MANDIDEEP A MINOR PROJECT ON

SOLAR POWER COMPRESSOR

Submitted in partial fulfillment of Bachelors Degree in Electronics & Communication Engineering Of

RAJIV GANDHI PROUDYOGIKI VISHWAVIDYALAY

(University of Technology of Madhya Pradesh)

GUIDED BY Prof. N.K. AGARWAL

Prepared By:AVINASH NARANG HARSH SHRIVASTAVA

SESSION 2011-2012

BANSAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING MANDIDEEP

(MECHANICAL ENGINEERING)

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that project report entitle SOLAR POWER
COMPRESSOR presented by Mr. AVINASH NARANG and Mr.

HARSH SHRIVASTAVA the bonafide presentation of their work done by them under my supervision and guidance. They have submitted this project report towards partial fulfillment for the award of degree of bachelor of engineering of Rajiv Gandhi Prodyogiki Vishwavidhyalya during the academic year 2010-11.It is further certified that this work has been submitted elsewhere for the award of any degree .

DR.Y.K SHARMA (Director Sir)

Prof. N.K. AGRAWAL

(H.O.D.)
(MECHANICAL DEPARTMENT)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We feel proud privilege to express our deep sense of gratitude and indebtness to Mr. Komal Singh Rajput Mechanical Engineering department, Bansal college of engineering (Mandideep) for providing his painstaking and untiring supervision and his constant encouragement. We also wish to express our thanks to Prof. N.K. Agarwal HOD mechanical engineering department and the Director of our college Dr. Y.K. Sharma for providing and extending the necessary facilities for completion of the project. We also express our thanks to all faculty members and the staff of Mechanical engineering department, Bansal college of engineering without their constant support and guidance, this project would not be completed.

BHOPAL APRIL 2012

AVINASH NARANG HARSH SHRIVASTAVA

APPROVAL SHEET

PROJECT REPORT ENTITLED

SOLAR POWER COMPRESSORS

Presented by

AVINASH NARANG HARSH SHRIVASTAVA

Is approved for the partial fulfillment of degree of Bachelor of Engineering in Mechanical Engineering

. Examiner (Internal)

Examiner (External)

CONTENTS

TOPICS
1. INTRODUCTION 2. PRINCIPLE 3. BASICS 4. WORKING 5. COMPONENTS
4.1 SOLAR PHOTO-VOLTATIC SYSTEM 4.2 SOLAR CHARGE CONTROLLER 4.3 BATTERY 4.4 INVERTER 5.5 AIR COMPRESSOR

PAGE NO.

6. ADVANTAGES 7. DISADVANTAGES 8. LIMITATIONS 10.CONCLUSION 11. BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. INTRODUCTION

A i r c o m p r e s s o r : Air compressor, as the name indicates, is a machine to compress the air and to raise its pressure. The air compressor sucks air from the atmosphere, compresses it and then delivers the same under a high pressure to a place where the supply of compressed air is required.Years ago, it was common to have a central power source that drove all the tools through a system of belts, wheels and drive shafts. The power was routed around the work space by mechanical means. While the belts and shafts may be gone, the use a mechanical system to move power around the workspace still exists. It is based on the energy stored in air under pressure and the heart of the system is the air compressor. Air compressors are used in a wide range of situations - from corner gas stations to major manufacturing plants. Many more kinds of air compressors are finding their way into homes,workshops, basements and garages. Models are sized to handle every job - from inflating pool toys to powering tools such as nail guns, sanders, drills, impact wrenches, staplers and spray guns. These are now available through local home centers, tool dealers and mailorder catalogs.To run these air compressors, a lot of electrical energy is required depending upon the output pressure of the air. The nonrenewable resources to produce electricity have becomel i m i t e d a n d a r e n e a r e x t i n c t i o n , l e a d i n g t o h i g h e n e r g y c o s t o r e n e r g y c r i s i s . I n s u c h situations, renewable sources like solar power are very helpful and the application of this technology to run air compressor is known as solar power air compressor. Already many non-renewable energy dependent companies have started implementing solar power air compressors for their industrial applications

