNETICS. MICROWAVE LABORATORY.

AN INTRODUTION TO BASIC RADAR.

26
THE IFF UNIT - MK XI.

28
BRIEF TECHNICAL DESCRIPTION OF IFF UNIT MK XI.

32
IFF MK X SYSTEM (BASIC PRINCIPLE)

34
APPLICATIONS OF RADAR

46
CONCLUSION

48

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that, Mr. NISHIKANT SHARMA student of B.TECH (Electronics and Communication) from H.R. INSTIYUTE OF Technology, GHAZIABAD has completed his industrial training in BHARAT ELECTRONICS LIMITED, GHAZIABAD from 20-06-2011 to 30-07-2011 During this training period he was assigned PRODUCT ASSURANCE RADAR IFF TESTING. He was involved in Studying and Testing of various components testing of IFF RADAR System. In addition he also gained the knowledge and operation of other latest testing/measuring equipments.

I wish him all the success in his life.

PROJECT GUIDE MANAGER (PA-R/IFF) R/IFF)

(PA-

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I would like to thank Mr. NIRAJ KUMAR, (SR. DY. GENERAL MANAGER (Human Resource Development Department) for granting me the permission to work as a Trainee in this esteemed company & for providing me all the facilities. I also remain grateful to Mr. RAGHUNANDAN TYAGI, (SR. Engineer-Human Resource Development Department), who granted us the permission to take this project. The aim at the project was testing of flycatcher radar and study & analysis of Tx module, Rx Module & RF Switch Unit. This could be accomplished in the time span of weeks only due to the kind co-operation of Mr. K.T.S MURTY (Manager). I am thankful to him and his colleagues.

I pay my special thanks to Mr. JYOTI PRAKASH (Ass. Engineer) who guided me on my project and without who I was not able to complete my project. I am also thankful to other BEL staff that helped me during the summer training.

PREFACE
This six weeks training is a part my 4-year degree course. Practical industrial training mainly aims at making one aware of industrial environment, which means that, gets to know the limitation, constraint and freedom under which an engineer works. One also gets opportunity to see from close quarter that indicates management relation. This training mainly involves industrial and complete knowledge about designing, assembling and manufacturing of equipments. Excellence is an attitude that the whole of the human race is born with. It is the environment that makes sure that whether the result of this attitude is visible or otherwise. A well planned, properly executed and evaluated industrial training helps a lot in inculcating a professional attitude. It provides a linkage between the me and industry to develop an awareness of industrial approach to problem solving, based on a broad understanding of process and mode of operation of organization. During this period, the I get the real experience for working in the actual environment. Most of the theoretical knowledge that has been gained during the course of my studies is put to test here. Apart from this, I get an opportunity to learn the latest technology, which immensely helps them in building my career. I had the opportunity to have a real experience on many ventures, which increased my sphere of knowledge to a great extent. I got a chance to learn many new technologies and was also interfaced to many new instruments and all the credit goes to organization BHARAT ELECTRONICS LTD.

AN OVERVIEW INTRODUCTION Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) was established in 1954 as a public-sector enterprise under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence as the fountain head to manufacture and supply electronics components and equipment. BEL, with a noteworthy history of pioneering achievements, has met the requirement of state-of-art professional electronic equipment for defence, broadcasting, civil defence and telecommunications as well as the component requirement of entertainment and medical X-Ray industry. Over the years, BEL has grown to a multi-product, multi-unit, and technology driven company with track record of a profit earning PSU. The company has a unique position in India of having dealt with all the generations of electronic component and equipment. Having started with a HF receiver in collaboration with T-CSF of France, the companys equipment designs have had a long voyage through the hybrid, solid state discrete component to the state of art integrated circuit technology. In the component arena also, the company established its own electron valve manufacturing facility. It moved on to semi-conductors with the manufacture of germanium and silicon devices and then on to manufacture of integrated circuits. To keep in pace with the components and equipment technology, its manufacturing and product assurance facilities have undergone sea change. From quality check control machines to multi-dimensional profile measurement machines, Automatic testing machines, environmental labs to check extreme weather and other operational conditions. All these facilities have been established to meet up the stringed requirements. Today BELs infrastructure has spread over nine locations with 29 production divisions having ISO-9001/9002 accreditation. Product mix of company is spread over the entire Electro-magnetic (EM) spectrum ranging from tiny audio frequency semiconductor to huge radar systems and X-Ray tubes o the upper edges of the spectrum .Its manufacturing units have special focus towards the product ranges like defence communication, Radars, Optical & Opto-electronics, Tele-communications, Sound and vision and broadcasting, Electronic components ,etc.

AWARDS WON BY BEL R&D Divisions of BEL have been receiving number of National R&D awards, here is a small list as its not possible to show out the same. 1. FICCI Award for Research in Science & Technology 1990 (For the corporate initiative of R&D) 2. DSIR National R&D Award 1992 (For successful commercialization of Public Funded R&D) (For D&E project handled at BEL-GAD) 3. DSIR National R&D Award 1993 (For in house R&D efforts under Electronics & Electrical Industries Sector) (For D&E projects handled at BEL-Bangalore, Machilipatnam and Ghaziabad) 4. DSIR National R&D Award 1995 (For in house R&D efforts under Electronics Industries Sector) (For D&E projects handled at BEL-Bangalore & Ghaziabad) 5. Defence Technology Absorption 1998 (For successful commercialization of Public Funded R&D) (For D&E project handled at BEL-Bangalore and Panchkula) 6. Award for excellence in R&D for the year 1998-2000-2001 (Sponsored by Ministry of Information Technology, Gol)(For BEL-Ghaziabads development of various IFF-Systems) AND MANY MORE AWARDS BEL has production units established at different parts of country. The year of establishment and location are as follows: S.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Year of establishment 1954 1972 1979 1979 1984 1984 1985 1985 Location Bangalore Ghaziabad Pune Tajola(Maharashtra) Hyderabad Panchkula(Haryana) Chennai Machilipatnam(A.P)

9.

1986

Kotdwara(U.P)

MANUFACTURING UNITS

CORPORATE MOTTO
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Q UALITY, TECHNOLOGY and INNOVATION.

CORPORATE MISSION
To be the market leader in Defence Electronics and in other chosen fields and products. CORPORATE OBJECTIVES 1. To become a customer-driven company supplying quality products at competitive prices at the expected time and providing excellent customer support. 2. To achieve growth in the operations commensurate with the growth of professional electronics industry in the country. 3. To generate internal resources for financing the investments required for modernization, expansion and growth for ensuring a fair return to the investor. 4. In order to meet the nations strategic needs, to strive for self-reliance by indigenization of materials and components. 5. To retain the technological leadership of the company in Defence and other chosen fields of electronics through in-house Research and development as well as through collaboration/co-operation with Defence/National Research Laboratories, International companies, Universities and Academic Institutions. 6. To progressively increase overseas sales of its products and services. 7. To create an organizational culture this encourages members of the organization to realize their full potential through continuous learning on the job and through HRD initiatives.

