DESCRIBE THE STRUCTURE POLYSACCHARIDE - MONASACCHARIDE

OF

MONASACCHARIDE,

DISACCHARIDE

AND

Monosaccharides are the most basic units of biologically important carbohydrates. They are the simplest form of sugar and are usually colorless, water-soluble, crystalline solids. Some monosaccharides have a sweet taste. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), galactose, xylose and ribose. Monosaccharides are the building blocks of disaccharides such as sucrose and polysaccharides (such as cellulose and starch). Further, each carbon atom that supports a hydroxyl group (except for the first and last) is chiral, giving rise to a number of isomeric forms all with the same chemical formula. For instance, galactose and glucose are both aldohexoses, but have different chemical and physical properties. With few exceptions monosaccharides have the chemical formula Cx(H2O)y, where x is at least 3. Monosaccharides can be classified by the number x of carbon atoms they contain: triose (3) tetrose (4), pentose (5), hexose (6), heptose (7), and so on. The most important monosaccharide, glucose, is a hexose. Examples of heptoses include the ketoses mannoheptulose and sedoheptulose. Monosaccharides with eight or more carbons are rarely observed as they are quite unstable. Simple monosaccharides have a linear and unbranched carbon skeleton with one carbonyl (C=O) functional group, and one hydroxyl (OH) group on each of the remaining carbon atoms. Therefore, the molecular structure of a simple monosaccharide can be written as H(CHOH)n(C=O)(CHOH)mH, where n+1+m = x; so that its elemental formula is CxH2xOx. By convention, the carbon atoms are numbered from 1 to x along the backbone, starting from the end that is closest to the C=O group. If the carbonyl is at position 1 (that is, n or m is zero), the molecule begins with an formyl group H(C=O)-, and is technically an aldehyde. In that case, the compound is termed an aldose. Otherwise, the molecule has a keto group, a carbonyl -(C=O)- between two carbons; then it is formally a ketone, and is termed a ketose. Ketoses of biological interest usually have the carbonyl at position 2. The various classifications above can be combined, resulting in names like "aldohexose" and "ketotriose". A more general nomenclature for open chain monosaccharides combines a Greek prefix to indicate the number of carbons (tri-, tetr-, pent-, hex-, etc.), with the suffixes '-ose' for aldoses and '-ulose' for ketoses. In the latter case, if the carbonyl is not at position 2, its position is indicated by a numeric infix. So, for example, H(C=O)(CHOH) 4H is pentose, H(CHOH)(C=O)(CHOH)3H is pentulose, and H(CHOH)2(C=O)(CHOH)2H is pent-3-ulose.

- DISACCHARIDE A disaccharide or biose is the carbohydrate formed when two monosaccharides undergo a condensation reaction which involves the elimination of a small molecule, such as water, from the functional groups only. Like monosaccharides, disaccharides also dissolve in water, taste sweet and are called sugars. 'Disaccharide' is one of the four chemical groupings of carbohydrates (monosaccharide, disaccharide, oligosaccharide, and polysaccharide). There are two different types of disaccharides: reducing disaccharides, in which one monosaccharide, the reducing sugar, still has a free hemiacetal unit; and non-reducing disaccharides, in which the components bond through an acetal linkage between their anomeric centers and neither monosaccharide has a free hemiacetal unit. Cellobiose and maltose are examples of reducing disaccharides. Sucrose and trehalose are examples of non-reducing disaccharides. Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are joined together and a molecule of water is removed. For example; milk sugar (lactose) is made from glucose and galactose whereas the sugar from sugar cane and sugar beets (sucrose) is made from glucose and fructose. The two monosaccharides are bonded via a dehydration reaction (also called a condensation reaction or dehydration synthesis) that leads to the loss of a molecule of water and formation of a glycosidic bond. The glycosidic bond can be formed between any hydroxyl group on the component monosaccharide. So, even if both component sugars are the same (e.g., glucose), different bond combinations (regiochemistry) and stereochemistry (alpha- or beta-) result in disaccharides that are diastereoisomers with different chemical and physical properties. Depending on the monosaccharide constituents, disaccharides are sometimes crystalline, sometimes water-soluble, and sometimes sweet-tasting and sticky-feeling. - POLYSACCHARIDE Polysaccharides are polymeric carbohydrate structures, formed of repeating units (either monoor di-saccharides) joined together by glycosidic bonds. These structures are often linear, but may contain various degrees of branching. Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure, these macromolecules can have distinct properties from their monosaccharide building blocks. They may be amorphous or even insoluble in water.[1][2]