2. PRINCIPAL The solar power air compressor has a number of solar panels that consist of photovoltaic cells.These cells create direct current electricity by the reaction of photons with Silicon dioxide. This direct current is used to power a motor that works the compressor unit. It can also be used to charge a battery bank that can be used as a backup when the sunlight is considerably dim or at night.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF AIR COMPRESSOR

3. BASICS

NEED OF SOLAR ENERGY : Developing countries in particular, face situations of limited energy resources - especially provision of electricity in rural areas. There is an urgent need to address this constraint to theso cial and eco no mic d ev elo p men t of ou r coun try. Ind ia f aces a sign ificant g ap b etween electricity demand and supply. Demand is increasing at an alarming rate when compared tosupply. According to leading Surveys, around 40 percent of India does not have electricity provision

ENERGY FROM SUN :

Insolation : Insolation is a measure of solar radiation energy received on a given surface area at a given time. It is commonly expressed as average irradiance in watts per square meter (W/m2) Types of Insolation : Direct Insolation. Diffuse and Reflected Insolation Direct Insolation : It is the solar irradiance measured at a given location on the earth with a surface element perpendicular to the suns rays, excluding diffuse insolation. Diffuse and Reflected Insolation : Diffu se insolation is th e so lar radiation th at is scattered or ref lected b y atmo sp h eric components (clouds, for example) to the earths surface

BASICS OF SOLAR PHOTO-VOLTATIC SYSTEM :

Solar Panels : Solar panels are devices used for the conversion of solar energy into other form of energy like electrical or heat or light. This can be broadly studied under three categories. Panels used to generate electricity Panels used to generate heat Panels used to heat water in home Solar cells : Solar cells were originally developed to provide electrical energy for space satellites. Photo-voltaic energy uses photoelectric cell that converts light into electricity Solar photovoltaic power or PV takes the advantage of the photovoltaic effect in which solar cells convert sunlight into electricity. BASICS OF AIR COMPRESSORS : Classification of Air compressors

The two main classification of Air Compressor are. 01) Positive Displacement Type. 02) Dynamic Type. Positive Displacement Air Compressors. Positive displacement types compressor are those who mechanically displace a fixed volume of air into a reduced volume. Compressor when operated at fixed speed can deliver the constant volume. The discharge pressure is determined by the system load conditions. If the consumption of air is more then discharge pressure falls below the cut-off pressure & compressor works on load condition. These types of Air Compressor further classified as A) Reciprocating Air Compressor. In this type compressed air is generated by to & fro movement of piston inside the cylinder (compression chamber). Each movement compresses a fixed quantity of free air at a specific pressure. Single stage or double stage or multi stages and single acting or double acting is the further classification of Reciprocating Air Compressor. B) Rotary Air Compressor. In this type air is compressed by two rotating or inter meshing rotors. According to the type of construction Rotary Compressor can be further classified as (a) Rotary Screw Compressor (b) Rotary Vane compressor. (a) Rotary Screw Compressor. Air is compressed between two rotating screw (male & female screw) and casing. The compression took place in gradually reducing space between these two parts. (b) Rotary Vane compressor. Air is compressed between casing & rotating rotor by the help of moveable rotor blade. This type of air compressor can be further classified as single stage or double stage rotary air compressor. Dynamic Air Compressors. The dynamic type air compressors mechanically impart velocity to the air. The impellers rotating at a high speed, in enclosed casing, produce this action. The air is forced into a progressively reduced volume. The volumetric flow will vary inversely with the differential pressure across the compressor. This type of compressor is further classified as (a) Centrifugal Air Compressor

(b) Axial Flow Air Compressor (c) Roots Blower Compressor. (a) Centrifugal Air Compressor. In a centrifugal air compressor an impeller is mounted on a shaft and positioned within housing, consisting of an inlet duct, a volute and a diffuser. The velocity to the air can be imparted by the high-speed rotation of impeller. The diffuser surrounds the impeller and act to convert the kinetic energy of air into potential energy at a higherpressure level. (b) Axial Flow Air Compressor. The axial flow type air compressor is essentially a large capacity, high-speed machine withy characteristic quite different from the centrifugal air compressor. Each stage consist of two rows of blades, one row rotating & the next row of blade is stationary. The rotor blades impart velocity and pressure to the air as the motor turns, the velocity being converted to pressure in stationery blades. (c) Roots Blower Compressor. This type is generally called as blower. The discharge air pressure obtained from this type of machine is very low. The discharge pressure of 1 bar can be obtained in single stage and pressure of 2.2 bars is obtained from double stage. The discharge pressure achieved by two rotors, which have separate, parallel axis and rotate in opposite directions. This is the example of positive displacement compressor in rotary type air compressor.