MANUFACTURING UNITS: Bangalore (Karnataka): It was the first centre as already been given, being established in 1954. Since then, the Bangalore complex has grown to specialize in communication and Radar/Sonar systems for army, navy, air force etc. Ghaziabad (Uttar Pradesh): Its the second largest unit to manufacture special types of Radars for the Air Defence Ground Environment System. It provides Communication systems to the Defence forces and Microwave users. Pune (Maharashtra): This unit manufactures Image Converter tubes. Subsequently, Magnesium Manganese-dioxide batteries, Lithium sulphur batteries and X-Ray Tubes/cables were added to the product range. At present unit manufactures Laser sub-unit for tank fire control systems and Laser Range finders for the defence services. Machilipatnam (Andhra Pradesh): The product line includes Passive Night vision equipment, Binoculars, Goggles periscopes for tank fire control systems. This unit also meets up demands of professional grade radio-communication equipment in VHF and UHF ranges. Chennai (Tamil Nadu): It was established to manufacture gun control equipment required for the integration and installation in the Vijayanta Tanks. The unit now is manufacturing Stabilizer systems for T-72 tanks, Infantry Combat Vehicles BMP-II etc. Kotdwar (Uttar Pradesh): This unit manufactures Tele-communication equipment for both defence and civilian. Taloja (Maharashtra): For the manufacture of B/W TV Glass bulbs, this plant was established in collaborating with coming, France in 1986. The unit is now fully mobilized to manufacture 20 Glass bulbs indigenously. Hyderabad (Andhra Pradesh): To coordinate with the major Defence R&D Laboratories located in Hyderabad, DLRL, DRDL, and DMRL, BEL established a unit in Hyderabad in 1986. Force Multiplier systems are manufactured here for the Defence services.

BEL GHAZIABAD UNIT

Formation In the mid 60s, while reviewing the defense requirement of the country, the government focused its attention to strengthen the air defense system, in particular the ground electronics system support, for the air defense network. This led to the formulation of a very major plan ADGES with Prime Minister as the presiding officer of the apex review committee on the development and production of electronic equipment. The ministry of defense immediately realized the need to establish production capacity for meeting the electronic equipment requirements for its plan ADGES. BEL was then entrusted with the task of meeting the development and production requirement for the plan ADGES and in view of the importance of the project it was decided to create additional capacity at a second unit of the company. In December 1970 the Govt. sanctioned an additional unit for BEL. In 1971 the industrial license for manufacture of radar and microwave equipment was obtained; 1972 saw the commencement of construction activities and production was launched in 1974. Over the years, the unit has successfully manufactured a wide variety of equipment needed for defense and civil use. It has also installed and commissioned a large number of systems on turnkey basis. The unit enjoys a unique status as manufacturer of IFF systems needed to match a variety of Primary Radars. More than 30 versions of IFF have already been supplied traveling the path from vacuum technology to solid state to latest Microwave Component based system.

PRODUCT RANGES:
The product ranges today of the company are: 1. Radar systems: (a) 3-Dimensional High power static and mobile Radar for the Air force. (b) Low flying detection Radar for both the Army and the Air force. (c) Tactical control Radar systems for the Army. (d) Battlefield Surveillance Radar for the Army. (e) IFF-MKX Radar systems for the defence and export. (f) Radar allied systems Data Processing systems. 2. Communications: (a) Digital Static Tropo Scatter Communications systems for the Air force. (b) Digital Mobile Tropo Scatter Communication system for the Air force. (c) Bulk encryption equipment. (d) Telemetry/Tele control systems. (e) VHF, UHF and Microwave Communication equipment. 3. Antenna: (a) Antennae for Terrestrial, Radar and Satellite Communication systems. (b) Antennae for TV Satellite Receive and Broadcast applications. (c) Antennae for line-of-sight Microwave Communication systems. 4. Microwave components (a) Active Microwave components like LNAs, Synthesizer, Receivers etc. (b) Passive components like Double Balanced Mixers etc.

Most of these products and systems are the result of a harmonious combination of technology absorbed under ToT from abroad, Defence R&D Laboratories and BELs own design and development efforts.

Organization:
The operations at BEL Ghaziabad are headed by General Manager with Additional/Deputy General Manager heading various divisions as follows: Design & Engineering Divisions: Development and Engineering Radars Development and Engineering-Communication Development and Engineering-Antenna

1. Equipment Manufacturing Divisions: Radars Communication Antenna Systems Microwave components.

2. Support Divisions: Material Management Marketing and Customer Co-ordination Quality Assurance & Torque Central Services PCB & Magnetics Information Systems Finance & Accounts Personnel & Administration Management Services.

ROTATION PROGRAM
Under this I was introduced to the company by putting them under a rotation program to various departments. The several departments where I had gone under my rotational program are:

Test Equipment and Automation P.C.B. Fabrication Quality Control Works Radar Assembly

Works Communication Magnetics

Microwave Lab Environmental Lab

Rotation period was to give me a brief insight of the companys functioning and knowledge of the various departments. A brief idea of the jobs done at the particular departments was given. The cooperative staff at the various departments made the learning process very interesting, which allowed me to know about the company in a very short time.

TEST EQUIPMENT AND AUTOMATION:

This department deals with the various instruments used in BEL. There are 300 equipments and they are of 16 types. Examples of some test equipments are: Oscilloscope(CRO) Multimeter Signal Analyzer Logical Pulsar Counter Function Generator etc.

Mainly the calibration of instruments is carried out here. They are compared with the standard of National Physical Laboratory (NPL). So, it is said to be one set down to NPL. As every instrument has a calibration period after which the accuracy of the instrument falls from the required standards. So if any of the instruments is not working properly, it is being sent here for its correct calibration. To calibrate instruments software techniques are used which includes the program written in any suitable programming language. So it is not the calibration but programming that takes time .For any industry to get its instrument calibrated by NPL is very costly, so it is the basic need for every industry to have its own calibration unit if it can afford it.

Test equipment and automation lab mainly deals with the equipment that is used for testing and calibration .The section calibrates and maintains the measuring instruments mainly used for Defense purpose. A calibration is basically testing of equipment with a standard parameter. It is done with the help of standard equipment should be of some make, model and type. The national physical laboratory (NPL), New Delhi provides the standard values yearly. BEL follows International Standard Organization (ISO) standard. The test equipments are calibrated either half yearly or yearly. After testing different tags are labeled on the equipment according to the observations.

Green O.K , Perfect Yellow Satisfactory but some trouble is present. Red Cant be used, should be disposed off.

The standards for QC, which are followed by BEL, are: WS 102 WS 104 PS 520 PS 809 PS 811 PS 369

Where, WS = Workmanship & PS = Process Standard After the inspection of cables, PCBs and other things the defect found are given in following codes. A--- Physical and Mechanical defects. B--- Wrong Writing C--- Wrong Component / Polarity D--- Wrong Component / Mounting E --- Bad Workmanship/ Finish F --- Bad Soldering G--- Alignment Problem H--- Stenciling I --- Others (Specify) J --- Design & Development

After finding the defect, the equipment is sent to responsible department which is rectified there.