When all the monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are the same type the polysaccharide is called a homopolysaccharide, but when more than one type of monosaccharide is present they are called heteropolysaccharides. Examples include storage polysaccharides such as starch and glycogen, and structural polysaccharides such as cellulose and chitin. Polysaccharides have a general formula of Cx(H2O)y where x is usually a large number between 200 and 2500. Considering that the repeating units in the polymer backbone are often sixcarbon monosaccharides, the general formula can also be represented as (C6H10O5)n where 40n3000. Starches are glucose polymers in which glucopyranose units are bonded by alpha-linkages. It is made up of a mixture of Amylose (1520%) and Amylopectin (8085%). Amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose molecules and Amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units (every chain 2430 glucose unit). Starches are insoluble in water. They can be digested by hydrolysis, catalyzed by enzymes called amylases, which can break the alpha-linkages (glycosidic bonds). Humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato, rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet. The formation of starches are the way that plants store glucose. The structural component of plants are formed primarily from cellulose. Wood is largely cellulose and lignin, while paper and cotton are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a polymer made with repeated glucose units bonded together by beta-linkages. Humans and many other animals lack an enzyme to break the beta-linkages, so they do not digest cellulose. Certain animals can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. The classic example is the termite. Chitin is one of many naturally occurring polymers. It is one of the most abundant natural materials in the world. Over time it is bio-degradable in the natural environment. Its breakdown may be catalyzed by enzymes called chitinases, secreted by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, and produced by some plants. Some of these microorganisms have receptors to simple sugars from the decomposition of chitin. If chitin is detected, they then produce enzymes to digest it by cleaving the glycosidic bonds in order to convert it to simple sugars and ammonia. Chemically, chitin is closely related to chitosan (a more water-soluble derivative of chitin). It is also closely related to cellulose in that it is a long unbranched chain of glucose derivatives. Both materials contribute structure and strength, protecting the organism. Arabinoxylans are the copolymers of two pentose sugars - arabinose and xylose.Acidic polysaccharides are polysaccharides that contain carboxyl groups, phosphate groups and/or sulfuric ester groups. Bacterial polysaccharides represent a diverse range of macromolecules that include peptidoglycan, lipopolysaccharides, capsules and exopolysaccharides; compounds whose

functions range from structural cell-wall components (e.g. peptidoglycan), and important virulence factors (e.g. Poly-N-acetylglucosamine in S. aureus), to permitting the bacterium to survive in harsh environments (e.g. Pseudomonas aeruginosa in the human lung).[3] Polysaccharide biosynthesis is a tightly regulated, energy-intensive process and understanding the subtle interplay between the regulation and energy conservation, polymer modification and synthesis, and the external ecological functions is a huge area of research. The potential benefits are enormous and should enable for example the development of novel antibacterial strategies (e.g. new antibiotics and vaccines) and the commercial exploitation to develop novel applications. DETERMINE THE DIFFERENT BETWEEN SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE AND COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE Carbohydrates are divided into two types, simple and complex. The classification is based on the chemical structure and reflects how quickly sugar is digested and absorbed. Simple carbohydrates are also called simple sugars and are chemically made of one or two sugars. A simple sugar can be just what the name implies, the sugar in your sugar bowl. Things like candy, syrups, and soda pop are also straightforward examples of simple carbs. They are absorbed quickly -- just think how fast sugar-based candy melts in your mouth. Simple carbs also include foods such as fruit and milk. These are better sources of simple carbs because they contain vitamins and fiber, and also important nutrients that your body needs, like calcium. Complex carbohydrates are also known as starches and are made of three or more linked sugars. Grains such as bread, pasta, oatmeal and rice are complex carbs, as well as some vegetables like broccoli, corn legumes such as kidney beans and chick peas. They take the longest to digest. DISCUSS THE FUNCTION OF CARBOHYDRATE Carbohydrates play a major role in promoting your health fitness. They form a major part of your food and help a great deal in building your body strength, by generating energy. In fact, they are one among the three prominent macronutrients that serve as excellent energy providers, the other two being fats and proteins. Carbs intake can take place in different forms like sugar, starch, fibers etc. Read further to explore information about carbohydrates function in the body The functions of carbohydrates are multiple and it is owing to this fact that it becomes all the more necessary to incorporate carbohydrates in your meal. For instant energy generation, sugars and starch act as the perfect fuel that enable you to carry out your physical activities efficiently and effectively. Fiber does wonders in keeping your bowel function going smooth. Talking about the importance of carbohydrates, apart from its direct benefits, there is also an