4. WORKING Solar power air compressors are the application of solar power technology to power the compressing of air that powers a drill or other device. It is the classic theory of conservation of energy, where one form of energy is transformed into another. The basic set up of a solar power air compressor is a number of solar panels that are made up of photovoltaic cells. The cells create direct current electricity through the reaction of photons with silicon dioxide. This direct current is used to power a motor that works the compressor unit. It can also

be used to charge a battery bank that can be used as a backup when the sun is not shining or at night. The "photovoltaic effect" is the basic physical process through which a PV cell converts sunlight into electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy. These photons contain various amounts of energy corresponding to the different wavelengths of the solar spectrum. When photons strike a PV cell, they may be reflected or absorbed, or they may pass right through. Only the absorbed photons generate electricity. When this happens, the energy of the photon is transferred to an electron in an atom of the cell (which is actually a semiconductor). With its newfound energy, the electron is able to escape from its normal position associated with that atom to become part of the current in an electrical circuit. By leaving this position, the electron causes or "hole" to form. Special electrical properties of the PV cella built-in electric fieldprovide the voltage which is stored by the battery inbuilt in the inverter. This stored electrical energy is then used to drive a motor in the Air Compressor. In our project we basically use Reciprocating Air Compressor which consists of a connecting rod, a piston, cylinder and a valve head. The crankshaft is driven by either an electric motor or a gas engine. While there are small models that are comprised of just the pump and motor, most compressors have an air tank to hold a quantity of air within a preset pressure range. The compressed air in the tank drives the air tools, and the motor cycles on and off to automatically maintain pressure in thetank. At the top of the cylinder, you'll find a valve head that holds the inlet and discharge valves. Both are simply thin metal flapsone mounted underneath and one mounted on top of the valve plate. As the piston moves down, a vacuum is created above it. This allows outsideair at atmospheric pressure to push open the inlet valve and fill the area above the piston. As the piston moves up, the air above it compresses, holds the inlet valve shut and pushes the discharge valve open. The air moves from the discharge port to the tank. With each stroke, more air enters the tank and the pressure rises.

Cut section of Reciprocating Air Compressor

5. COMPONENTS

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Solar Photo-Voltatic System Solar charge controller Battery backup or Battery bank Inverter Air Compressor (Reciprocating Type)

1.1 Solar Photo-Voltatic System : Solar Photo-voltaic System is the source of energy generated from the irradiationfrom the sun. This systems main function is to supply the energy required to run the air compressor.

1.2 Solar charge controller :

Sol ar Ch arg e Con tro ller also kno wn as SCC. It is the device that regulates thevoltage and current from the solar photo-voltaic system to the battery bank. The no-loadvoltage, i.e., Open Circuit Voltage Voc of a photo-voltaic array increases more than 220 voltson a bright sunny day, which is very high for charging the battery bank and may also lead to the drying up of battery bank due to overcharging. To avoid the overcharging of battery bank, SCC is used. 1.3 Battery backup : Battery Backup or Battery Bank is the temporary source of energy, which is used at night or in cloudy weather, to run the air compressor. Most commonly, lead acid batteries areused to run the air compressors. 1.4 Air Compressors An air compressor is a device that converts power (usually from an electric motor, a diesel engine or a gasoline engine) into kinetic energy by compressing and pressurizing air, which, on command, can be released in quick bursts. There are numerous methods of air compression, divided into either positive-displacement or negative-displacement types. 6. ADVANTAGES Solar power can be useful in such industrial applications where small kilowatt energyis required. Th e mo st co mmo n app lication of this techno log y is the co mmo n o r gard en air compressor. Solar power air compressors are used in the regions where gas and oil companies drillis remote and does not have a reliable source of power. Solar energy is clean, renewable (unlike gas oil and coal) and sustainable, helping to protect our environment. Low / no maintenance. Reduces dependence on centralized sources of energy.