P.C.B. FABRICATION

P.C.B. stands for Printed Circuits Board. Its an integral part of the Electronics equipment as well as all the components are mounted on it. It consists of the fiberglass sheet having a layer of copper on both sides.

TYPES OF PCBs
Single Sided Board : Circuits on one side. 2. Double Sided Board : Circuit on Both sides. 3. Muti-layer Board : Several layers are interconnected through whole metallization. BEL-Ghaziabad produces only single-sided and double-sided PCBs.
1.

Fabrication of single sided PCBs: 1. A copper clad sheet is taken. It is cleaned and scrubbed. 2. The sheet is laminated with a photosensitive solution. 3. Positive photo paint of the required circuit is placed over the laminated sheet and it is subjected to the UV light. As a result the transparent plate gets polymerized and the opaque part remains unpolymerized. 4. The plate is dipped in solution in which the non-polymerized part gets dissolved. 5. Tin plating is done on the tracks obtained. 6. Lamination of the plate is removed. 7. The unwanted copper from the plate is also removed by dipping it in the solution that dissolves copper but not tin (etching). 8. Now drilling is done on the paths where the components are to be mounted. This process fabricates PCB.

Raw material for PCBs

Most common raw material used for manufacturing of PCBs is copper cladded glass epoxy resin sheet. The thickness of the sheet may vary as 1.2, 2.4 and 3.2mm and the standard size of the board is 610mm to 675mm

Operation in process
Following steps are there for PCB manufacturing:-

CNC Drilling Drill Location Through Hole Plating Clean Scrub and Laminate Photo Print Develop Cu electroplate Tin electroplate Strip Etching and cleaning Tin Stripping Gold plating Liquid Photo Imageable Solder Masking (LPISM) Photo print Develop Thermal Baking Hot Air leaving Non Plated Hole Drilling Reverse Marking Sharing & Routing Debarring & Packing

But these PCBs have the following disadvantages: >> Due to very narrow spacing between adjacent tracks, there may be a chance of short circuit if the soldering is done by hands between components on opposite side. >> Moisture or dust between gaps may disrupt smooth soldering. These disadvantages are overcome by soldered mask PCBs. In the later one an additional film is put on the earlier fabricated PCB, leaving points where components are to be soldered.

QUALITY CONTROL (WORK ASSEMBLY)

According to some laid down standards, the quality control department ensures the quality of the product. The raw materials and components etc. purchased and inspected according to the specifications by IG department. Similarly QC work department inspects all the items manufactured in the factory. The fabrication department checks all the fabricated parts and ensures that these are made according to the part drawing, painting , plating and stenciling etc are done as per BEL standards.

The assembly inspection departments inspects all the assembled parts such as PCB , cable assembly ,cable form , modules , racks and shelters as per latest documents and BEL standards.

The mistakes in the PCB can be categorized as: 1. 2. 3. D & E mistakes Shop mistakes Inspection mistakes

The process card is attached to each PCB under inspection. Any error in the PC is entered in the process card by certain code specified for each error or defect.

After a mistake is detected following actions are taken: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Observation is made. Object code is given. Division code is given. Change code is prepared. Recommendation action is taken

WORK

ASSEMBLY

This department plays an important role in the production. Its main function is to assemble various components, equipments and instruments in a particular procedure.

It has been broadly classified as: WORK ASSEMBLY RADAR e.g. INDRA II, REPORTER. WORK ASSEMBLY COMMUNICATION e.g. EMCCA, MSSR, MFC. EMCCA: EQUIPMENT MODULAR FOR COMMAND CONTROL APPLICATION. MSSR: MONOPULSE SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR. MFC: MULTI FUNCTIONAL CONSOLE.

The stepwise procedure followed by work assembly department is:

1. Preparation of part list that is to be assembled. 2. Preparation of general assembly. 3. Schematic diagram to depict all connections to be made and brief idea about all components 4. Writing lists of all components.
Material Receive: Preparation- This is done before mounting and under takes two procedures. Tinning- The resistors ,capacitors and other components are tinned with the help of tinned lead solution .The wire coming out from the components is of copper and it is tinned nicely by applying flux on it so that it does not tarnished and soldering becomes easy. Bending- Preparation is done by getting the entire documents , part list drawing and bringing all the components before doing the work. Mounting- It means soldering the components of the PCB plate with the help of soldering tools. The soldering irons are generally of 25 W and are of variable temperature, one of the wires of the component is soldered so that they dont move from their respective places on the PCB plate. On the other hand of the component is also adjusted so that the PCB does not burn. Wave Soldering- This is done in a machine and solder stick on the entire path, which are tinned. Touch Up- This is done by hand after the finishing is done. Cleaning:

Inspection- This comes under quality work. Heat Ageing- This is done in environmental lab at temperature of 40 degree C for 4 hrs and three cycles. Testing: Lacquering- This is only done on components which are not variable. Storing- After this variable components are sleeved with Teflon. Before Lacquering mounted plate is cleaned with isopropyl alcohol. The product is then sent to store.

MAGNETICS
In this department different types of transformers and coils are manufactured , which are used in the various defense equipments i.e. radar , communication equipments. This department basically consists of three sections: 1.) PRODUCTION CONTROL :- Basic function of production control is to plan the production of transformer and coils as per the requirement of respective division (Radar and Communication). This department divided into two groups : (a) Planning and (b) Planning store. 2.) WORKS (PRODUCTION) :- Production of transformers and coils are being carried out by the works departments. 3.) QUALITY CONTROL :- After manufacturing the transformer/coils the item is offered to the inspection department to check the electrical parameters(DCR , No load current , full load current , dielectric strength , inductance , insulation resistance and mechanical dimension as mentioned in the GA drawing of the product. The D&E department provides all the information about manufacturing a coil and the transformer.

The various types of transformers are as follows: i) Air cored transformers

ii) iii) iv)

Oil filled transformers Molding type transformers P.C.B Mounting transformers :(a) Impedance matching transformers (b) RF transformers (c) IF transformers

The various types of cores are as follows: i) ii) iii) iv) v) E type C type Lamination Ferrite core Toroidal core

Steps involved in the process of manufacturing of transformer/coils: a.) Preparation of former : Former is made of plastic bakelite comprising a male and female plates assembled and glued alternately to form a hollow rectangular box on which winding is done. b.) Winding: It is done with different material and thickness of wire. The winding has specified number of layers with each layers having a specified number of turns. The distance between the two turns should be maintained constantly that is there should be no overlapping. The plastic layer is inserted between two consecutive layers. The various types of windings are as follows: i) ii) iii) Layer Winding Wave Winding Bank Winding

c.) Insulation : For inter-winding and inter layer , various types of insulation sheets viz. Craft paper , paper , leather , oil paper , polyester film are being used. d.) Protection : To protect the transformer from the external hazards , moisture , dust and to provide high insulation resistance , they are impregnated.