added advantage of carbs consumption and that is that carbs are found in different foods, which if eaten, also pave way for consuming other essential nutrients. Therefore, it is preferable to go in for distinctive carbohydrate food sources. Carbohydrates add on to the taste and appearance of food item, thus making the dish tempting and mouthwatering. They are sometimes used as flavors and sweeteners. Carbs aid in regulating blood glucose and also do good to your body by breaking down fatty acids, thus preventing ketosis. So, eat plenty of foods that are rich sources of carbs, but it is recommended to go in for natural slow digesting carbs. ELABORATE THE CHARACTERISTICS OF LIPIDS BASIC UNIT An organic compound that doesn't dissolve in water but does dissolve in fats, oils, and alcohols. The type of lipid that is most important to the skin is the phospholipid. Phospholipids have a hydrophobic, or "water-hating" end, and a hydrophilic, or "water-loving" end. In the skin cells, these phospholipids are arranged in two rows with the "water hating" ends together and the "water loving" ends facing out. This arrangement allows them to exist in an organized fashion in the skin, which is about 70% water. One of a class of compounds which contains long-chain aliphatic hydrocarbons (cyclic or acyclic) and their derivatives, such as acids (fatty acids), alcohols, amines, amino alcohols, and aldehydes. The presence of the long aliphatic chain as the characteristic component of lipids confers distinct solubility properties on the simpler members of this class of naturally occurring compounds. The lipids are generally classified into the following groups: 1. Simple lipids 1. Triglycerides or fats and oils are fatty acid esters of glycerol. Examples are lard, corn oil, cottonseed oil, and butter. 2. Waxes are fatty acid esters of long-chain alcohols. Examples are beeswax, spermaceti, and carnauba wax. 3. Steroids are lipids derived from partially or completely hydrogenated phenanthrene. Examples are cholesterol and ergosterol. B. Complex lipids 4. Phosphatides or phospholipids are lipids which contain phosphorus and, in many instances, nitrogen. Examples are lecithin, cephalin, and phosphatidyl inositol. 5. Glycolipids are lipids which contain carbohydrate residues. Examples are sterol glycosides, cerebrosides, and plant phytoglycolipids.

6. Sphingolipids are lipids containing the long-chain amino alcohol sphingosine and its derivatives. Examples are sphingomyelins, ceramides, and cerebrosides. Lipids are present in all living cells, but the proportion varies from tissue to tissue. The triglycerides accumulate in certain areas, such as adipose tissue in the human being and in the seeds of plants, where they represent a form of energy storage. The more complex lipids occur closely linked with protein in the membranes of cells and of subcellular particles. More active tissues generally have a higher complex lipid content; for example, the brain, liver, kidney, lung, and blood contain the highest concentration of phosphatides in the mammal. See also Fat and oil; Fat and oil (food); Glycolipid; Sphingolipid; Steroid; Triglyceride; Vitamin; Wax, animal and vegetable. LIST AND DIFFERENTIATE THE TYPE OF LIPID Firstly, lipids are a group of molecules that includes pretty much all fat and oil soluble naturally occurring molecules.They include Fats,Oils and Waxes.There are many examples of lipids, 1)Fatty acids These are one of the most important groups of lipids. They are ALL carboxylic acids, consisting of - The CARBOXYLIC ACID group (-COOH) - A HYDROCARBON CHAIN Fatty acids can be described as SATURATED or UNSATURATED - SATURATED = The ENTIRE hydrocarbon chain is in the form -(CH2)nCH3. In other words, there are NO C=C DOUBLE BONDS IN THE HYDOCARBON CHAIN - UNSATURATED = Parts of the chain have C=C DOUBLE BONDS. The carbon atoms are effectively not 'saturated' with the maximum number of hydrogen atoms (hence the term 'unsaturated') 2) Triglycerides A tryglyceride is a glycerol molecule that has been ESTERIFIED with THREE FATTY ACIDS What this means is that a molecule of glycerol (C3H6O3) has undergone a CONDENSATION REACTION with three fatty acid molecules.It is called a condensation reaction because THREE WATER MOLECULES ARE REMOVED when the bond is formed . 3) Phospholipids These are glycerol molecules that have been ESTERIFIED with: - TWO fatty acids