7. LIMITATIONS High initial cost. Photo-voltaic arrays are not easily available.

 High capacity DC motors cannot be manufactured easily. Using an inverter incurs some loss of energy due to conversion of DC to AC. Solar charge controllers involve complicated circuits management.

This opto-sensitive circuit sounds an alarm whene shadow falls on it. So it can be used at night by shopkeepers to protect the valuables in their showrooms. A dim light in the room is necessary to detecSolart the moving shadow. Unlike opto interruption alarms based on light-dependent resistors (LDRs), it does not require an aligned light beam to illuminate the photo-sensor.

The circuit is powered by a 9V PP3 battery and uses the most sensitive photo-sensor L14F1 to detect shadows. It is portable and can be used at any place that is to be monitored. Op-amp A741 (IC1) is used as a voltage comparator. Its inverting input is biased by the voltage obtained from the junction of 100k resistor R1 and the collector of phototransistor T1. The non-inverting input of IC1 gets a controlled voltage from potential divider R2 and VR1. In the presence of ambient light, the phototransistor conducts and the inverting input (pin 2) of IC1 gets a lower voltage than its noninverting input (pin 3). This makes the output of IC1 high, which is indicated by the glowing of LED1. When a shadow falls on the photo sensor, the output of IC1 goes low. This low pulse triggers the monostable (IC2) designed for a delay of 51 seconds using R6 and C3. The output of IC2 is used to light up LED2 and activate the alarm. Slide switch S2 is used to select either the buzzer or siren. When it is towards left the buzzer beeps, and when it is towards right IC UM3561 (IC3) activates to give a loud alarm simulating a police siren. Resistor R8 and zener diode ZD1 provide 3.1V DC to IC UM3561.

1.2.CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

1.3.COMPONENTS LIST:

1. ICs 1. IC1 741 2. IC2 NE555 3. IC3 UM3561 2.TRANSISTORS 1. T1 L14F1 2. T2 BC548 3.RESISTORS 1. 10 2. 100K 3. 4.7K 4. 100 Ohm 5. 680 Ohm 6. 47 Ohm 7. 1 Megaohms 8. 220 K 9. 1 K 4. CAPACITORS 2 Nos 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No 1No

1. 10UF
2. 0.01UF 3. 47UF 5.PRESET 6.LED 7.ZENER DIODE 3.1V 8.SPEAKER 8Ohms/0.5w 47K

1No 1No

1No 2NoS 1No 1No

2. IC PIN DESCRIPTION
2.1 IC NE555 IC PIN DIAGRAM

The ICM7555 is a CMOS timer providing significantly improved performance over the standard NE/SE555 timer, while at the same time being a direct replacement for those devices in most applications. The ICM7555 is a stable controller capable of producing accurate time delays or frequencies.

PIN DIAGRAM:-

FEATURES: Exact equivalent in most applications for NE/SE555 Low supply current: 80mA (typ) Extremely low trigger, threshold, and reset currents: 20pA (typ) High-speed operation: 500kHz guaranteed Wide operating supply voltage range guaranteed 3 to 16V over full automotive temperatures Normal reset function; no crowbarring of supply during output transition Can be used with higher-impedance timing elements than the bipolar 555 for longer time constants Timing from microseconds through hours Operates in both astable and monostable modes Adjustable duty cycle High output source/sink driver can drive TTL/CMOS Typical temperature stability of 0.005%/oC at 25C Rail-to-rail outputs

Internal Block Diagram:-

OPERATION: ASTABLE OPERATION:-

The circuit can be connected to trigger itself and free run as a multivibrator, see Figure 2A. The output swings from rail to rail, and is a true 50% duty cycle square wave. (Trip points and output

swings are symmetrical.) Less than a 1%frequency variation is observed over a voltage range of +5V to +15V.The duty cycle is controlled by the values of RA and RB,

MONOSTABLE OPERATION:In this mode of operation, the timer functions as a one-shot. See Figure 3. Initially the external capacitor (C) is held discharged by a transistor inside the timer. Upon application of a negative TRIGGER pulse to pin 2, the internal flip-flop is set which releases the short circuit across the external capacitor and drives the OUTPUT high. The voltage across the capacitor now increases exponentially with a time constant t = RAC. When the voltage across the capacitor equals 2/3 V+, the comparator resets the flip-flop, which in turn discharges the capacitor rapidly and also drives the OUTPUT to its low state. TRIGGER must return to a high state before the OUTPUT can return to a low state.