MICROWAVE LABORATORY
Microwave lab deals with very high frequency measurements or very short wavelength measurements. The testing of microwave components is done with the help of various radio and communication devices. Phase and magnitude measurements are done in this section. Power measurements are done for microwave components because current and voltage are very high at such frequencies. Different type of waveguides is tested in this department like rectangular waveguides, circular waveguides. These waveguides can be used to transmit TE mode or TM mode. This depends on the users requirements. A good waveguide should have fewer loses and its walls should be perfect conductors. In rectangular waveguide there is min. distortion. Circular waveguides are used where the antenna is rotating. The power measurements being done in microwave lab are in terms of S- parameters. Mainly the testing is done on coupler and isolators and parameters are tested here. There are two methods of testing: 1. Acceptance Test Procedure (ATP) 2. Production Test Procedure (PTP) Drawing of various equipments that are to be tested is obtained and testing is performed on manufactured part. In the antenna section as well as SOHNA site various parameters such as gain ,bandwidth ,VSWR , phase ,return loss, reflection etc. are checked. The instruments used for this purpose are as follow: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Filters Isolators Reflectors Network Analyzers Spectrum Analyzers Amplifiers and Accessories

ENVIRONMENTAL LAB
Various tests are conducted in the environmental lab in BEL in order to ensure reliability. Reliability is defined as the probability of a device performing its purpose adequately for the period intended under the given operating condition. In a given reliability is given as The standards available here are: JSS55555- Joint services specifications (Military Standard of India) MII Standards U.S Military standers QM333 Civil Aviation and police VARIOUS TESTS:1. Thermal Shock Test 2. High Temperature Operate and Storage 3. Low Temperature Operate and Storage 4. Altitude Test 5. Bump / Vibrations Test 6. Salt Spray Test 7. Tropical Exposure Test 8. Rain Test 9. Humidity Test 10. Dust Test

11. Transportation Test

INTRODUCTION TO RADAR

RADAR BASIC

RADAR STANDS FOR RADIO DETECTION AND RANGING.

RADAR is an electromagnetic system for detection and location of reflecting objects such as aircraft, ships, spacecraft, vehicles, people, and the natural environment. It operates by radiating energy into space and detecting the echo signal reflected from an object or target. The reflecting energy that is returned to the radar not only indicates the presence of a target, but also by comparing the received echo signal with the signal that was transmitted, its location can be determined along with other target-related information. Radar can perform its function at long or short distances and under conditions impervious to optical and infrared sensors. Its can operate in darkness, haze, fog, rain, and snow. Its ability to measure distances with high accuracy and in all weather is one of its most important attributes. THE BASIC PRINCIPLE OF RADAR

TRANSMITTER

DUPLEXER

A N T E N N A

RECIEVER

Radar consists of a transmitter and a receiver each connected to a directional antenna.

A transmitter (in the upper left portion of the figure) is capable of sending out a large UHF or microwave power through the antenna. A portion of transmitted energy is intercepted by the target and reradiated in many directions. The receiver receives, analysis, and displays the information in the reflected echoes picked up by the antenna. There it is processed to detect the presence of the target and determine its location. The single antenna is used for transmitter and reception with the help of a switch called duplexer

Target

Radar Antenna Transmitted signal beam Antenna Beam width

Figure showing: Principle of radar operation. The transmitted pulse has already passed the target, which has reflected a portion of the radiated energy back toward the radar unit.

 According to the block diagram, the transmitter generates a short, rectangular pulse. As soon as the pulse enters the duplexer disconnected the receiver from antenna and connects the transmitter to the antenna. As soon as, transmitted pulse terminates, the duplexer disconnects the transmitter from the antenna and connects echoes received by the antenna are fed to the receiver, where they are amplified, demodulated and fed to a display device. The distance to the target is determined by measuring the time taken for the radar signal to travel to the target and back. d=vt Where, d=distance/range v=velocity t=time

The targets location in angle can be found from the direction the narrow beamwidth radar antenna points when the received echo signal is of maximum amplitude. If target is in motion, there is a shift in the frequency of the echo signal due to the Doppler Effect. The shift is proportional to the velocity of the target relative to the radar. The Doppler frequency shift is widely used in radar as the basis for separating desired moving targets from fixed (unwanted) clutterechoes reflected from the natural environment such as land, sea, or rain. Range or distance of radar is measured in nautical miles. 1 nautical miles=1852m. ECHO AND DOPPLER SHIFT Echo is something you experience all the time. If you shout into a well or a canyon, the echo comes back a moment later. The echo occurs because some of the sound waves in your shout reflect off of a surface (either the water at the bottom of the well or the canyon wall on the far side) and travel back to your ears. The length of time between the moments you shout and the distance between you and the surface that creates the echo determines the moment that you hear the echo. Doppler shift is also common. You probably experience it daily (often without realizing it). Doppler shift occurs when sound is generated by, or reflected off of, a moving object. Doppler shift in the extreme creates sonic booms. Heres how to understand Doppler shift Lets say there is a car coming toward you at 60 miles per hour (mph) and its horn is blaring. You will hear the horn playing one note as the car approaches, but when the car passes you the sound of the horn will suddenly shift to a lower note. Its the

same horn making the same sound the whole time. The change you hear is caused by Doppler shift. TYPES OF RADAR

Basis on its function radar is classified as: 1. Primary radar. 2. Secondary radar. PRIMARY RADAR: A PRIMARY RADAR locates an object by transmitting a signal and detecting the reflected echo. A SECONDARY RADAR SYSTEM is similar in operation to primary radar except that the return signal is radiated from a transmitter on board the target rather than by reflection. In other words, secondary radar operates with a co-operative ACTIVE TARGET while the primary radar operates with a PASSIVE TARGET. But in cases such as controlling of air traffic, the controller must be able to identify the air craft and know whether it is of a friend or a foe. It is also desired to know the height of the aircraft, so that on the same source but flying at different levels can be kept apart. To give the controller this information, a second radar called a secondary surveillance radar (SSR) is used. This works differently and needs the help of the target aircraft. It senses out the sequence of pulses to an electronic black box, called a transponder fitted on the aircraft. SECONDARY RADAR SYSTEM: The secondary radar system consists of an INTERROGATOR and a TRANSPONDER. The interrogator transmitter in the ground station interrogates transponder equipped aircraft, providing a two way data link to separate transmit and receive frequencies. The transponder, on board the aircraft, on receipt of a chain of pulses from the ground interrogator, automatically transmits a reply. The reply, coded for purposes of Identification is received back at the ground interrogator where it is decoded and displayed on a radar type presentation. The secondary radar gives the aircraft identity code and height data derived from a pressure capsule in the aircraft. In the Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR), by providing the interrogation pulses above the minimum triggering level, the transponder makes a powerful reply. This enables the interrogator transmitters to be of lower power and the ground equipment simpler.