- A POLAR PHOSPHATE GROUP

Now, fatty acids are long molecules. So a phospholipid appears to have 'TWO TAILS' and a 'HEAD' - The hydrocarbon tails are NON POLAR - The phosphate 'heads' are VERY POLAR

This leads to what is called a DIPOLE with a POLAR end and a NON POLAR end.They make up the structure of cell membranes (: (Post a question about this to me if you want to know more aboutthisfunction . 4)Steroids These all have the same basic structure consisting of - Three 6 carbon rings - One single carbon ring

FOUR

CARBON RINGS

An example is cholesterol. They are often used by the body to synthesise HORMONES, as small (or sometimes large) groups are added to cholesterol (the most basic steroid) to make a different molecule. LIST DOWN THE FUNCTION OF LIPID. A main function of lipids is the formation of biological membranes. Cells are surrounded by a thin layer of lipids. The layer is made up of a special type of lipid that has both hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties. The hydrophilic ends of these molecules face the water-filled environment inside the cells and the watery environment outside the cells. A hydrophobic region exists inside the two layers. The membrane that surrounds the cells is rich in proteins and other lipids such as cholesterol. Most chemicals can not cross the lipid bilayer. Water and some other small molecules can freely pass through the membrane while other molecules must be actively transported via protein channels embedded in the membrane. Membranes also contain a combination of the biomolecules that have been described so far. As seen above, proteins may be coupled to carbohydrates to form glycoproteins. Glycoproteins are important in the cell:cell interactions discussed previously, and changes in the amounts or types of these proteins are seen in cancer. Similarly, a combination of lipids and carbohydrates lead to the formation of glycolipids. DISCUSS THE BASIC UNIT OF PROTEIN

Amino acids, of which there are about 20 basic types. Some names of different amino acids are cysteine, alanine, lysine, leucine, phenylalanine, valine, methionine and isoleucine, histidine, proline, serine, tryptophan, aspartic acid and glycine. Amino acids are composed of a carboxyl group (COOH group), a NH2 group or amine group, a hydrogen, and an R-group (all around a central carbon). Amino acids string themselves into chains to form polypeptides. Polypeptides react with one another to form structures (many globular) called proteins. The seqence of amino acids is essential to the type of protein formed. For example one protein that has its amino acid chain starting alanine-alanine-lysine is a completely different protein to one that begins alanine-lysinealanine for example.amino acids. LIST THE FUNCTIONS OF BODY PROTEIN Proteins play a major role in ensuring your health well being. There are innumerable functions of proteins in the body. Well, the primary functions of proteins include building and repairing of body tissues, regulation of body processes and formation of enzymes and hormones. Proteins aid in the formation of antibodies that enable the body to fight infection. Proteins serve as a major energy supplier. There are distinctive kinds of proteins, each performing a unique function in the body. Proteins form a major part of your body, next to water. The composition of proteins in the body is like that muscle contains about 1/3 protein, bone about 1/5 part and skin consists of 1/10 portion. The rest part of proteins is in the other body tissues and fluids. Even blood contains loads of proteins. In fact the hemoglobin molecule is nothing but proteins.

Our body requires proteins for the purpose of maintenance and healthy growth. The need for consuming proteins is especially more for infants, young children, pregnant women and recovering patients. There is a constant breakdown of proteins in the body and this explains the reason why we need to consume proteins on a regular daily basis. It becomes of prime importance to ensure that you have your daily-recommended protein intake, so as to improve your health fitness. COMPLETE AND INCOMPLETE PROTEIN A complete protein (or whole protein) is a source of protein that contains an adequate proportion of all nine of the essential amino acids necessary for the dietary needs of humans or other animals.Some incomplete protein sources may contain all essential amino acids, but a complete protein contains them in correct proportions for supporting biological functions in the human body.Complete proteins contain adequate amounts and proportions of these essential amino acids.Nearly all whole foods contain protein, and nearly all forms of protein contain all twenty protein-forming amino acids in some quantity. However, proportions vary, and some forms of protein are partly lacking in one or more of the essential amino acids. Meals prepared with a mix of protein foods can provide a better balance of the essential amino acids and therefore a more complete protein source. Apart from some exceptions such as quinoa or soybeans, vegetable