APPLICATIONS: Precision timing

Pulse generation Sequential timing Time delay generation Pulse width modulation Pulse position modulation Missing pulse detector

2.2 IC 741 DESCRIPTION :The Operational Amplifier is probably the most versatile Integrated Circuit available. It is very cheap especially keeping in mind the fact that it contains several hundred components. The most common Op-Amp is the 741 and it is used in many circuits.

The OP AMP is a Linear Amplifier with an amazing variety of uses. Its main purpose is to amplify (increase) a weak signal - a little like a Darlington Pair. The OP-AMP has two inputs, INVERTING ( - ) and NON-INVERTING (+), and one output at pin 6. The 741 is used in two ways:1. An inverting amplifier. Leg two is the input and the output is always reversed. In an inverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg two and comes out of the 741 chip at leg six. If the polarity is positive going into the chip, it negative by the time it comes out through leg six. The polarity has been inverted. 2. A non-inverting amplifier. Leg three is the input and the output is not reversed. In a noninverting amplifier the voltage enters the 741 chip through leg three and leaves the 741 chip through leg six. This time if it is positive going into the 741 then it is still positive coming out. Polarity remains the same.

FEATURES:
Short Circuit Protection Excellent Temperature Stability Internal Frequency Compensation High Input Voltage Range Null of Offset

PIN DIAGRAM:

CONNECTION DIAGRAM:

2.3 IC UM3561A DESCRIPTION:

UM3561 is a low-cost, low-power CMOS LSI designed for use in alarm and toy applications. Since theintegrated circuit includes oscillator and selector circuits, a compact sound module can be constructed with only a few additional components. The M3561 contains a programmed mask ROM to simulate siren sound

FEATURES: Four sounds can be selected Power on reset. Typical 3V operating voltage A magnetic speaker can be driven by connecting 8-pin DIP package form an NPN transistor

PIN DIAGRAM:-

PIN DESCRIPTION:-

PLAYING MODES:-

3. PASSIVE ELEMENTS
3.1 RESISTORS
Resistors (R), are the most commonly used of all electronic components, to the point where they are almost taken for granted. They are "Passive Devices", that is they contain no source of power or amplification but only attenuate or reduce the voltage signal passing through them. When used in DC circuits the voltage drop produced is measured across their terminals as the circuit current flows through them while in AC circuits the voltage and current are both in-phase producing 0o phase shift. In all Electrical and Electronic circuit diagrams and schematics, the most commonly used resistor symbol is that of a "zig-zag" type line with the value of its resistance given in Ohms, .

RESISTOR SYMBOL:The symbol used in schematic and electrical drawings for a Resistor can either be a "zig-zag" type line or a rectangular box.

RESISTOR TYPES:All modern resistors can be classified into four broad groups;

Carbon Composition Resistor - Made of carbon dust or graphite paste, low wattage values Film or Cermet Resistor - Made from conductive metal oxide paste, very low wattage values Wire-Wound Resistors. - Metallic bodies for heat sink mounting, very high wattage ratings Semiconductor Resistors - High frequency/precision surface mount thin film technology

RESISTOR COLOUR CODE

The resistance value, tolerance, and watt rating of the resistor are generally printed onto the body of the resistor as numbers or letters when the resistor is big enough to read the print, such as large power resistors. When resistors are small such as 1/4W Carbon and Film types, these specifications must be shown in some other manner as the print would be too small to read. So to overcome this, small resistors use coloured painted bands to indicate both their resistive value and their tolerance with the physical size of the resistor indicating its wattage rating. These coloured painted bands are generally known as a Resistors Colour Code.

The Standard Resistor Colour Code Chart.

The Resistor Colour Code Table.

Colour Black Brown Red Digit 0 1 2 Multiplier 1 10 100 1% 2% Tolerance

Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White Gold Silver None

3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1K 10K 100K 1M 10M 0.5% 0.25% 0.1%

0.1 0.01

5% 10% 20%

VARIABLE RESISTORS:CONSTRUCTION Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which moves along the track as you turn the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders, are also available.