IFF UNIT
IFF is basically radar bacon system employed for the purpose of general identification of military targets. The bacon system when used for the control of civil air traffic is called SECONDARY SURVEILLANCE RADAR (SSR). Primary radar locates an object by transmitting a signal and detecting the reflected echo. A Secondary radar system is basically very similar in operation to primary radar except that the return signal is radiated from a transmitter on board the target rather than by reflection. In other words, secondary radar operates with a co-operative active target while the primary radar operates with a passive target. Secondary radar system consists of an INTERROGATOR and a TRANSPONDER. The interrogator transmitter in the ground station interrogates transponder equipped aircraft, providing a two way data link to separate transmit and receive frequencies. The transponder, on board the aircraft, on receipt of a chain of pulses from the ground interrogator, automatically transmits a reply. The reply, coded for purposes of Identification is received back at the ground interrogator where it is decoded and displayed on a radar type presentation.

ADVANTAGES OF SSR OVER PRIMARY RADAR 1. Reply pulses are stronger than the echo signals of primary radar. 2. Separate transmitting and receiving frequencies eliminate ground clutter and weather return problems. 3. Reply signal is independent of target cross section. 4. Interrogation and reply path coding provide discrete target identification and altitude data. The interrogator transmitter operates in L Band at 1030 MHz and the airborne transponder operates at 1090 MHz. The SSR operates in the same frequency channel for both military and civil air traffic control by using compatible airborne devices in the aircraft.

Basic Radar System

A basic radar system is spilt up into a transmitter, switch, antenna, receiver, data recorder, processor and some sort of output display. Everything starts with the transmitter as it transmits a high power pulse to a switch, which then directs the pulse to be transmitted out an antenna. Just after the antenna is finished transmitting the pulse, the switch switches control to the receiver, which allows the antenna to receive echoed signals. Once the signals are received the switch then transfers control back to the transmitter to transmit another signal. The switch may toggle control between the transmitter and the receiver as much as 1000 times per second. Any received signals from the receiver are then sent to a data recorder for storage on a disk or tape. Later the data must be processed to be interpreted into something useful, which would go on a Pulse Width and Bandwidth. Some radar transmitters do not transmit constant, uninterrupted electromagnetic waves. Instead, they transmit rhythmic pulses of EM waves with a set amount of time in between each pulse. The pulse itself would consist of an EM wave of several wavelengths with some dead time after it in which there are no transmissions. The time between each pulse is called the pulse repetition time (PRT) and the number of pulses transmitted in one second is called the pulse repetition frequency (PRF). The time taken for each pulse to be transmitted is called the pulse width (PW) or pulse duration. Typically they can be around 0.1 microseconds long for penetrating radars or 10-50 microseconds long for imaging radars (a display). Microsecond is a millionth of a second. Mathematically, PRT = 1 / PRF Or

PRF = 1 / PRT

WORKING OF A SIMPLE RADAR

A simple RADAR system, are: as found on many merchant ships, has three main parts. These The antenna unit or the scanner. The transmitter/receiver or transceiver and The visual display unit.

The antenna is about 2 or 3 meters wide and focuses pulses of very high frequency radio energy into a narrow vertical beam. The frequency of the radio waves is usually about 10,000 MHz. the antenna is rotated at the speed of 10 to 25 revolutions per minute so that the radar beam sweeps through 300 degrees all around the ship out to a range of about 90 kilometers. In all RADARS it is vital that the transmitting and receiving in the transceiver are in close harmony. Everything depends on accurate measurement of the time which passes between the transmission of the pulse and the return of the ECHO about 1,000 pulses per second are transmitted. Though it is varied to suit requirements. Short pulses are best for short-range work, longer pulses are better for long range. An important part of the transceiver is the modulator circuit. This keys the transmitter so that it can oscillate, or pulses, for exactly the right length of time. The pulses so generated are video pulses. These pulses are short range pulses and hence cannot serve out purpose of long-distance communication. In order to modify these pulses into radio frequency pulses or RF pulses, we need to generate power. The transmitted power is generated in a device called magnetron, which can handle these very short pulses and very high oscillations. Between each pulse, the transmitter is switched off and isolated. The weak echoes from the target are picked up by the antenna and fed into the receiver. To avoid overlapping of these echoes with the next transmitted pulse, another device called duplexer is used. Thus, by means of a duplexer, undisturbed, two-way communication is established. The RF echoes emerging from the duplexer are now fed into the mixer where they are mixed with pulses of RF energy. These pulses are generated by means of a local oscillator. Once the two are mixed, a signal is produced in the output witch is of intermediate frequency range or IF range. The IF signals is received by a receiver where it is demodulated to video frequency range, amplified, and then passed to the display unit.

The display unit usually carried all the controls necessary for the operation of the whole radar. It has a cathode ray tube, which consist of an electron gun in its neck. The gun shoots a beam of electron at a phosphorescent screen at the far end. The phosphorescent screen glows when hit by the electrons and, the resulting spot of light can be seen through a glass surface. The screen is circular and is calibrated in degrees around its edge. The electron beam travels out from the center to the edge. This random motion of the electron beam, known as the trace, is matched with the rotation of the antenna. So, when the trace is at zero degrees on the tube calibration, the antenna is pointing dead ahead. The beginning of each trace corresponds exactly which the moment at which the radar energy is transmitted. When an echo is received it brightens up the trace for a moment. This is a blip, and its distance from the center of the tube corresponds exactly with the time taken for the radar pulse to travel to the target and return. So that blip on the screen gives the range and bearing of the target. As the trace rotates, a complete picture is built up from the coating of the tube. This type of display is called a PPI (plane position indicator) and is the most common form of presenting radar information. RADAR EQUATION The amount of power Pr returning to the receiving antenna is given by the radar equation:

Where, Pt = transmitter power Gt = gain of the transmitting antenna Ar = effective aperture (area) of the receiving antenna = radar cross section, or scattering coefficient, of the target F = pattern propagation factor Rt = distance from the transmitter to the target Rr = distance from the target to the receiver. In the common case where the transmitter and the receiver are at the same location, Rt = Rr and the term Rt2 Rr2 can be replaced by R4, where R is the range. This yield:

This shows that the received power declines as the fourth power of the range, which means that the reflected power from distant targets is very, very small. The equation above with F = 1 is a simplification for vacuum without interference. The propagation factor accounts for the effects of multipath and shadowing and depends on

the details of the environment. In a real-world situation, pathloss effects should also be considered.

IFF (MK-XI) UNIT

PURPOSE The Identification Friend or Foe Mk-XI (IFF - Mk XI) Ground Equipment is used to interrogate and identify the ship/aircraft (target) fitted with compatible transponder. The coded replies from the interrogated target are received back, processed and displayed on a PPI in a convenient form to the operator. EQUIPMENT DESIGN The IFF Mk-XI Ground Equipment - GRL 541 (Here in after called only IFF Mk-XI) has been designed for operation in association with `FREGAT-M2EM Primary Radar and PODBEREZOVIK-ET1 on board GORSHKOV ships to give a range coverage compatible to Primary Radar which is approximately 180 Km. However IFF System GRL541 is designed to provide range coverage of 280 KM. MAJOR SUBSYSTEMS IFF Mk-XI has following major subsystems:a) 3.5 m IFF Mono Pulse Antenna

1Nos. b) RF Switch 1Nos. c) Interrogator 1Nos. d) Remote 1Nos. e) Control 2Nos. f) Voltage 1Nos.