sources of protein are more often lacking in one or more essential amino acids than animal sources, typically being deficient in lysine and methionine.A variety of proteins in the diet is one way of assuring that the body's amino acid needs are met. All the essential amino acids can be obtained on their own from various everyday plant sources, which, contrary to popular belief, do not need to be combined in the same meal. Incomplete proteins are foods containing low protein or only some of the nine amino acids that you need in your diet. Usually, vegetable protein (plant-based proteins) is considered incomplete as it lacks one or more of the nine essential amino acids. Incomplete proteins can be combined to make available all of the essential amino acids and form a complete protein.Include both complete and incomplete proteins into your diet. Complete proteins hold all the necessary amino acids. Most animal foods, such as meat, poultry, fish, cheese and milk are complete proteins. Some plant proteins, eggs, soybean products such as tofu are also complete proteins. BAD CHOLESTEROL AND GOOD CHOLESTEROL When too much LDL (bad) cholesterol circulates in the blood, it can slowly build up in the inner walls of the arteries that feed the heart and brain. Together with other substances, it can form plaque, a thick, hard deposit that can narrow the arteries and make them less flexible. This condition is known as atherosclerosis. If a clot forms and blocks a narrowed artery, heart attack or stroke can result.About one-fourth to one-third of blood cholesterol is carried by high-density lipoprotein (HDL). HDL cholesterol is known as good cholesterol, because high levels of HDL seem to protect against heart attack. Low levels of HDL (less than 40 mg/dL) also increase the risk of heart disease. Medical experts think that HDL tends to carry cholesterol away from the arteries and back to the liver, where it's passed from the body. Some experts believe that HDL removes excess cholesterol from arterial plaque, slowing its buildup. DISCUSS THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHOLESTROL AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE. Cholesterol contributes to atherosclerosis - a condition that greatly increases the risk of heart attack and stroke - by suppressing the activity of a key protein that protects the heart and blood vessels.It has long been known that high blood cholesterol is a key risk factor for developing atherosclerosis - sometimes called hardening of the arteries. The condition causes the arteries of the heart and other tissues to become damaged and narrowed, preventing blood from pumping through as it should and increasing the risk of heart attack and stroke. Until now, however, the process by which cholesterol contributes to atherosclerosis has not been well understood.Using an animal model, Chun-Lin Chen, a senior graduate student on Dr. Huang's research team, found that cholesterol limits the activity of a key protective protein called transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta). TGF-beta serves many important functions in the body; in the heart, it protects the aorta and other vessels from damage caused by a variety of factors, including hypertension and high blood cholesterol levels. DISCUSS THE BENEFITS OF ANTIOXIDANTS WITH EXAMPLES

The benefits of antioxidants have been the subject of thousands of studies in recent years due to their possible role in preventing heart disease, cancer and other illnesses. High concentrations of antioxidants are present in many herbal supplements, which is why herbal supplements have become so popular. Oxidation is the process by which oxygen combines with something. When our blood is oxidized, that's good - oxidized blood brings oxygen to our tissues to keep them alive. Oxidation takes place throughout our bodies in the process of making energy for our bodies to work correctly.Sometimes oxidation is a bad thing. Fruits and vegetables that are in contact with oxygen in the air eventually spoil and turn brown. Butterfat will turn rancid after prolonged exposure to oxygen. In our bodies, oxidized LDL cholesterol (the "bad" cholesterol) sticks to and clogs our arteries. In some areas, the oxidizing process creates electrically charged molecules called "free radicals" that can interact with other parts of our cells.Our immune systems use certain free radicals in a good way to help us kill infection. However,the electric charge can damage DNA and proteins in our cells. DNA damage can lead to cancer, and damage to structural proteins can cause aging changes. Proponents of antioxidant supplementation reason, therefore, that an antioxidant could prevent this problem. Antioxidants are one of the many protective compounds found in plants, known as phytochemicals. The main function of antioxidants is to neutralize free radicals in the body, thought to be the cause of premature aging, heart disease and cancer. Free radicals are highly reactive byproducts of chemical processes in the body. They produce harmful oxidation that can damage the integrity of cells and body tissues. With so many outside forces influencing the amount of free radicals in the body (exposure to sun, smoke pollution, harmful bacteria, cholesterol-laden foods) it is now more important than ever to make sure your body has the benefits of antioxidants it needs to fight disease. Antioxidants scavenge these free radicals in the body, and research has shown that this wards off disease and promotes general well being.