Variable resistors rheostat with two wiper and just one as a potentiometer connections in use. called presets are circuits which will adjustment.

may be used as a connections (the end of the track) or with all three Miniature versions made for setting up not require further

Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues. They are specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track, and their physical size. The standard spindle diameter is 6mm. RHEOSTAT

This is the simplest way of using a variable resistor. Two terminals are used: one connected to an end of the track, the other to the moveable wiper. Turning the spindle changes the resistance between the two terminals from zero up to the maximum resistance. PRESETS

Rheostat Symbol

These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor.They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and adjusted only when the circuit is built. A small screwdriver or similar tool is required to adjust presets. Presets are much cheaper than standard variable resistors so they are sometimes used in projects where a standard variable resistor would normally be used. Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving very fine control.

PRESET(OPEN STYLE)

MULTITURN PRESET

PRESET(CLOSED STYLE)

3.2 CAPACITORS
INTRODUCTION Just like the Resistor, the Capacitor or sometimes referred to as a Condenser is a passive device, and one which stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field which produces a potential (Static Voltage) across its plates. When a voltage is applied to these plates, a current flows charging up the plates with electrons giving one plate a positive charge and the other plate an equal and opposite negative charge. This flow of electrons to the plates is known as the Charging Current and continues to flow until the voltage across the plates (and hence the capacitor) is equal to the applied voltage Vc. At this point the capacitor is said to be fully charged and this is illustrated below.

Capacitor Construction

Q=CxV

UNITS OF CAPACITANCE

Microfarad (F) 1F = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F Nanofarad (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F

Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

TYPES OF CAPACITORS
There are a very large variety of different types of Capacitors available in the market place and each one has its own set of characteristics and applications from small delicate trimming capacitors up to large power metal can type capacitors used in high voltage power correction and smoothing circuits. 1.DIELECTRIC Dielectric Capacitors are usually of the variable type such as used for tuning transmitters, receivers and transistor radios. They have a set of fixed plates and a set of moving plates that mesh with the fixed plates and the position of the moving plates with respect to the fixed plates determines the overall capacitance. The capacitance is generally at maximum when the plates are fully meshed. Variable Capacitor Symbols

As well as the continuously variable types, preset types are also available called Trimmers. These are generally small devices that can be adjusted or "pre-set" to a particular capacitance with the aid of a screwdriver and are available in very small capacitances of 100pF or less and are non-polarized.

2. FILM CAPACITORS Film Capacitors are the most commonly available of all types of
capacitors, consisting of a relatively large family of capacitors with the difference being in their dielectric properties. These include polyester (Mylar), polystyrene, polypropylene, polycarbonate, metallized paper, teflon etc. Film type capacitors are available in capacitance ranges from 5pF to 100uF depending upon the actual type of capacitor and its voltage rating. Film capacitors also come in an assortment of shapes and case styles which include:

Wrap & Fill (Oval & Round) Epoxy Case (Rectangular & Round) Metal Hermetically Sealed (Rectangular & Round)

3. CERAMIC CAPACITORS
Ceramic Capacitors or Disc Capacitors as they are generally called, are made by coating two sides of a small porcelain or ceramic disc with silver and are then stacked together to make a capacitor. For very low capacitance values a single ceramic disc of about 3-6mm is used. Ceramic capacitors have a high dielectric constant (High-K) and are available so that relatively high capacitances can be obtained in a small physical size. They exhibit large non-linear changes in capacitance against temperature and as a result are used as de-coupling or by-pass capacitors as they are also nonpolarized devices. Ceramic capacitors have values ranging from a few picofarads to one or two microfarads but their voltage ratings are generally quite low.

Ceramic types of capacitors generally have a 3-digit code printed onto their body to identify their capacitance value. For example, 103 would indicate 10 x 103 PF

4. ELECTROLYTIC CAPACITORS
Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used when very large capacitance values are required. Here instead of using a very thin metallic film layer for one of the electrodes, a semi-liquid electrolyte solution in the form of a jelly or paste is used which serves as the second electrode (usually the cathode). The dielectric is a very thin layer of oxide which is grown electro-chemically in production with the thickness of the film being less than ten microns. This insulating layer is so thin that it is possible to make large value capacitors of a small size. The majority of electrolytic types of capacitors are Polarized, that is the voltage applied to the capacitor terminals must be of the correct polarity as an incorrect polarization will break down the insulating oxide layer and permanent damage may result. Electrolytic Capacitors are generally used in DC power supply circuits to help reduce the ripple voltage or for coupling and decoupling applications. Electrolytic's generally come in two basic forms; Aluminum Electrolytic and Tantalum Electrolytic capacitors.