Unit

Decoder

Control

Panel

Units

Stabiliser

COMPOSITION IFF MK-XI Interrogator Equipment (only IFF MK-XI hereafter) has a Selective Address Interrogation Mode called Mode `S', in addition to all standard operating modes and features of a IFF MK-X System. Therefore IFF MK-XI has two parts as follows: a) IFF MK-X System b) Selective Address Interrogation (Mode `S') Feature

IFF ANTENNA

RF SWITCH UNIT

REMOTE
TRANSMITTER

CONTROL PANEL
RECEIVER MK X DECODER MODE S DRAWER CONTROL UNIT

(INTERROGATOR DECODER) PPI GROUND / SHIP INTERROGATOR

BASIC CONSIDERATIONS The SSR interrogate transponder equipped aircraft with coded pulses train whose spacing denotes whether identity or altitude replies are being requested. The elicited reply comprises up to 15 pulses, spaced at multiples of 1.45 microseconds. Two pulses in this code train define the pulse train and the other pulses contain the code data these positions provide up to 4096 discrete identify codes including the altitude. The position of the scanning antenna and the elapsed time between the interrogation and receipt of the transponder reply give the azimuth and range. Thus range, azimuth and altitude are derived. Special code provisions enable to declare an emergency or communication failure, special identification of a particular aircraft when the same identify code has been used by two or more aircraft. OPERATION

The SSR system can operate in association with both static and mobile primary radar or independently with its own monitor display. The transmitter can be triggered either internally or externally. Interrogations are pre-triggered with respect to the primary radar pulse transmission (external triggering) to provide for a timing match between radar echoes and SSR replies at the PPI display. The PRF of the interrogation transmission is either the same as the primary radar or counted down to maintain a nominal value as the case may be. The interrogation modes provide for separation of replies by function.

IFF Mk-X SYSTEM

BASIC PRINCIPLE IFF Mk-X system basically operates on the principle of a Secondary Radar as per recommendations of Annexure 10 of International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) advisory circular on SSRs. The Ship borne Ground Interrogator together with an Air/Ship borne transponder, constitute the IFF system. The Interrogator sends out RF pulses, called mode pulses with suitable spacing as per the desired mode of interrogation. The transponder receives these pulses and sends out suitable replies. The RF reply pulses from transponder are received, amplified and detected in ground receiver chain. The detected reply code and corresponding mode information are then `Passed on' to the MK-X Decoder unit for further decoding and establishing the identity of the aircraft. This is done by looking for a match between the received reply code and the preset expected codes. Such targets whose codes are matched are displayed on the PPI near the respective primary radar echo in the form of two slashes. The expected codes can be preset from the front panel of the Control Unit supplied as part of IFF equipment. Special codes like Emergency, Communication Failure and Hijack are decoded automatically whenever targets are interrogated on mode 3/A irrespective of setting for active decoding and passive decoding (code match) and are indicated on Control unit. OPERATIONAL DESCRIPTION The output of the IFF Interrogator consists of three RF pulses P1, P2 and P3 at 1030 MHz. The R.F. output is applied to an IFF Antenna through a RF switch unit. The transmitted pulses P1 & P3 are received by the transponder fitted in the aircraft/ship. The coded replies at 1090 MHz from the transponder are received, amplified, detected and fed to Mk-X Decoder. The Decoder decodes the replies for identity and its output is fed to the display unit of primary radar for displaying the IFF responses. The system also includes Mode `S drawer.

IFF INTEROGATION SIGNAL The interrogation signal of the IFF ground equipment consists of a signal consisting of 3 pulses are designated as P1, P2 and P3 as shown in the figure above. The P1 and P3 pulses are known as the INTERROGATE PULSES and pulse P2 is known as the CONTROL PULSE. The three pulses viz P1, P2, P3 are produced to achieve the 3 pulse side lobe suppression. The pulses P1, P2 and P3 are of same width viz 0.8 microseconds each. The P1 and P3 pulses occur at discrete pulse intervals and the P1, P3 combination is known as MODE. The aircraft transponder on receipt of the mode pulses P1and P3 recognizes the mode and responds with its suitable reply code. The pulse P2, control pulse, is always positioned at 2 microseconds from P1 and is used for achieving the 3 pulse side lobe suppression. The P2 pulse determines whether the interrogation is true or false. If the interrogation is false, the aircraft transponder uses side lobe suppression technique to inhibit the reply. In this technique, P1, P2 and P3 are transmitted in succession in different directions in such a manner that amplitude of P1 and P3 are greater than that of P2 only along the direction of the main beam of the signal. In all other directions, amplitude of P2 is greater than that of the other pulses. The target is required to respond only when it finds the amplitude of the P1 and P3 greater than that of P2. NOTE: the control pulse P2 does not carry any significance to the decoding equipment (video processor).

INTERROGATION SIGNAL P1 P2

P3

2s

Depends on working mode

MODES OF INTERROGATION The IFF Mk-X Interrogator has four types of interrogation modes to accommodate its various uses. Each mode of interrogation consists of a pair of pulses P1 and P3. An additional pulse P2 is transmitted 2 microseconds after initial P1 pulse. This pulse is used for achieving Interrogation Side Lobe Suppression (ISLS). Each pulse is of 0.8 microsecond duration. The mode is designated by the P1-P3 inter pulse interval. The intervals for each mode are shown in Figure next. 1. Modes 1 and 2 are used for Military Interrogations. 2. Mode 3/A is common to both Military and civil systems, and 3. Mode C is used for eliciting the digitally encoded altitude from the airborne transponder

P1

P2

P3

MODE 1
2S 3S

P1

P2

P3

MODE 2
2S 5S

P1

P2

P3

MODE 3/A
2S 8S

P1

P2

P3

MODE C
2S 21S

P1

P2

PS1

MODE `S
2S 24 S TO 1023 S IN STEP 1 S

MODES OF INTERROGATION

TRANSPONDER REPLY
The transponder reply normally consists of a sequence of upto 14 pulses on 1090 MHz each of duration 0.45 s. The basic reply format showing the spacing between the pulses and their designations is illustrated in Figures here. Every reply includes two brackets or framing pulses F1 and F2 spaced at 20.3 s. Twelve pulses with their positions defined can be selected for transmission by means of switches in the control unit of the transponder.

The different types of reply received are:

a) NORMAL REPLY The normal reply consists of the F1; F2 frame pulses bracketed the code pulses appropriate to that particular aircraft for the mode of interrogation b) MODE 1 REPLY When an aircraft is interrogated in mode 1, which consists of P1 and P3 pulses spaced 3 microseconds apart, the transponder sends back accede train with the characteristics of the SI code train. SI is another designation for mode 1 and is the abbreviation for SECURITY IDENTIFICATION .The returning SI code train is the basic FRIEND AND FOE identification. The reply signal consists of the framing pulses F1 and F2 spaced at 20.3 microseconds apart with all the pulses having pulse duration of 0.45 microseconds and 1.45 microseconds apart. c) MODE 2 REPLY When the IFF ground interrogator transmits a mode 2 interrogation, consisting of P1, P3 spaced at five microseconds apart, the aircraft transponder replies with a PERSONAL IDENTITY (PI) code train. Different aircraft return different codes, and the designation of the PI codes for specific aircraft varies in different areas or zones. The code train consists of the two frame pulses F1, F2 spaced at 20.3 microseconds apart, with pulse duration of 0.45 microseconds.

The IFF MK 10 with SIF (SELECTIVE IDENTIFICATION FEATURE) has the ability to change operating frequencies for security and also has complex coded replies to positively identify the aircraft as friendly. It would be practically impossible for any unfriendly aircraft to know the frequency and codes with which we were expecting the friendly aircraft to reply. Besides distinguishing the aircraft as friendly, the SIF reply codes tell its type and mission. d) MODE 3 REPLY The aircraft transponders response to mode 3 interrogation, consisting of P1, P3 spaced at 8 micro second apart is a T1 code train. The T1 is abbreviation for TRAFFIC IDENTITY Each aircraft on a different flight schedule or mission can be assigned a different T1 reply. The mode 3 reply is assigned differently in certain areas or zones. NOTE: The above modes viz mode 1, 2, 3 are for interrogation of military aircrafts for civil air crafts the modes A, B and D are employed. Mode C is common mode, for altitude data, for both civil and military use. The mode 3 and A are same , viz consists of P1 , P2 interrogation pulses spaced at 3 microsecond apart , while mode 3 is used for military purposes, mode A is employed for civil aircraft identity. e) MODE C REPLY The mode C interrogation, consisting of two interrogation pulses P1, P3 spaced at 21 microseconds apart, is common for both military and civil use. The mode C is employed for altitude data. On interrogation in mode c the transponder responses for automatic pressure altitude transmission. The replies on the above modes of interrogation consist of the two frame pulses F1, F2 spaced at 20.3 microseconds apart bracketing the information code pulses. Special codes are allotted to recognise situations such as emergency, communication failure, hijack etc. The special codes sent by transponder in such situations are:a) Hijack : Code on Mode 3/A b) Communication Failure: Code on Mode 3/A c) Emergency (Military) : I. Mode 1 and Mode 2 : Repetition of three frame pulse pairs in addition to the first frame. The first frame carries the normal code on Mode 1 and 2. II. Mode 3: Same as above except that the first frame contains code. d) Special Position Identification (SPI):

The SPI reply is transmitted on instructions from the interrogating station and consists of additional frame pulse pair, transmitted at 4.35 s from F2 of first frame pulse pair (Special pulse).

EXAMPLE 1:
F1 C1 A1

CODE 7777
C2 A2 C4 A4 B1 D1 B2 D2 B4 D4 F2

1.45 S 2.0 S 0.45 S

2.0 S

20.3 S

EXAMPLE 2:
F1 C1

CODE 6375
C2 A2 C4 A4 B1 D1 B2 D4 F2

F1

A4

A2

A1

B4

B2

B1

C4

C2

C1

D4

D2

D1

E4

E2

E1

F2

0.5 S

0.5 S

8.0 S

REPLY CODE FORMAT NORMAL REPLY PULSES

SIDE LOBE SUPPRESSION

A three pulse side lobe suppression technique during interrogation (ISLS) is employed to avoid false responses through side lobes when the responding air-craft is in close vicinity to RADAR. This is achieved by the use of a RF Switch unit and special IFF antenna with distinct patterns namely interrogates and control patterns. When target is in position `A', the amplitude of P1 & P3 pulses is more than the level of P2 pulse, the interrogated target will respond. When the target is in position `B', the amplitude of P2 pulse is more than that of P1 & P3 pulses and the target will not respond.

OMNI ANTENNA PATTERN [P2] DIRECTIONAL ANTENNA PATTERN [P1, P3]

FOR `A

P1

P2

P3

FOR `B P1 P2 P3

3 PULSES SIDE LOBE SUPPRESSION

PASSIVE DECODING AND DISPLAY

The coded replies from the transponder after detection and amplification are fed along with the mode information to the Decoder Unit which identifies the mode of interrogation & coded replies and feeds the output to the primary radar displays. The Control Units of Decoder are located near the primary radar displays. Whenever a standard bracket pulse pair F1-F2 is detected a single slash known as "All Aircraft" or "AA" slash is generated on the PPI coincident with the primary radar target echo. For passive decoding the operator sets the mode and code combination on the thumb wheel switches (code match) provided in the Control Units. Whenever an incoming IFF reply matches with the mode and code combination set on any one of these passive channels, two slashes are generated on the PPI. Three slashes are generated whenever a SPI pulse is received and four slashes indicate a situation of emergency or communication failure report from the target. The `slash' patterns for different situations are shown in Fig.

DISPLAY OF IFF SYMBOLS ON PPI

Primary Radar Echo

All Aircraft Signal (AA)

Passive Code Match

Emergency and Communication Failure Mode S match

Special Position Identification

ACTIVE DECODING With the help of a designation pulse generated from Primary Radar Display the actual code of the designated target can be read out on Control Unit by means of active decoding. The mode for active decoding can be selected with the help of a thumbwheel switch provided in the Control Units. The code is displayed on a 4 digit numeric indicator. 5th digit displays the validity of the incoming code. Altitude of Aircraft also can be displayed on Control Unit when IFF is operated in Mode `C'. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ACTIVE DECODING & PASSIVE DECODING In case of active decoding the code received from the target is displayed on control unit. If the mode of active decoding is one out of the three modes of interrogation (set on RCP). In case mode `S the active decoding is not applicable. In case of passive decoding the code received from the target is compared with preset code on thumbwheel switches of channel 1, channel 2 and channel 3 and two slashes are generated on PPI.