3.3.TRANSISTOR
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is made of a solid piece of semiconductor material, with at least three terminals for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, the transistor provides amplification of a signal. Some transistors are packaged individually but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits.

PIN CONFIGURATION:-

L14F1

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERSTICS

ADVANTAGES
The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube predecessors in most applications are

Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic devices.

Highly automated manufacturing processes, resulting in low per-unit cost. Lower possible operating voltages, making transistors suitable for small, battery-powered applications. Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency. Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness. Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than 30 years.

LIMITATIONS

Silicon transistors do not operate at voltages higher than about 1,000 volts SiC devices can be operated as high as 3,000 volts). In contrast, electron tubes have been developed that can be operated at tens of thousands of volts. High power, high frequency operation, such as that used in over-the-air television broadcasting, is better achieved in electron tubes due to improved electron mobility in a vacuum. Silicon transistors are much more sensitive than electron tubes to an electromagnetic pulse, such as generated by an atmospheric nuclear explosion.

3.4. LIGHT EMITTING DIODES:

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. The LED is based on the semiconductor diode. When a diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor.

In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors) from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 1.2 V corresponds to red, 2.4 V to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; white LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.

Like a normal diode, the LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction. As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy level, and releases energy in the form of a photon. The wavelength of the light emitted, and therefore its color, depends on the band gap energy of the materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes recombine by a non-radiativetransition which produces no optical emission, because these are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible or near-ultraviolet light.

Colors and Materials:

Color

Wavelength (nm)

Voltage (V)

Semiconductor Material

Infrared

> 760

V < 1.9

Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Red

610 < < 760

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs) Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 1.63 < V < Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 2.03 (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Orange

590 < < 610

2.03 < V <

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) Aluminium gallium indium phosphide

2.10

(AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Yellow

570 < < 590

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) 2.10 < V < Aluminium gallium indium phosphide 2.18 (AlGaInP) Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Green

500 < < 570

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III) nitride (GaN) 1.9[37] < V Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP) < 4.0 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP) Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Blue

450 < < 500

Zinc selenide (ZnSe) Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) 2.48 < V < Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate 3.7 Silicon (Si) as substrate (under development)

Violet

400 < < 450

2.76 < V < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) 4.0

Purple

Dual blue/red LEDs, 2.48 < V < multiple types blue with red phosphor, 3.7 or white with purple plastic Diamond (235 nm)[38] Boron nitride (215 nm)[39][40] Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[41] Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN) Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN) (down to 210 nm)[42]

Ultraviolet < 400

3.1 < V < 4.4

White

Broad spectrum

V = 3.5

Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor

ADVANTAGES

Efficiency Size On/Off time Cycling Dimming Cool light Slow failure Lifetime

DISADVANTAGES

High initial price Temperature dependence Voltage sensitivity Light quality. Area light source Blue Blue pollution

APPLICATIONS
Application of LEDs fall into four major categories:

Visual signal application where the light goes more or less directly from the LED to the human eye, to convey a message or meaning. Illumination where LED light is reflected from object to give visual response of these objects. Generate light for measuring and interacting with processes that do not involve the human visual system. Narrow band light sensors where the LED is operated in a reverse-bias mode and is responsive to incident light instead of emitting light.

3.5.ZENER DIODES:
Zener diode is a type of diode that permits current not only in the forward direction like a normal diode, but also in the reverse direction if the voltage is larger than the breakdown voltage known as "Zener knee voltage" or "Zener voltage". A conventional solid-state diode will not allow significant current if it is reverse-biased below its reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by circuitry, the diode will be permanently damaged. In case of large forward bias (current in the direction of the arrow), the diode exhibits a voltage drop due to its junction built-in voltage and internal resistance. The amount of the voltage drop depends on the semiconductor material and the doping concentrations.

A Zener diode exhibits almost the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a greatly reduced breakdown voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased Zener diode will exhibit a controlled breakdown and allow the current to keep the voltage across the Zener diode at the Zener voltage. The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications.

The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material. In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides. The breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within 0.05% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for commonly available zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200 volts.

5.1 PCB MANUFACTURING PROCESS

STAGE 1: PREPROCESSING
The first step to manufacture PCB requires a preparation of a layout. The layout can be prepared by either using soft wares like PCB Artist or PCB Express or can be done manually on a plane paper using marker with proper spaces between components. NOTE: All the processes for the manufacture of lith film are performed in the dark room under minimal amount of light. We can only use red light.

STAGE 2: LITH FILM MANUFACTURE

Before beginning with the steps we prepare 3 trays of solutions: Tray 1: A+B tray which is Butyl + Sodium Carbonate with concentration 1 teaspoon in 1 litre of water both added in same ratio. Tray 2: Ordinary water

Tray 3: It consists of fixer (developer), the chemical is made by dissolving 2 teaspoons in 1 litre of water. 1. Lith film is a sheet with two sides, one side is brown and the other is gray. 2. The lith film is now cut to an approximate size of the layout at least half cm more than the size of layout. 3. The lith film is now placed in the lith making machine with readable part on the upper side. 4. The brown side of the lith film should touch the layout. 5. Now put the door of the machine down for not more than 8 seconds and push the switch ON. 6. Remove the lith film and wash it in the first tray continuously in movement till the complete circuit is developed. Minimum time required is 2-3 minutes. 7. The circuit after the first tray appears transparent and the rest of the film turns black. 8. Now shift the lith film in second tray and wash it for 2-3 minutes. 9. Lastly wash the lith film in the fixer tray for the same time interval. 10. Now, dry the film in air/oven at normal temperature say 40 degrees till the film dries. The negative is ready to be processed further. PCB consists of an insulating substrate material.

STAGE 3: Photolithography
After preparing the negative, the next stage is photolithography. The steps performed under this are mentioned below. NOTE: All the processes for the manufacture of lith film are performed in the dark room under minimal amount of light. 1. First of all we take a single sided copper clad board and cut it in 2. Clean it by metallic jute to see the shiny copper surface. 3. Now dip the PCB in the dip coating machine so that a layer photo resist material is coated on the PCB. Photo resist is an organic solution which when exposed to light of particular wavelength change their solubility in the developer. In dip coating copper clad board is clamped with the machine and when the machine is switched on the copper clad gets dipped in the material. 4. After a layer of photo resist material is applied on the board surface, we dry the copper in the oven at 50 . 5. The basic purpose of applying photo resist material is that when this material is subjected to UV light and the circuit gets imprinted on the board. clad size of the layout.

6. Now the copper clad board along with the layout is placed in the UV light machine to film (lith film) kept in glass frame, for (2-3) minutes and after the time interval the circuit becomes partially visible on the board. 7. Ultimately we drop the copper board in the machine which consists of white die and blue die in separate tanks. We immerse the copper board first in white die for approximately one minute for the visibility of the circuit. 8. The next step is to wash the copper clad in simple water after which the circuit becomes completely visible on the board. 9. After the above step, we put the copper board in blue dye for approximately one minute. The blue dye covers the entire copper clad board.

STAGE 3: Etching
The next step after photolithography is etching The etching process is performed by exposing the surface of the board to an etchant solution which dissolves away the exposed copper areas other than the one deposited on the circuit .The different solutions used are as etchants and the most commonly used is FeCl3.The steps involved in etching are: 1. Switch on the etching machine, fix the sheet in the jaws and set the timer for 10 minutes 2. Now dip the prepared copper clad or the sheet in etchant. 3. After say about 8 minutes take out the sheet and check whether its is well etched or not. If not then fix the sheet again and set the timer again For 5 minutes. 4. Now wash the etched sheet in ordinary water and dry it in air for 10-15 minutes. 5. Extra copper is removed from the copper clad either manually or by a process called tinning.

STAGE 4: Drilling
Drilling is us

6.BIBLIOGRRAPHY

 www.electronicsforyou.com www.howstuffworks.com www.wikipedia.org www.circuits-today.com www.freedatasheets.com