INTERROGATOR - DECODER The Interrogator Decoder Rack is made of high grade Aluminium extruded profiles. For ease of maintenance all RF and digital hardware has been placed in four drawers which slide on the rails inside the rack. Major RF modules and digital PCBs are again plug-in

type within the drawers. This modular concept reduces the down time to minimum since all plug-in type modules and PCBs are given as carried spares. The Interrogator-Decoder rack consists mainly of four drawers, namely:a) b) c) d) TX-Rx drawer MK-X decoder drawer Mode `S' Processor drawer Blower Drawer

INTERROGATOR DECODER RACK

MODE `S' PROCESSOR The concept of Mode S was introduced because of the drawbacks encountered in the MkX system. The major drawbacks are:

1. Whenever the ground system asks a question from an aircraft, the answer comes from that aircraft as well as from the other aircrafts also which are there within that region. It was not able to interact with a single (or a particular/ selected) aircraft with whom interaction is required. 2. It did not prove to be a full-proof system, as the unknown (or enemy) aircrafts were able to decode the reply sent by the friend aircrafts to the IFF ground systems and then by sending the same code to the ground systems and therefore able to escape easily. 3. It was not able to counteract the jamming being introduced by the enemy aircrafts. Mode S processor was then invented to avoid the abovementioned drawbacks in the MkX decoder system and then came the advance version of the IFF system which was a modification over the Mk-X system as it comprises both the Mk-X system as well as the Mode S processor which was given the name Mk-XI SYSTEM. In the Mode S system the concept of POLY COEFFICIENT called POLY and KEY was introduced to achieve (or generate) VARIABLE REPLY CODE to avoid spoofing. BASIC CONCEPT OF WORKING As in MK-X for interrogation P1, P2, P3 are generated in Mode `S' P3 pulse is generated at varying distance depending on the address of target which are set in storage card. In this four targets addresses can be selected according to which generated pulses called as PS1, PS2, PS3, PS4. These address, are stored in the storage card through Mode `S Local Control Panel. The pulses P1, P2, PS1, PS2, PS3, PS4 are generated with respect to a pulse which is generated after a random delay between 1 s to 1023 s after pre-trigger.
P1 P2 PS1 PS2 PS3 PS4

At the Transponder Reply the frame consist of 15 bit varying code which is generated by ExoRing the 15 bit varying code (dependent on poly coefficient called poly) with key code. From reply frame defruited AA is generated in Decoder & Defruiter Card and code is decoded. Time of Arrival (TOA), range are also latched in latch register in the decoder card

at arrival of AA pulse. The range of incoming frame is compared with previous range stored in RAM of processor card. If ranges are same then incoming code is compared with code generated from previous code with help of poly and key combination stored at first address. If these codes are matched then a video match pulse is generated otherwise comparison of incoming code with code generated from previous code with help of poly and key combination stored at second address is compared. Then third and fourth are compared respectively and when a match of code is there matched video pulse is generated. Matched address is decremented from the range and at new range which is delay of AA pulse with PS1 or PS2 or PS3 or PS4 depending on the matched address is given for display of PPI. GENERATION OF THE VARIABLE REPLY At the Transponder the reply codes are generated by ANDing a 15-bit initially set data called Poly coefficient and then this data is sent to a odd parity generator which generates a parity bit a 1 or 0, according to the no. of 1s in the data is even or odd, and then this parity bit is inserted in the Poly coefficient from left such that the initial data is shifted to right with the 15th bit being the parity bit. So, by continuing in this manner a variable Poly has been generated at a rate of 500 KHz (or 2 sec) for the generation of the reply code. Now, as mentioned earlier the reply code is generated by XORing the 15-bit variable poly code with KEY. In this manner, the variable reply code was generated and which was being transmitted to the ground system and therefore ensuring that no leaking of the code can happen.

APPLICATIONS OF RADAR
Radar has been employed on the ground, in the air, on the sea and in space. Ground based radar has been applied chiefly to the detection, location, and tracking of the aircraft or space target. Shipboard radar is used as a navigation aid and safety device to locate buoys, shorelines and other ships as well as for observing aircraft. Airborne radar may be

used to detect other aircraft, ships, or land vehicles or it may be used for mapping of land, storm avoidance, terrain avoidance and navigation. In space, radar has assist in the guidance of spacecraft and for remote sensing of the land and sea. The major use of radar, and contributor of the cost of almost all of its development, has been the military; although there has been increasingly important civil application, chiefly for marine and air navigation. The major areas of radar application are briefly described below: Air Traffic Control (ATC): Radar is employed throughout the world for the purpose of safely controlling air traffic route and in the vicinity of Airport. Aircraft and ground vehicular traffic at large airport are monitored by means of high - resolution radar. Radar has been used with GCA (ground control approach) system to guide aircraft to a safe landing in bad weather. Ship Safety: Radar is used for enhancing the safety of ship travel by warning of ship potential collision with other ships, and for detecting navigation buoys, especially in poor visibility. Automatic detection and tracking equipment are commercially available for use with radar for the purpose of collision avoidance. Shore based radar of moderately high resolution is also used for the surveillance of harbors as an aid to navigation. Space: Space vehicles have used radar for rendezvous and docking and for landing on the moon. Some of the largest ground based radar is for the detection and tracking of satellite. Remote Sensing: All radar is a remote sensor. Radar has been used as a remote sensor of the weather. It is also used to probe the moon and planets. The ionospheric sounder, an important adjunct for HF (short wave) communications, is radar. Remote sensing with radar is also concerned with earth resources, which include the measurement and mapping of sea condition, water resources, ice cover, agriculture, forestry condition, geological information and environmental pollution. Law Enforcement: In addition to the wide use of radar to measure the speed of automobile traffic by highway police, radar has also been employed as a means for the detection of intruders.

 Military: Many of the civilian application of the radar are also employed by the military. The traditional role of radar for military application has been for surveillance, navigation and for the control and guidance of weapon. OTHER USES OF RADAR Apart from the above mentioned uses, radar may be employed for other purposes as well. Most missiles to their respective destination by means of a radar mounted on their nose. Radars using continuous wave transmission rather than pulses are fitted in devices such as the proximity fuse which causes the missile or shell to explode when closed to the target. Radars are also fitted on board of some aircraft to warn the pilot of air turbulence and thunderstorms. They now play an important role in weather forecasting and are also found on board spacecraft, mapping the surface of the earth below. Some of the radars that have been manufactured by Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL) and their functions are listed below: Flycatcher Indra Reporter

All the three are used for air traffic control and surveillance. Mark-I to Mark-XI is a series of radars used for navigation purposes. Another radar manufactured by BEL is the CWR or Cyclone Warning Radar. GTC FUNCTION The GTC generator produces a discharging waveform which rises with GTC trigger and discharge at a rate of 6 dB/octave. Interrogate channel video is compared with GTC curve. The comparison gives an output only if the video is greater than the GTC circuit. RSLS FUNCTION The RSLS circuit compares the signals received from the two channels i.e., interrogate and control, and gives the output if the level of the interrogate channel is higher than control channel. This comparison is done only for a short time (RSLS stroke) started with rushed output of interrogate channel. ECHO SUPRESSION Each reply pulse in the interrogate channel from a threshold that dies out at 3.5 dB/microsecond. This causes suppression of reflections with small levels.

All the processed signal of various sections i.e., GTC, RSLS, ECHO, MTL are combined to form final REPLY VIDEO.

CONCLUSION
The practical training aims at familiarizing the students with the working condition in a professional firm as well as to apply their theoretical knowledge acquired in the institute into practice. This training was helpful to me in various direct and indirect ways, like understanding of machines as well as procedure followed in manufacturing a product. A good insight into inspection and Quality check of products. Through this internship, a well handled and followed way of professionalism as an engineer was being experienced. BEL is one of the NAVRATNAS companies in India, and training in such added a whole new dimension to my observation and practical approach as well as introducing me to organizational hierarchy.